nly in the singular,*always

Pluralwith
nounsa are
determiner.
used only in the plural, some with a dete
rminer.
* Collective nouns can be used with singular or plural verbs
.
1
Some nouns are used in particular meanings in the singular w
ith a determiner, like count nouns, but are not used in the plural with that mea
ning. They are
Someoften
of these
callednouns
`singular
are normally
nouns'.used with `the' because they refer
to things that
Other
are
Thesingular
darkgroundseasideworld
countrysidefutureseawind
countryendpastsun
Iairdaytimemoonsky
amunique.
sun
scared
wasnouns
shining.
of
thearedark.
normally used with `a' because they refer t
o things2that weWhy
Iusually
fightrestsmokewash
drinkmoveshowerwalk
chancejogrunstart
bathgoridesnooze
went
don't
Someupstairs
nouns
talk
we goabout
are
andused
outside
had
one for
ain
atwash.
aatime.
particular
smoke? meanings in the plural wit
h or without determiners, like count nouns, but are not used in the singular wit
h that meaning.
3 WARNING:
SomeThe
His
ITroops
authoritieslikessights
activitiesfeelingspicturestravels
You
Refreshments
expensesrefreshments
airsgoodsriches
They
ofwent
are
clothes
these
hurt
police
A`Police'
usually
have
are
small
arehis
to
often
nouns
the
agreed
being
were
looked
group
feelings.
used
are
pictures
is
called
are
informed
sent
available
ato
without
ofplural
terribly
always
pay
plural
in
`plural
with
for
today.
immediately.
determiners.
noun,
used
inside.
dirty.
Tina.
travel
nouns
nouns'.
with
but
refer
and
does
determiners.
expenses.
tonotsingle
end initems
`-s'.that hav
e two linked parts. They refer to tools that people use or things that people we
ar.
You can
She
tweezerstights
shearsshorts
scissorspyjamas
scalespants
pliersknickers
pincersjeans
These
binocularsglassestrousers
wasscissors
use
wearing
`a
pairare
brown
of'
sharp.
totrousers.
make it clear you are talking about one i
tem, or a number
NoteLiza
Ithat
with
washad
sent
you
`pairs
given
also
outof'use
towhen
me
buy
three
`a pair
ayoupairs
pair
are
of'ofof
talking
with
scissors.
jeans.
words
aboutsuch
several
as `gloves',
items. `sho
es', and4`socks' thatWith
yousome
oftennouns
talkthat
aboutrefer
in twos.
to a group of people or things, t
he same form can be used with singular or plural verbs, because you can think of
the group as a unit or as individuals. Similarly, you can use singular or plura
l pronouns to refer back to them. These nouns are often called `collective nouns
'.
army, audience, committee, company, crew, data, enemy, family, f
lock, gang, The
government,
Thefamily
Our
My
names
little
largest
family
ofgroup,
many
are
group
isn't
group
perfectly
organizations
herd,
ispoor
arecomplete
media,
the
any
normal.
boys.
more.
and
navy,
again.
sports
press,teams
public,
are also
staff,collective
team
nouns, Main
Unit
but are
15 Uncount
points
The
Liverpool
normally
BBC
* Uncount
isused
are
nouns
isshowing
are
planning
leading
attacking
nouns
with the
plural
have
toprogramme
1-0.
use
again.
only
verbs
theonenew
inonform,
spoken
Saturday.
satellite.
andEnglish.
take a singular verb
.
1
* Some
English
They nouns
are
speakers
notcanused
be both
think
withthat
`a',some
uncount
or things
with numbers.
nouns
and
cannot
countbenouns.
counted di
rectly. The nouns which refer to these uncountable things are called uncount nou
ns. Uncount
2 See
nounsUnit
substances:coal
human
feelings:anger
activities:aid
abstract
The
ISoon,
All
We
was
often
talked
donkey
prices
Uncount
13greeted
qualities:courage
they
for
refer
ideas:beauty
for
needed
lost
include
information
nouns
with
hours
to:
happiness
help
food
patience
food
have
shouts
travel
sleep
about
ice
death
and
only
cruelty
on
iron
joy
and
travel
of
to
freedom.
water.
count
freedom
one
pride
sent
joy.
and
rice
honesty
form.
work
from
nouns.
merelief
steel
fun
toLondon.
They
patience
life
Durban.
water
respect
doluck
not have a plural
form.
WARNING:
The
I needed
children
Somehelp
nouns
had
with
which
great
my are
homework.
fununcount
playingnouns
with in
theEnglish
puppets.have plurals
in other languages.
advice, baggage, equipment, furniture, homework, information, kn
owledge, luggage,Soldiers
Wemachinery,
want tocarried
spend
money,
moremuch
so
news,
money
equipment
traffic
on roads.
that they were barely able to
move. 3
Some uncount nouns end in `-s' and therefore look like plura
l count 4nouns. They
subjects
activities:athletics
games:cards
illnesses:measles
Mathematics
Measles
When
usually
isof
aninis
study:mathematics
darts
uncount
refer
most
toomumps
to:
difficult
cases
noun
gymnastics
aisharmless
the
for
physics
subject
me.illness.
of a verb, it takes a si
ngular verb.
5 Uncount
Food
They
My
Electricity
father
nouns
Uncount
was very
resent
started
are
having
nouns
isused
expensive
dangerous.
work
are
to pay
with
not
when
inmoney
`the'
used
those
hewhen
was
with
todays.
people
ten.
they
`a'.refer
liketome.something that
is specified
6
or She
Iknown.
amburied
Uncount
interested
the
nouns
money
inare
thethat
not
education
Hilary
used with
of young
had
numbers.
givenchildren.
her.
However, you can of
ten refer to a quantity of something which is expressed by an uncount noun, by u
sing a word Some
See
likeLet
Unit
Please
uncount
`some'.
me23.give
buynouns
some
youthat
breadrefer
some
advice.
whentoyoufood
go or
to drink
town. can be count nouns wh
en they referUncount
toWe
Doquantities
you
asked
nouns
like
for
arecoffee?
oftwo
often
thecoffees.
food
(uncount)
used
orwith
(count)
drink.
expressions such as `a loaf of', `
packets of', or `a piece of', to talk about a quantity or an item. `A bit of' is
common 7in spokenThey
I bought
He
English.
gave
Some
ownmeatwo
nouns
a very
bit
loaves
of
areland
good
uncount
of near
breadnouns
piece
Cambridge.
yesterday.
of
advice.
when they refer to something in
generalMain
Unit
and points
16
count
Victory
In
Personal
1960,
nouns
* Youwas
the
pronouns
when
usenow
party
personal
they
assured.
won
referapronouns
(uncount)
convincing
to a particular
to refer
victory.
instance
back
(count)
to something
of something.
or so
meone that has already
* You
beenalso
mentioned.
use personal pronouns to refer to people and thin
gs directly.
* There are two sets of personal pronouns: subject pronouns
and object pronouns.* You can use `you' and `they' to refer to people in general
.
1
When something or someone has already been mentioned, you re
fer to them In
again
English,
John
He
`Have
My
byfather
rang
took
using
you`he'
Mary
the
been
is
a and
fat
pronoun.
book
to`she'
-invited
London
andweighs
he
opened
normally
her-over
?'
toit.
`Yes,
dinner.
refer
fifteen
ittowas
people,
stone.
very occasionally
crowded.'
to
animals,2 but very rarely
You usetoathings.
pronoun to refer directly to people or things that
are present
3
or Send
IWhere
aredoThere
involved
the
us
shall
awashing;
card
areweintwo
meet,
so
thewe
he
sets
situation
Sally?
does
'll
ofknow
the
personal
cooking;
where
you are
pronouns,
youin.
weare.
share
subject
the washing-up.
pronouns an
d object4pronouns.
NoteIWe
Iyouhesheitwethey
that
don't
are
You
You`you'
going
use
know
usesubject
is
object
there
what
usedtolater.
pronouns
for
do.the singular
as the direct
subject
and plural
orofindirect
a form.
verb. object of
a verb.
NoteCan
The
John
meyouhimheritusthem
thatyou
that,
nurse
ball
showed
`you'
ingive
hit
washed
modern
isme
him
herused
the
some
me book.
in
English,
for
with
the
moreface.
the
cold
cake?
you
singular
water.
use
object
and pronouns
plural form.
rather than su
bject pronouns
5 Youafter
`Whowere
There
also
We
Did
you
You
is
use
the
wasgive
it?'
all
can
object
verb
only
sitting
use
-`be'.
it
`It's
John,
pronouns
to
`you'
them?
inBaz,
me.'
and
a cafe
asand
`they'
thewith
meobject
in
tohim.
the
talkofroom.
about
a preposition.
people in general
.
You have to drive on the other side of the road on the continent
.
6
TheyYou
saycan
she's
usevery
`it'clever.
as an impersonal subject in general stateme
nts which refer
See can
You
Unit
`What
It
to is
the
also
17.
time
January
rainy
time,
useisand
`it'
the
it?'
19th.
cold.
date,
as- the
` It
orsubject
's
thehalf
weather.
orpast
object
three.'
in general statements
about a7situation.
IItlike
isA too
singular
it here.
far topronoun
Can
walk.
we stay
usually
a bit
refers
longer?
back to a singular noun gr
oup, and a plural pronoun to a plural noun group. However, you can use plural pr
onouns to refer
* indefinite
back to: pronouns, even though they are always followed by a sin
gular verb * collective
His
If anybody
familynouns,
was
comes,
waiting
even
tellwhen
in
themthe
youI'mnext
have
notroom,
used
in. abut
singular
they had
verbnot yet be
en informed.
Unit points
Main
17 Impersonal
* You use
subject
impersonal
`it' `it' as the subject of a sentence to in
troduce new information.
* You use `it' to express
talk about
opinions
the weather.
time
about
or places,
the date.situations,
and events.
* `It' is often used with the passive of reporting verbs to
express 1general beliefs
`It'and
is aopinions.
pronoun. As a personal pronoun it refers back to s
omething thatYouhascan
They
Maybe
already
also
learn
he use
changed
been
to`it'
speak
mentioned.
his
asEnglish
mind,subject
the
but
before
I of
doubt
they
a sentence
it.
learn towhen
readitit.
does not
refer back to anything that has already been mentioned. This impersonal use of `
it' introduces new information, and is used particularly to talk about times, da
tes, the2weather, andYoupersonal
use impersonal
opinions.`it' with a form of `be' to talk about th

e time or3 the date.

It isYou
It's
the
nearly
use
sixth
impersonal
oneofo'April
clock.
`it'
today.
with verbs which refer to the weathe
r:
You can
It's
hailrainsnow
It
drizzlepoursleetthunder
snowed
was
describe
still
pouring
steadily
raining.
thewith
weather
through
rain.bythe
using
night.
`it' followed by `be' and an a
djective withYouorcan
It's
It
without
was
describe
a very
lovely
a noun.
bright.
aday.
change in the weather by using `it' followed by `
get' and4an adjective.
It was
It's
You
getting
getting
use impersonal
dark.
cold. `it', followed by a form of `be' and an a
djective or noun group, to express your opinion about a place, a situation, or
an event. The adjective or noun group can be followed by an adverbial or by an `
-ing' clause,
5
a It's
It
`to'-infinitive
was
You
funaterribly
strange
use
working
pleasure
`it'
thatcold
clause,
for
followed
to hasn't
it
in there.
him.
be
the
orbyabeen
trucks.
a`that'-clause.
verb
noticed
such before.
as `interest', `please'
, `surprise', or `upset' which indicates someone's reaction to a fact, situation
, or event. The verb is followed by a noun group, and a `that'-clause or a `to'infinitive clause.
It surprised
pleases mehim
thattoherealize
shouldthat
wanthetohadn't
talk about
thought
hisabout
work.them un
til now.6
You can also use `it' with the passive of a reporting verb a
nd a `that'-clause when you want to suggest that an opinion or belief is shared
by many people. This use is particularly common in news reports, for example in
newspapers, Note
on the
Nowadays
It
that
was
is
radio,
thought
the
said
itpassive
oris
that
onthat
believed
television.
heofabout
could
reporting
that
aspeak
million
theverbs
their
size
puppies
can
language.
is
unimportant.
also
arebeborn
usedeach
without
year.im
personalMain
Unit
`it'See
18toImpersonal
points
The
They
Units
express
factories
*are
76
Youand
believed
general
use
subject
77were
`there'
for
opinions.
to`there'
said
more
befollowed
toinformation
dangerous.
be much
by aworse.
form
on reporting
of `be' and
verbs.
a noun grou
p to introduce new information.
* You use `there' with a singular or plural verb, depending
on whether
1 the
Youfollowing
Are also
The
can
you
book
* Youcomfortable
`There'
is
use
noun
canthere
is`there'
also
isoften
singular
onuse
there?
the
as
an`there'
the
adverb
table.
orimpersonal
plural.
withplace.
of
modals.
subject of a sentence whe
n it does not refer to a place. In this case you use `there' to introduce new in
formation and to focus upon it. After `there' you use a form of `be' and a noun
group.
NoteThere
that the
will
was
have
is work
nobeen
impersonal
bedamage.
atotwo
party
be telephone
done.
subject
tonight.`there'
calls. is often pronounced without
stress,32whereas
* asomething
theThere
There's
number
the
existence
You
When
adverb
was
are
is
were
orathat
use
aplenty
the
two
many
ameeting
amount
forty
agreat
or
general
fierce
`there'
islot
happens
noun
people
presence
possibilities.
almost
ofof
deal
every
group
bread.
battle.
us,
election
people
aswho
of
always
Ithe
of
week.
after
might
think.
anger
someone
camped
impersonal
that
stressed.
the
knowthere.
about
year.
verb
orwhat
his
something
subject
isdecision.
happened.
plural,
to talk
you use
about:
a plur
al verb.
You also
Thereuse
were
areamany
two men
plural
reasons
verb
in the
before
forroom.
this.
phrases such as `a number (of)', `
a lot (of)',
4
andThere
`a When
feware
were
(of)'.
the
only
a lot
noun
a few
ofgroup
people
left.
after
camped
the there.
verb is singular or uncountabl
e, you use aYou
singular
Thereuse
also
is
isn't
verb.
aonesingular
enough
point room
weverb
must
inwhen
addyou
here.
here.
are mentioning more than one p
erson or5thing and
There
the
Youwas
first
cana sofa
man
also
nounand
and
use
after
atwo
`there'
woman.
the
chairs.
verb
withisa modal,
singularfollowed
or uncountable.
by `be' or `
have been'.
6
ThereInmust
should
can't
could
spoken
have
have
bebeand
abeen
abeen
problem.
change
informal
some
anybody
inmistake.
written
government.
outside.
English, short forms of `be'
or a modal
7 are normally
There'll
IThere's
knew
didn't
Youthere'd
no
been
can
used
always
even
danger.
also
quite
after
know
bebeuse
trouble.
a`there'.
there'd
future
lot
`there'
ofbeen
for
research
withamusic.
murder.
`appear'
into it.
or `seem', followed b
y `to be'Main
Unit
or points
19
`toDemonstrative
There
have* seems
appears
don't
You
been'.
useto
seem
to
pronouns
the
have
bedemonstrative
to
a vast
be
been
many
some
amount
people
carelessness.
pronouns
ofonconfusion
campus.
`this',on`that',
this point.
`these'
, and `those' when you
* You
areuse
pointing
`one' or
to `ones'
physicalinstead
objectsofora noun
identifying
that haspeople.
been me
ntioned 1or is known.You use the demonstrative pronouns `this', `that', `these',
and `those' when you are pointing to physical objects. `This' and `these' refer
to things near
Youyou,
Thisbrought
`I
That
Those
can
also
`that'
isareause
looks
list
mine.
you
interesting.
and`this',
of
these'.
`those'
rules.
`that',
Adam
referheld
`these',
to things
out aand
bag
farther
`those'
of grapes.
away.
as determiners
in front2 ofSee
nouns.
UnitYou
This
When
23.use
book
did
you
was`this',
buy
a present
that`that',
hat?
from`these',
my mother.
and `those' when you are id
entifying3 orYou
introducing
Who's`this',
These
Was
use
that
this?
are
Patrick
people,
my`that',
children,
on
or `these',
the
asking
Susan
phone?
whoandthey
Paul.
`those'
are. to refer back to things
that have already
Thatbeen
More
wasmentioned.
money
anisinteresting
being pumped
wordinto
youthe
usededucation
just now.system, and we ass
ume this willYoucontinue.
`Let'suse
These
also
are
go`this'
to the
not
easy
and
cinema.'
questions
`these'- to
`That's
torefer
answer.
aforward
good idea.'
to things you are g
oing to mention.This
Theseisarewhat
theItopics
want towesay:
willitbewasn't
lookingmyatidea.
next week: how the ac
cident happened,
4
This
whether
You
is the
use
it important
`one'
could or
have`ones'
point:
been instead
avoided,
you mustofand
never
a noun
whosee
was
that
her
tohas
again.
blame.
already b
een mentioned or is known in the situation, usually when you are adding informat
ion or contrasting
You can
Mylike
Don't
Are
IWhich
We'll
car
two
thehave
say
use
you
one
ones
is
this
things
newdo
`which
`this
`each
the
have
were
those
curtains
one
you
blue
one',
one'
ofone'
one
damaged?
better.
prefer?
ones,
theor
one.
with
orlonger
`that
same
`one
`which
thank
buttons
one',
kind.
each',
than
you.
ones'
instead
`these
the
butinold
note
questions.
ones',
ofones?
a zip?
that
andthere
`those
is aones'.
diffe
rence in meaning. In the following examples, `each one' means `each brother' but
`one each' meansI've
`onegotforthree
eachbrothers
child'. and each one lives in a different countr
y.
5
I bought
In formal
the children
English,one
people
each.sometimes use `one' to refer to pe
ople in 6general.One
One never
There
has toknows
are
think
several
what
of the
toother
say
practical
in
types
suchof
side
situations.
pronoun,
of things.
which are dealt wi
th in other See
units.
Unit 22
6 for
forinformation
informationonon`who',
possessive
`whom',
pronouns.
`whose', `which', and `
what' as interrogative
See Units 92pronouns.
and 93 for information on `that', `which', `who', `whom
', and `whose'
Mostasdeterminers,
relative pronouns.
except `the', `a', `an', `every', `no', and the po
ssessives,
Unitare
Main
See
20also
points
Units*pronouns.
Reflexive
27
Reflexive
Most
topronouns
transitive
30. pronouns
verbs
cancan
be take
directa reflexive
or indirectpronoun
objects.
as obje
ct.
1 Noteplural:ourselves
singular:myself
that,
* Reflexive
The
unlike
reflexive
`you'
yourself
pronouns
yourselves
pronouns
and `your',
himself
canare:
themselves
be there
emphasize
the
herself
object
are
a itself
noun
two
of forms
a preposition.
or
pronoun.
for the seco
nd person:
2 `yourself'Youinuse
thereflexive
singular pronouns
and `yourselves'
as the direct
in theorplural.
indirect object
of the verb when you want to say that the object is the same person or thing as
the subject For
of the
example,
verb in`John
the taught
same clause.
himself' means that John did the teaching
and was also the person who was taught, and `Ann poured herself a drink' means t
hat Ann did Note
the He
She
The
pouring
that
should
stretched
men
although
formed
andgive
washerself
themselves
himself
the
alsosubject
the
out
more
person
on`you'
into
time.
theathat
sofa.
line.
is
omitted
the drink
in imperatives,
was poured for.
you
can still3 useWARNING:
`yourself'
IHere's
He
blame
introduced
Most
Verbs
the
myself
transitive
orwhich
money,
`yourselves'.
himself
fordescribe
gonot
verbs
and
topaying
buy
me.
actions
canyourself
attention.
takethat
a reflexive
anpeople
ice cream.
normally
pronoun.do to the
mselves do not take reflexive pronouns in English, although they do in some othe
r languages.
4 See Unit
She
I usually
washed
You
53 for
useshave
very
more
a reflexive
quickly
before
information.
breakfast.
and
pronoun
rushed
as downstairs.
the object of a preposition w
hen the object of the preposition refers to the same person or thing as the subj
ect of the verb
NoteTell
Iinthat
They
was
theme
are
thoroughly
you
same
about
making
useclause.
yourself.
personal
fools
ashamed
ofpronouns,
of myself.
themselves.
not reflexive pronouns, when re
ferring 5to placesHe
Youand
would
should
Youafter
use
have
have
reflexive
`with'
toyour
bring
meaning
notes
pronouns
Judyin
`accompanied
with
front
after
him.ofnouns
you.
by'.or pronouns to emphas

ize the 6person orIThemyself

thing
town
You use
that
itself
have
ayou
never
reflexive
was
areread
soreferring
small
pronoun
the book.
that
to.
atitthedidn't
end ofhave
a clause
a bank.to emphas
ize that7someone
* that
You
I'll
Did
...when
She
IHe
can
did
was
someone
went
had
you
was
also
You
take
something
there
printed
make
babies
certain
off
use
use
itis
does
to
for
reflexive
down
these
`on
alone
start
sit
without
the
something
she
about
mytoby
yourself?
card
could
own',
the
eating
himself.
six
pronouns
anypolice
herself.
without
manage
months
`on
help
their
your
with
station
from
bymeals
any
own',
herself.
myself.
`by'
anyone
help
myself.
by
and
tothemselves.
from
else.
say:
so on,
othertopeople
say that
someone Main
Unit
is alone
You
WARNING:
See
21 Indefinite
points
They
can
Did
We
Unit
orcan't
were
use
you
*does
managed
`One
54
Indefinite
insolve
`all'
put
for
something
another'
the
pronouns
those
more
tofor
park
this
reach
information
pronouns
emphasis.
shelves
and
without
onthe
problem
ourup
`each
village
refer
own.
any
all
allhelp.
other'
on
on
`one
tobyonour
people
yourself?
are
their
another'
own.
notorown.
reflexive
things
and `each
without
pronouns.
other'.
sayi
ng exactly who or what
* When
theyanare.
indefinite pronoun is the subject, it always takes
a singular verb. * You often use a plural pronoun to refer back to an indefin
ite pronoun.
1
anybody,
The indefinite
everybody,pronouns
nobody, somebody,
are:
anyone, everyone, no one,
someone, anything,
Note that
everything,
`no one' is
nothing,
writtensomething
as two words, or sometimes with a hyph
en: `no-one'.
2
You use indefinite pronouns when you want to refer to people
or things without saying exactly who or what they are. The pronouns ending in `
-body' and
3 `-one'Jane
I was
It
refer
had
When
said
there
totoannothing
bepeople,
for
indefinite
someone
over
for
andwith
anapronoun
those
hour
moment.
a car.
before
ending
is theanybody
insubject,
`-thing'
came.
itrefer
always
to takes
things.a
singular verb,
WhenIs
Everyone
Everything
you
even
anybody
refer
whenknows
was
there?
back
it refers
that.
fine.
to indefinite
to more than
pronouns,
one person
you use
or plural
thing. pronouns
or possessives,
WARNING:
Ask
Has
You
and can't
anyone.
everyone
aSome
plural
tell
speakers
They
eaten
verb.
somebody
'llprefer
astell
much
whyto
you.
asthey've
use
theysingular
want?
failed.pronouns. They prefer
to say `You
4 can't tell
Yousomebody
can add apostrophe
why he or she
s ('s)
has to
failed'.
indefinite pronouns that re
fer to people.
WARNING:
That
She was
wasgiven
You
nobody's
do
nota usually
room
business
in add
someone's
but
apostrophe
mine.
studio.
s ('s) to indefinite pron
ouns that refer to things. You do not say `something's value', you say `the valu
e of something'.
65 You
* as
affirmative
questions
ISomebody
Would
Can
Anyone
You
do
the
want
not
you
still
You
subject
you
toget
knows
use
expecting
use
shouted.
clauses
introduce
like
haven't
them
someone
indefinite
orsomething
that
object
as
the
you
told
the
youneed
to
answer
do
in
me
subject
pronouns
totoanything.
it?
statements
asomeone.
drink?
`yes'
licence.
ofbeginning
a negative
withstatement.
`some-' in:
`any-':
You do n
ot say `Anybody
7 * inWon't
Does
can't
bothIfanybody
affirmative
anyone
come
you use
in'.
agree
help
an me?
and
indefinite
withnegative
me? pronoun
questions
beginning with `no-', you m
ust not use another negative word in the same clause. You do not say `There wasn
't nothing'.
8
Nobody
ThereYouwas
left,
usenothing
the
nobody
indefinite
youwent
could
away.
adverbs
do.
`anywhere', `everywhere', `no
where', and `somewhere' to talk about places in a general way. `Nowhere' makes a
clause 9negative.There
No-one
I thought
Youwas
can
cannowhere
I'd
find
useseen
Howard
`else'
toyouhide.
or
somewhere.
after
Barbara
indefinite
anywhere.
pronouns and adverbs to
refer toMain
Unit
people,
22 Possession
points
IEveryone
things,
don't
* Possessives
like
else
or places
itishere.
downstairs.
and
other
Let's
possessive
thangothose
somewhere
pronouns
that else.
have
are used
been to
mentioned.
say that o
ne person or thing belongs
* You use
to phrases
apostrophe
another with
or sis`of'
('s)
connected
to saywith
who something
that
another.
one personbelongs
or thing
to.
belongs 1to another orYouisuse
connected
possessives
with to
another.
say that a person or thing belongs to
another person or thing or is connected with them. The possessives are sometime
s called `possessive
NoteThey
WARNING:
myyourhisheritsourtheir
I'd
thatbeen
took
The
adjectives'.
`your'
waiting
possessive
offistheir
both
a long
shoes.
`its'
singular
time
is not
toandpark
spelled
plural.
my car.
with an apostrophe. The
form `it's'
2
with anYou
apostrophe
put numbers
is the
andshort
adjectives
form for
after
`itthe
is'possessive
or `it has'.
and in f
ront of 3the noun.She
Theirgot
Youtwoausebicycle
small
a possessive
children
on her sixth
were playing
pronoun
birthday.
when you
outside.
want to refer to a per
son or thing and to say who that person or thing belongs to or is connected with
. The possessive
4 WARNING:
NoteIt
mineyourshishersourstheirs
Is
that
pronouns
that
was
You
There
`yours'
his
coffee
canare:
fault,
is
also
isyours
no
both
possessive
say
notor
who
singular
theirs.
mine
or pronoun
what
? andsomething
plural.
`its'. belongs to or is conn
ected with by using a noun with apostrophe s ('s). For example, if John owns a m
otorbike, youYoucanadd
ISylvia
like
refer
apostrophe
put
the
to car's
her
it asshand
design.
('s)
`John's
ontoJohn's
singular
motorbike'.
arm.nouns and irregular plural nou
ns, usually You
With
referring
Iplural
Children's
It
add
wore
isapostrophe
not
toanouns
pair
people
his
birthday
ofsrather
ending
parents'
my parties
('s)
sister's
intoproblem.
than
`-s'
people's
can
things.
boots.
you
beonly
names,
boring.
addeven
the when
apostrophe
they end
(').in `
-s'.
NoteCould
that when
you give
you use
me Charles's
two or more
address?
names linked by `and', you put th
e apostrophe
5
s ('s)
TheyWhen
after
haveyou
bought
thewant
lastSue
toname.
and
referTim's
to someone's
car.
home, or to some common
shops and places of work, you can use apostrophe s ('s) after a name or noun on
its own.6
He
She
He'sbought
must
You
round
can
goitatto
also
atDavid's.
the
the
usedoctor's.
chemist's.
apostrophe s ('s) with some expressions of
time to 7identifyThey
Did
something,
you
You
havesee
canfour
the
use
or weeks'
tocartoon
a prepositional
say holiday
howinmuch
yesterday's
per
time
phrase
year.
is newspaper?
involved. with `of' to sa
beginning
y that one person
AfterEllen
She`of'
oristhing
aimlessly
the can
you
mother
belongs
use
turned
ofatopossessive
the
ortheboy
ispages
connected
whopronoun,
lives
of
herwith
next
magazine.
oranother.
adoor.
noun or name with
apostrophe
8 s ('s).
That
She's
He was
You
word
aanfriend
canwas
oldaddafriend
offavourite
`own'
Stephen's.
ofafter
mine.
ofayour
possessive,
father's.or a noun or name with
apostrophe
Unitspoints
Main
23('s),
My own
The
Determiners
professor's
*forYou
Determiners
view
emphasis.
useisspecific
that
ownareanswer
there
used
determiners
are
may
at no
the
beserious
unacceptable.
beginning
when people
problems.
of know
noun exactly
groups. whic
h things or people you
* You
areuse
talking
general
about.
determiners to talk about people or things
without1saying exactly
Whenwho
youorusewhat
a determiner,
they are. you put it at the beginning of a
noun group,
2 in front
I metmain
Our
Have
Several
When
you
oftheyoung
numbers
bedroom
got
the
twoanother
people
Swedish
boys
oriswere
adjectives.
through
orred
girls
things
waiting.
card?
inthat
there.
London.
you are talking about have al
ready been mentioned, or the people you are talking to know exactly which ones y
ou mean, youNote
The
usepossessives:my
The
Young
Her
specific
the
demonstratives:this
that
a specific
man`your'
face
definite
people
began
wasdeterminer.
determiners
don't
very
article:the
is
toyour
used
run
red.
like
that
his
towards
are:
both
these
her
these
forits
the
operas.
the
those
our
boy.
singular
their and plural possessive
.
3 See UnitWhen
19 for
you`this',
are mentioning
`that', people
`these',orand
things
`those'
for the
as pronouns.
first time,
or talking about them generally without saying exactly which ones you mean, you
use a general
Thedeterminer.
We all,
You
There
general
a,
went
canwere
wasan,
toaseveral
stop
determiners
ananother,
man
at
artany
inexhibition.
reasons
the
time
are:
any,lift.
you
both,
forlike.
this.
each, either, enough, every, few
, fewer,4less, little,
Eachmany,
general
more,determiner
most, much,
is used
neither,
withno,
particular
other, several,
types ofsome
nou
n, such as: WARNING:
* uncount
singular
plural
Ia,got
Any
bothfewermostseveral
anyfewmoreother
allenoughmanynosome
Several
all,
There
We
He
an,
opened
spoke
need
did
big
count
any,
The
anot
were
nouns
was
count
another,
postcard
tin
projects
more
many
following
another
enough,
little
nouns
few
speak
container
nouns
information
different
doctors
any,
from
were
applause.
much
shop
less,
general
each,
Susan.
will
postponed.
English.
.little,
available.
languages.
either,
do.
determiners
more,
every,
most,
canneither,
never
much,beno,
noused
somewith un
count nouns.
a, an, another, both, each, either, every, few, many, neither, s
everal 5
Most of the determiners are also pronouns, except `the', `a'
, `an', `every',
You use
I`no'
Have
There
saw`one'
you
several
is
andenough
got
as
theaany
in
possessives.
pronoun
for
theall
that
woods
Iinstead
could
of
lastborrow?
us.
ofnight.
`a' or `an', `none' instead of
`no', and
Unit`each'
Main
24 Main
points
Have
There
Each
instead
*uses
you
has
are
Youagot
none
of
can
use
separate
one?
`the'
`every'.
use
`the'
left.
`the'
box
whenand
inthefront
number.
person
of you
any are
noun.talking to knows whi
ch person or thing you
* You
mean.
use `the' when you are referring back to someone or so
mething.
* You use `the' when you are specifying which person or thin
g you are talking about.
* You use `the' when you are referring to something that is
unique.
* You use `the' when you want to use one thing as an example
to say 1something about
`The'allisthings
calledofthethedefinite
same type.
article, and is the commonest d

eterminer. You use `the' when the person you are talking to knows which person o
r thing you mean. You can use `the' in front of any noun, whether it is a singul
ar count2noun, anThe
ISheremembered
uncount
dropped
girls
You usewere
noun,
the
`the'
thenot
can.
orfun
with
at
a Iplural
home.
had
a noun
with
count
when
them.
noun.
you are referring back to som
eone or somethingI have
called
that bought
hasforalready
aawaiter...
house
beeninmentioned.
...The waiter
Wales...
...Thewith
house
a moustache
is in an agricult
came.
ural area.
3
You use `the' with a noun and a qualifier, such as a preposi
tional phrase or a relative clause, when you are specifying which person or thin
g you are4 talkingThe
I've
about.
book
You
no idea
use
that`the'
about
I recommended
with
the geography
a nounnowwhen
costs
ofyou
Scotland.
over
are three
referring
pounds.
to somethin
g of which there
You also
They
We
The
ishave
sky
only
alllanded
use
sat
was
`the'
one ainwhen
men
brilliant
theonyou
sun.
world.
theare
blue.
moon.
referring to something of which ther
e is only5 one inHe
Mrs
a decided
particular
Robertson
You cantouseput
heard
place.
`the'
some
that
with
words
thea on
church
singular
the blackboard.
hadcount
beennoun
bombed.
when you want t
o make a general statement about all things of that type. For example, if you sa
y `The whale is the largest mammal in the world', you mean all whales, not one p
articular6 whale.The
My father's
You
computer
can favourite
use
allows
`the'usflower
with
to deal
a is
singular
with
the rose.
a count
lot ofnoun
datawhen
veryyou
quickly.
are re
ferring to a system or service. For example, you can use `the phone' to refer to
a telephone
7
system
I don't
How
long
You
and like
can
`the
doesuse
using
bus'
it`the'
take
totherefer
on
with
phone.
thethe
totrain?
aname
bus of
service.
a musical instrument when
you areMain
Unit
talking
25 Other
points
`You
Geoff
about
*play
plays
uses
You
someone's
the
doofthe
not
guitar,
`the'
piano
normally
ability
I see,'
very
touse
well.
play
said
`the'
theSimon.
with
instrument.
proper nouns referring
to people. You do use `the' with many proper nouns referring to geographical pla
ces.
* You use `the' with some adjectives to talk about groups of
people.1
You do not normally use `the' with proper nouns that are peo
ple's names. However, if you are talking about a family, you can say `the Browns
'.
You use `the' with some titles, such as `the Queen of England', and
with the2names of...the
some
YouTimes...
United
organizations,
do useNations...
`the'
...thewith
buildings,
Mona
...the
some
Lisa.
proper
Taj
newspapers,
Mahal...
nouns referring
and workstoofgeograp
art.
hical places.You use
...the
`the'
Arabian
Baywith
of Biscay...
Gulf... ...the
countries
...the
whosePacific
names
Suez Canal.
include
Ocean. words such as `king
dom', `republic',
You ...the
Note
use
that
`states',
`the'
you
United
Netherlands...
with
do
ornot
Kingdom...
countries
`union'.
use `the'
...the
...the
that
with
Philippines.
have
Soviet
countries
plural
Union.
nounshave
that
as their
singular
names.
nou
ns as their Note
You
names,
use
...the
that
such
`the'
you
Alps...
Bahamas...
asdo
with
`China',
not...the
names
use
...the
`Italy',
ofHimalayas.
`the'
mountain
Canaries.
with
or the
`Turkey'.
ranges
namesandofgroups
individual
of islands.
mountain
s such as `Everest' or `Etna', or the names of individual islands such as `Sicil
y', `Minorca',
Youoruse`Bali'.
`the' with regions of the world, or regions of a country tha
t include `north',
Notedo
You
...the
...North
that
not
`south',
there
Middle
north
use
America...
`the'
are
`east',
ofEast...
England...
some
with...South-East
orexceptions.
...the
`northern',
`west'.
...the
Far East.
west of Ireland.
Asia.
`southern',
`eastern', or `wes
tern' and a You
singular
...northern
use
`the'
name.with
England...
the names...western
of areas of
Africa.
water such as seas, oceans,
rivers, canals,
Note...Lake
...the
that
gulfs,you
Mediterranean
river
Gulf
Geneva...
anddoof
straits.
Ganges...
not
Mexico...
use
...Lake
Sea...
`the'
...the
...the
Superior.
with
...the
Panama
straits
lakes.
continents,
Atlantic
Canal.
of Gibraltar.
Ocean. streets, or
cities,
addresses.
3
...Oxford
...Asia...
You useStreet...
...Tokyo.
`the' with
...15
adjectives
Park Street.
such as `rich', `poor', `young
', `old', and `unemployed' to talk about a general group of people. You do not n
eed a noun. WhenThey
Only
you use
were
the `the'
rich
discussing
could
with an
afford
theadjective
problem
his firm's
of theproducts.
as
unemployed.
subject
of a verb, you u
se a plural verb.In the cities the poor are as badly off as they were in the vill
ages. 4
You use `the' with some nationality adjectives to talk about
the people who They
live will
in a be
country.
increasingly dependent on the support of the French
.
With...Germans...
When
The
other
you
Spanish
usenationalities,
`the'
claimed
...the
with athat
Americans.
youthe
nationality
usemoney
a plural
adjective
had noun.
not been
as the
paid.
subject of a
verb, youMain
5 usepoints
Unit
26a `A'
The
He
His
It
plural
was
British
shoulders
and
*YouYou
the
verb.
`an'
useuse
only
cleverest
youngest.
most
are
`the'
hurt
`a'
use
worried.
exciting
with
or
the
`a'man
`an'
worst.
superlatives.
or
Ito
summer
`an'
ever
talk
with
knew.
of
about
their
singular
alives.
person
countornouns.
thing for th
e first 1time.
You only use `a' or `an' with singular count nouns. `A' and
`an' are called
Remember
Ithegot
He
was
indefinite
that
aeating
postcard
you use
anarticle.
from
apple.
`a' in
Susan.
front of a word that begins with a cons
onant sound even if the first letter is a vowel, for example `a piece, a univers
ity, a European language'. You use `an' in front of a word that begins with a vo
wel sound even if the first letter is a consonant, for example `an exercise, an
idea, an2honest man'.You use `a' or `an' when you are talking about a person or t
hing for theNote
first
She
AAfter
that
colleague
time.
picked
weekssecond
the
upofand
alooking,
book.
I gotyou
time
some
werefer
eventually
moneytotothedobought
same
research
person
a house.
onorrats.
thing, you
use `the'.
After
She picked
weeksupofalooking,
book... we
...The
bought
booka house...
was lying...The
on thehouse
table.was in
a village.
3
After the verb `be' or another link verb, you can use `a' or
`an' with an adjective and a noun to give more information about someone or som
ething.
You can
He
It
Hiswas
seemed
also
brother
a use
really
a worried
was
`a'beautiful
aorsensitive
man. with
`an'
house.
child.
a noun followed by a qualifier, su
ch as a prepositional phrase or a relative clause, when you want to give more in
formation4 about IThe
someone
chose
information
You ause
orpicture
something.
`a' was
orthat
`an'
contained
reminded
after in
themeanverb
ofarticle
my`be'
ownon
orcountry.
biology.
another link verb
when you5 are saying
He became
She
is
You
what
ause
model
asomeone
school
`a'and
orisan
teacher.
`an'
orartist.
whatmean
to
job`one'
they with
have.some numbers. You can
use `a' or `an' with nouns that refer to whole numbers, fractions, money, weigh
ts, or measures.a hundred, a thousand, a quarter, a half, a pound, a dollar, a k
ilo, a litre
6
You do not use `a' or `an' with uncount nouns or plural coun
t nouns. You do not need to use a determiner at all with plural count nouns, but
you can useNote
theIMany
Dothat
determiners
love
have
youadults
ifsome
dogs.
have
youchildren
any
don't
do
`any',
dogs?
not
listen
use
`alike
few',
atodeterminer
that
children.
`many',
in my with
class.
`several',
a plural
or count
`some'.noun, y
ou are often making a general statement about people or things of that type. For
example, if you say `I love dogs', you mean all dogs. However, if you say `The
re are eggs in the kitchen', you mean there are some eggs. If you do use a deter
miner, you mean a number of people or things but not all of them, without saying

exactlyMain
Unit
how points
27
many.
IHehave
All,
has
*most,
You
bought
some
use
no,
important
friends
some
`all'
noneplants
coming
with
things
plural
for
fortothe
dinner.
tell
count
house.
them.
nouns and uncount nouns. Y
ou use `all' to talk about every person or thing in the world, or in the group y
ou are talking about.* You use `most' with plural count nouns and uncount nouns.
You use `most' to talk about nearly all of a number of people or things, or nea
rly all of a quantity* You
of something.
use `no' with singular and plural count nouns and unco
unt nouns.
1 You use `no'
You use
to say
`all'
thatwith
something
plural count
does not
nouns
exist
andoruncount
is notnouns
present.
to t
alk about every person or thing in the world or in the group that you are talkin
g about.2
He soon
All
important
luggage
You
children
lost
use will
`most'
all
should
decisions
hope
be
with
searched.
complete
ofwere
plural
becoming
taken
thecount
primary
abyrock
nouns
thestar.
course.
government.
and uncount nouns to
talk about nearly all of a number of people or things, or nearly all of a quanti
ty of something.The
3
Mostignored
He
You
method
gooduseis
milk
drivers
most
was
`no'
still
suitable
advice,
with
stop
delivered
singular
atand
forzebra
did
most
tocount
crossings.
people's
what
purposes.
he
nouns,
thought
houses.
plural
best.
count nouns,
and uncount Note
nounsNo
There
They
that
tomoney
had
say
wasthere
if
no
was
that
noimmediate
chair
available
something
is another
forplans
medoes
for
tothe
word
tosit
notin
change
operation.
on.
exist
the clause
house.
or is that
not present.
makes it negat
ive, you4use `any',
It will
He
hasn't
`All'
not never
`no'.
made
and do
`most'
anyanydifference.
work
are also
for me
pronouns,
again. so you can say `all of'
and `most of'.
Note`No'
Hethat
Most
None
spent
isofyou
not
myall
those
use
friends
a of
pronoun,
farmers
`all
theof',
live
money
had
so`most
inyou
onLondon.
ever
amust
of',
newsay
driven
car.a`none
and
`none
tractor.
of'.
of' with an object
pronoun.
NoteNone
IAll
that
hadofofif
seen
usthem
the
were
most
came
clause
sleeping.
oftothem
isthealready
before.
party.negative, you use `any of', not `
none of'. WhenI`none
hadn'tof'eaten
is followed
any of the
by abiscuits.
plural count noun or pronoun, the ve
rb is usually
5
plural,
NoneYou
ofbutthem
us
cancan
are
use
has
bethe
`all
lasted
singular.
same.
the'very
withlong.
a plural count noun or an uncount
noun. ThereWARNING:
is Thank
All
no difference
the
You
youbest
girls
cannot
forjokes
think
all
insay
meaning
the
came
it's
`most
help
atgreat.
between
the'
the or
you
end`all
gave
`none
ofme.the
the'
the'.
programme.
andYou
`allmust
of say
the'.`most
of the'6or `none ofYou
the'.
can use `all' after a noun or pronoun to emphasize that
the noun or pronoun refers to everyone or everything that has been mentioned or
is involved.
Unit points
Main
28
NoteBoth,
ITheenjoyed
that
band
* either,
You
youall
it
use
canall.
live
neither
`both',
usetogether
`all'
`either',
toinemphasize
theandsame
`neither'
the
house.
subject
to talk
or the
about
object.
two
people or things that* You
haveuse
been`both'
mentioned
with plural
or are nouns,
known toandthe`either'
hearer.and `neithe
r' with singular nouns.
* You use `both of', `either of', and `neither of' with plur
al nouns1or pronouns.You use `both', `either', and `neither' when you are saying
something about two people or things that have been mentioned, or are known to t
he person2 you areNeither
There
Denis
No
talking
argument
Youheld
were
report
useto.
excellent
his
could
`both'
cocoa
mentioned
move
when
performances
in
either
both
you
thethink
hands.
Americans.
man from
of thethis
both
twodecision.
actresses.
people or things as
a group.3 You useBoth
`both'
You
children
policies
use
with`either'
were
make
a plural
happy
good
when
noun.
sense.
with
you their
think presents.
of the two people or things
as individuals.
4
Either
She
You could
You
useway
use
`either'
not
is`neither'
acceptable.
see
with
either
a singular
when
man.
you arenoun.
thinking of the two people or
things as individuals and you are making a negative statement about them. You u
se `neither'
5
withNeither
Inareality,
You
singular
man
can knew
neither
use
noun.
`both'
whatparty
hewith
was
wasadoing.
enthusiastic.
specific determiner such as `the',
`these', orWARNING:
`my'.
Both You
these
her
the cannot
parents
young
booksmen
use
have
were
agreed
`either'
beentorecommended
dead.
or
come.
`neither'
to with
us. a specific determ
iner. 6
You can use `both of', `either of', or `neither of' with a p
lural noun or pronoun. Note that when `both of', `either of', and `neither of' a
re followed by a noun rather than a pronoun, you must use a specific determiner
such as `the',
Note`these',
Both
Either
Neither
thatof`neither
ofof
these
orthem
our
`her'
restaurants
could
boys
of'
before
iswas
have
normally
involved.
thedone
arenoun.
excellent.
the job.
used
with a singular verb but it
can be used
7 withNeither
a plural
Remember
ofverb.
usthat
the
was
children
having
you canwere
any
alsothere.
luck.
use `both', `either', and `neithe
r' as conjunctions. You use `both...and' to give two alternatives and say that e
ach of them You
is possible
I am`either...or'
Both
use
Ilooking
and
or my
true.
for
wifeopportunities
towere
givesurprised
two alternatives
bothtoinseethis
youand
country
there.
say that
and only
abroad.
one
of them is You
possible
I waseither
You
also
can
use
orexpecting
have
true.
`neither...nor'
love
either
you or
him
fruit
either
hate
toortoday
him.
give
ice two
cream.
or
tomorrow.
alternatives
and say that e
ach of them
Unitispoints
Main
29not
Neither
He
Quantity
did
possible
* You
itMargaret
1neither
useor`much'
isnor
quickly
notJohn
and
true.
`little'
was well.
nor
there.
with uncount nouns to talk abo
ut a quantity of something.
* You use `many' and `few' with plural nouns to talk about a
number of people or*things.
You use `much' in negative sentences and questions, and `a
lot of' or `plenty *of'Yourather
use `more'
than `much'
and `less'
in affirmative
with uncount
sentences.
nouns, and `more' a
nd `fewer'
1 with plural
Youcount
use `much'
nouns.to talk about a large quantity of something,
and `little' to talk about a small quantity of something. You only use `much' an
d `little'
2 with We've
Iuncount
haven't
Youmade
use
nouns.
got
little
`many'
muchprogress.
time.
to talk about a large number of people or thi
ngs, and `few' to talk about a small number of people or things. You can only us
e `many'3andIn`few'
affirmative
There
He
Why
wrote
did
with
haven't
Youwere
not
normally
plural
many
few
speak
sentences
I given
novels.
visitors
count
much
usemuch
you
nouns.
`much'
English.
todo
attention
our
not
in house.
negative
useto`much',
this
sentences
problem?
you useand`aquestions.
lot of',
`lots of', or `plenty of' instead. You can use them with both uncount nouns and
plural nouns.NoteThere
Ithat
They
He
I've
make
remembered
demanded
spent
got
are
you
a plenty
lot
always
can
lots
aofuse
alotof
mistakes.
large
plenty
`so
ofmoney.
time
attention.
room
much'
on jobs
of
the
with
andproject.
lotsbemuch'
to
`too
ofdone.
windows.
in affirmative senten
ces.
4
There
She You
spends
isuse
tooso`so
much
much
much'
chance
timetohere.
of
emphasize
error. that a large quantity of some
thing is involved.
You use
They
I have
`too
have
somuch'
so
muchmuch
and
workmoney
`too
to do.
and wetohave
many'
saysothat
little.
the quantity of someth
ing, or the number of people or things, is larger than is reasonable or necessar
y.
You use
Too
He has
manytoopeople
`very
many'
much to
still
work.
emphasize
smoke. that a large number of people or th
ings are5involved.
NoteIThere
Very
that
liked
You
many
`very
isn't
it
useold
very
much'
very
`few'
people
much.
much
is
andused
live
time.
`little'
with
alone.nouns
to emphasize
and verbs.
that only a small qu
antity of something or a small number of people or things are involved. They can
be used withNote
`very'
The
IVery
that
have
had
town
few
for
very
`a
little
has
cars
few'
greater
little
few
timemonuments.
had
and
emphasis.
reversing
money
`a
forlittle'
anything
left.lights.
justbutindicate
work. that a quantity or nu
mber is 6small. IHeusually
spread
You usedo
a `more'
little
a few jobs
with
honeyfor
uncount
on him
a slice
in
nouns
the
ofand
house.
bread.
plural count nouns to
refer to a quantity of something or a number of people or things that is greater
than anotherYouquantity
Hisdoes
He
use
visit
`less'
ormore
might
number.
with
hours
do than
uncount
more nouns
Iharm
do.than
to refer
good.to an amount of something
that is smaller
You use
The
This
than`fewer',
poor
machinery
another
haveorless
amount.
uses
`less'
access
lessinenergy.
to education.
informal
English, with plural nouns to

refer toMain
Unit
a number
30 Quantity
points
There
They
of*have
are
You
people
2sold
fewer
useor`some'
less
trees
things
computers
tohere.
that
talkisabout
this
smaller
year.
a quantity
than another
or number
number.
without
being precise.
* You use `any' to talk about a quantity or number that may
or may not exist. * You use `another', or `another' and a number, to talk abou
t additional people *orYou
things.
use `each' and `every' to talk about all the members o
f a group1 of people You
or things.
use `some' with uncount nouns and plural nouns to talk a
bout a quantity of something or a number of people or things without being preci
se.
You use
Some
normally
IThere's
had
have
`some'
trains
some
left
some
usein
good
are
some
`some'
chocolate
questions
running
ideas.
foodinfor
affirmative
cake
late.
when
youover
you
in expect
there.
thesentences.
fridge.
the answer to be `yes',
for example You
in offers
Woulduseyou
Could
can
or`some'
requests.
like with
give
somesome
me
acoffee?
singular
examples?noun when you do not know which p
erson or2thing isIs
Some
involved,
there
You
manuse
phoned,
some
`any'
orproblem?
youbut
inthink
didn't
frontitofleave
does
plural
not
hisand
matter.
number.
uncount nouns to talk a
bout a quantity of something that may or may not exist. You normally use `any' i
n questions You
and use
Are
It
negative
hasn't
theresentences.
`any'
any jobs
made
with
aanysingular
men cannoun
difference.
do but
to emphasize
women can't?
that it does not mat
ter which3 person
You Her
Any
There
can
or house
container
use
also
You
thing
weren't
were
`no'
use
use
wasn't
was
isno`another'
with
`not'
involved.
willbetter
any
tomatoes
no
any
anand
tomatoes
do.better
affirmative
with
left.
`any',
thanleft.
singular
than
ours.
or ours.
verbnouns
`no',
instead
withtoatalk
of `not
comparative.
aboutany'.
an addit
ional personYou
or can
Could
He
thing.
opened
also
I have
use
another
another
`another'
shopcupwith
last
of amonth.
coffee?
number and a plural noun to talk a
bout more people
You use
Another
I've
or `other'
things.
gotfour
another
with
yearsplural
three
passed
books
nouns
before
toandread.
we`the
metother'
again.with singular or p
lural nouns.
4
The
I'veother
You
gotuse
other
man`each'
European
has
things
gone.
countries
or `every'
to thinkhave
with
about.
aabeaten
singular
us.noun to talk about
all the members of a group of people or things. You use `each' when you are thi
nking about the members as individuals, and `every' when you are making a genera
l statement
5 You
aboutWe
Each
Every
She
can
He
all
spoke
went
spoke
modify
You
county
applicant
child
ofout
can
to
them.
to`every'
is
would
them
almost
use
every
subdivided
has
`some
nearly
have
fiveof',
person
but
every
milk
not
choices.
every
evening.
into
at
`each'.
`any
every
that
day.
several
of',
day.ordistricts.
party.
`each of', and a noun gr
oup to talk You
aboutcan
Some
It
He
agave
was
use
number
ofmore
theofexpensive
each
`each
information
ofof'
people
usand
advice
orathan
has
plural
things
about
any
already
of
noun
inourthe
a group
been
present
other
analysed.
but
ofgoals.
magazines.
people
`every'ormust
things.
be fo
llowed byMain
Unit
`one
Note
31of'.
points
Each
Every
This
Position
that*view
ofyou
one
There
the
ofof
canadjectives
drawings
are
them
poverty
also
twoisuse
main
is`each'
given
influences
different.
positions
a financial
with
each`one
foronetarget.
adjectives:
of'.
of us.
in front of a
noun, or as the complement
* Most adjectives
of a link can
verb.be used in either of these positions,
but some1adjectives Most
can only
adjectives
be usedcan
in be
one.used in a noun group, after determine
rs and numbers
2
ifThere
Hethere
She
had
bought
Most
was
aare
beautiful
adjectives
noaany,
loafinofevidence.
clear
smile.
front
can
white
also
ofbread.
theused
be
noun.after a link verb such as `
be', `become',
3
orafraid,
II'mfelt
Nobody
`feel'.
cold.
Someseemed
angry.
alive,
adjectives
amused.
alone,areasleep,
normally
aware,
usedcontent,
only after
due,a glad,
link verb.
ill, re
ady, sorry, For
sure,example,
unable,you
wellcan say `She was glad', but you do not talk about `
a glad woman'.
4 For example,
We
I'm
He
westernexistingneighbouring
southerndigitalmaximum
northerncountlessintroductoryoutdoor
easternatomicindooroccasional
I wanted
were
didn't
not
Somequite
getting
you
adjectives
toknow
betalk
sure.
whether
alone.
ready
about
arefor
to`an
normally
bed.
feel
atomic
glad
used
bomb',
oronly
sorry.
but
in you
frontdoofnota say
noun.`Th
e bomb was
5 atomic'.
He sent
This
When
bookcountless
you
includes
use anletters
aadjective
good introductory
to the
to newspapers.
emphasize
chapter
a strong
on forests.
feeling or o
pinion, it alwaysabsolute,
comes incomplete,
front of entire,
a noun. outright, perfect, positive, pure, r
eal, total,
6 true,He
Some
utter
made
Some
of me
itadjectives
was absolute
feel
likethat
a complete
rubbish.
describeidiot.
size or age can come after a n
oun group consisting of a number or determiner and a noun that indicates the uni
t of measurement.
NoteThe
He
higholdthick
dthat
eeplongtallwide
was
water
baby
you
about
isdo
wasnine
six
not
several
feet`two
months
say
tall.
metres
old.
pounds
deep.heavy', you say `two pounds in
weight'.78
designate,
She
There
was
A are
fewnowempty
adjectives
elect,
the houses
president
galore,
have
aregalore.
used
incarnate
elect.
a different
alone after
meaning
a noun.
depending on wheth
er they comeFor
in example,
concerned,
front of `the
orinvolved,
after
concerned
a noun.
present,
mother'proper,
means aresponsible
mother who is worried, b
ut `the Main
Unit
motherpoints
32concerned'
It'sdo
The
I'm
Of
Her
We
Order
the
people
worried
parents
*one
not
of
You
18adjectives
ofknow
people
put
means
involved
those
about
were
opinion
the
the
present,
trying
incredibly
the
person
are
mother
present
adjectives
allresponsible
to
Iact
who
doctors.
knew
involved
situation.
in
hasonly
inabeen
responsible
front
stories.
one.
for
mentioned.
his
of descriptive
death.
manner. adjecti
ves.
* You put general opinion adjectives in front of specific op
inion adjectives. * If
Youyou
canuse
sometimes
two or more
vary descriptive
the order ofadjectives,
adjectives.you put the
m in a particular order.
* If you use a noun in front of another noun, you put any ad
jectives1in front ofYou
theoften
firstwant
noun.to add more information to a noun than you ca
n with one adjective. In theory, you can use the adjectives in any order, depend
ing on the quality you want to emphasize. In practice, however, there is a norma
l order.
When you use two or more adjectives in front of a noun, you usually
put an adjective that expresses your opinion in front of an adjective that just
describes2 something.
Youiswas
He
She
live
When
a wearing
naughty
in
youause
nice
alittle
more
beautiful
bigthan
house.
boy.
one
pinkadjective
suit. to express your opinion
, an adjective with a more general meaning such as `good', `bad', `nice', or `lo
vely' usually comes before an adjective with a more specific meaning such as `co
mfortable',
3 `clean',
I sat
He
put
You
orinoncan
`dirty'.
aalovely
nice
use adjectives
clean
comfortable
shirt.
to armchair
describe in
various
the corner.
qualities of peop
le or things. For example, you might want to indicate their size, their shape, o
r the countryDescriptive
they come adjectives
from.
belong to six main types, but you are unlikel
y ever to use all six types in the same noun group. If you did, you would normal
ly put them This
in the
sizeageshapecolournationalitymaterial
means
following
that iforder:
you want to use an `age' adjective and a `nationa
lity' adjective,
Similarly,
Weyoumetputasome
`shape'
theyoung
`age'adjective
Chinese
adjective
girls.
normally
first. comes before a `colour' adje
ctive.
OtherHecombinations
had round black
of adjectives
eyes.
follow the same order. Note that `m
aterial'4means any
There
The
substance,
man
Youwaswas
usually
a carrying
large
notputround
only
comparative
a small
cloth.
woodenblack
table
andplastic
superlative
in thebag.
room.adjectives in fr
ont of other adjectives.
Some of the better English actors have gone to live in Hollywood
.
5
TheseWhen
areyou
theuse
highest
a nounmonthly
in front
figures
of another
on record.
noun, you never put
adjectives
6 between
He receives
works
them.
When in
you
Youathe
use
put
large
French
two
anyweekly
adjectives
filmcash
industry.
payment.
in the
as
frontcomplement
of the first
of anoun.
link verb
, you use a conjunction such as `and' to link them. With three or more adjective
s, you link
Unitthe
Main
33 Adjective
points
The
We
lastfelt
day
room
house
*two
Adjectives
was
hot,
was
with
+was`to'
hot
large
tired
old,
a and
conjunction,
or
used
but
damp
and
dusty.
`that'
after
square.
thirsty.
and smelly.
link
and verbs
put commas
are often
afterfollowed
the others.
by `to
'-infinitive clauses*orSome
`that'-clauses.
adjectives are always followed by `to'-infinitive cla
uses.
* You often use `to'-infinitive clauses or `that'-clauses af

ter adjectives to express

* You often
feelings
useor`to'-infinitive
opinions.
clauses after adjectives whe
n the subject
1
is impersonal
After link
`it'.
verbs, you often use adjectives that describe how
someone feels about an action or situation. With some adjectives, you can add a
`to'-infinitive clause or a `that'-clause to say what the action or situation i
s.
afraid, anxious, ashamed, disappointed, frightened, glad, happy,
pleased, proud,
If thesad,
subject
surprised,
is theunhappy
same in both clauses, you usually use a `to'-i
nfinitive clause.
You often
I was
He
Ifwasthe
happy
use
happy
subject
a `to'-infinitive
tothat
seeisthey
them
different,
were
again.
coming
clause
you when
to
mustthetalking
useparty.
a `that'-clause.
about future tim
e in relationYoutooften
Ithe
He
amwasafraid
main
use
anxious
aclause.
to to
`that'-clause
go leave
home. before
when talking
it got dark.
about present or past tim
e in relation
2
toThey
Hethewas
You
were
main
anxious
often
afraid
clause.
use
that
that
`sorry'
theI might
passport
withhave
a was
`that'-clause.
talked
missing.
to theNote
police.
that `that'
is often3 omitted.
I'm sorry
very adjectives
Some
sorry
I'm sothat
late.
I can't
are
not usually
join you.used alone, but have a `to'infinitive clause after them to say what action or situation the adjective relat
es to.
able, apt, bound, due, inclined, liable, likely, prepared, ready
, unlikely,
4 unwilling,
IThey
I'm
amprepared
When
were
willing
willing
you
unable
not
to
want
likely
try.
say
totoIhelp
to
express
wasforget
her.
wrong.
anit.
opinion about someone or somethi
ng, you oftenNote
useAm
difficult,
She
The
that
anIwrong
had
windows
adjective
inbeen
the
toeasy,
will
easy
stay
first
followed
impossible,
be
totwo
here?
almost
deceive.
examples,
by impossible
a possible,
`to'-infinitive
the subject
toright,
open.of
clause.
wrong
the main clause
is the object of the `to'-infinitive clause. In the third example, the subject i
s the same
5 in both clauses.
With some adjectives, you use a `that'-clause to express an
opinion about someone
awful,orbad,
something.
essential, extraordinary, funny, good, important, in
teresting,
6 obvious,
I was
It
isYou
sad,
sadcan
extraordinary
true
that
alsopeople
usethat
adjectives
hadwereacted
should
with
inever
this
`to'-infinitive
have
way.met!
clauses aft
er `it' as the impersonal subject. You use the preposition `of' or `for' to indi
cate the person
See Unit
It
or was
thing
17
47difficult
easy
good
for
that`it'
to
of
more
the
find
John
for
as
information
adjective
the
to
impersonal
herhelp
path.
to find
me.
relates
about
subject.
a job.
adjectives
to.
followed by `of' o
r `for'.Unit
Main points
34 `-ing'
* Many
and adjectives
`-ed' adjectives
ending in `-ing' describe the effect that
something has on someone's
* Some adjectives
feelings. ending in `-ing' describe a process or sta
te that continues over
* Many
a period
adjectives
of time.
ending in `-ed' describe people's feelings
.
1
You use many `-ing' adjectives to describe the effect that s
omething has on your feelings, or on the feelings of people in general. For exam
ple, if you talk about `a surprising number', you mean that the number surprises
you. 2 See
MostUnit
He
boringdisappointingshockingwelcoming
astonishingdepressinginterestingworrying
annoyingcharmingfrighteningtiring
amazingcharmingexcitingterrifying
She
alarmingcharmingembarrassingsurprising
`-ing'
lives
always
You
51 for
adjectives
use
inhas
asome
information
charming
a warm
`-ing'
havewelcoming
house
aadjectives
on
related
transitive
justsmile.
outside
transitive
to verbs.
describe
theverb.
town.
something that co
ntinues 3overSee
These
a period
Britain
boomingdyingincreasingremaining
ageingdecreasingexistingliving
Increasing
Unit
adjectives
Many
51offor
is`-ed'
time.
aninformation
prices
have
ageing
adjectives
aresociety.
related
making
onintransitive
describe
intransitive
food very
people's
expensive.
verbs.
verbs.
feelings. They have
the same form as the past participle of a transitive verb and have a passive mea
ning. For example, `a frightened person' is a person who has been frightened by
something. NoteShe
boredexcitedshocked
astonisheddisappointedsatisfiedworried
Aamuseddepressedinterestedtired
alarmeddelightedfrightenedsurprised
that
bored
had
looks
thebig
student
past
alarmed
blueparticiples
complained
frightened
about something.
toeyes.
of
his teacher.
irregular
verbs do not end in `-ed
', but can be used as adjectives. See pages 216-217 for a list of irregular past
participles.
54 * used
modified
IThey
It's
My
The
There
His
He
This
She
was
after
felt
husband
was
in
became
coat
worried
present
film
argument
was
ALike
bird
still
amazing
is
front
thanked
is
the
small
abythe
satisfied
quite
one
link
was
nothing
very
other
had
adverbials
comparative
even
show
was
authorities
situation
of
most
number
dirty
what
quite
was
adisappointed
bythe
verbs
astonished
aadjectives,
worried.
more
broken
amazing
noun
terrifying
the
very
more
interested
they
with
and
boring.
most
ofdepressed
satisfied
such
is
surprising
and
convincing
`-ed'
wing.
torn.
can
all
loyalty
cancelled
boring
terrifying.
at
asyoung
superlative
do.
the
`-ing'
tale
his
in
adjectives
`quite',
after
customer.
work
books
going
tothan
behaviour.
ever
in
man.
the
and
their
heto
this.
she
I've
written.
match.
`really',
mine.
`-ed'
had
are
died.
the
parents.
ever
done.
normally
cinema.
adjectives
read.
and `very'
onlycanused
be:af
ter link verbs such as `be', `become', or `feel'. They are related to transitive
verbs, and are often followed by a prepositional phrase, a `to'-infinitive clau
se, or aMain
Unit
`that'-clause.
35 Comparison:
points
finishedpleasedthrilled
delightedinvolvedscaredtouched
convincedinterestedpreparedtired
He
She
Thewas
was
*Brazilians
You
always
scared
addbasic
prepared
`-er'
that
areforms
pleased
they
fortothe
would
account
with
comparative
find
theforher.
results.
hisandactions.
`-est' for the super
lative of one-syllable
* You
adjectives
use `-er'andandadverbs.
`-est' with some two-syllable adjectives
.
* You use `more' for the comparative and `most' for the supe
rlative of most two-syllable adjectives, all longer adjectives, and adverbs endi
ng in `-ly'.
1
* Some
You
addcommon
`-er' for
adjectives
the comparative
and adverbs
formhave
andirregular
`-est' forforms.
the su
perlative form of one-syllable adjectives and adverbs. If they end in `-e', you
add `-r' andIf`-st'.
they
cheap*
safe*
They
poorquickroughsmallweakwideyoung
I've
closecoldfasthardlargelightnice
end
worked
found
safer*
cheaper*
in aharder.
safest
nicer
single
cheapest
hotel.
vowel and consonant (except `-w'), double th
e consonant.
2
The
fathotsadthinwet
Henry
big*day
With
bigger*
wasgrew
two-syllable
thehotter.
biggest
biggest of
adjectives
them. and adverbs ending in a consona
nt and `-y',
3
youThat
happy*
It
funnyheavyluckysillytiny
angrybusydirtyeasyfriendly
change
couldn't
You
ishappier*
the
use funniest
be
`more'
`-y'easier.
happiest
tofor
`-i'
bittheof
andcomparative
the
addfilm.
`-er' and `most'
`-est'.for the superl
ative of most two-syllable adjectives, all longer adjectives, and adverbs ending
in `-ly'. NoteIt
beautiful*
seriously*
Be
They
careful*
that
more
affected
are
forcareful
the
more
`early'
more
Clive
most
careful*
beautiful*
seriously*
next
beautiful
most
as
time.
an
seriously.
most
adjective
most
gardens
careful
beautiful
seriously
orinadverb,
the world.
you use `earlier' a
nd `earliest',
4
not `more'
With some
and common
`most'.two-syllable adjectives and adverbs you can
either 5add Note
`-er'He
cruelhandsomenarrowpolitestupid
commongentlelikelypleasantsimple
It
that
and
was
You`clever'
`-est',
quieter
the
normally
cleverest
oroutside.
anduse`quiet'
man
`more'
`the'
I ever
only
with
and knew.
add
`most'.
superlative
`-er' andadjectives
`-est'. in front
of a noun, but
WARNING:
you
IItwas
was
canWhen
happiest
the
omit`most'
happiest
`the'
when
isafter
Idaywasof
used
awithout
on
link
mymylife.
verb.
own.
`the' in front of adjectives an
d adverbs,
6 it often
IThis
object
Ameans
book
fewmost
was
common
almost
mostadjectives
strongly.
theinteresting.
same asand
`very'.
adverbs have irregular comparati
ve and superlative
NoteShe
good/well*
bad/badly*
far*
old*
that
forms.
would
sat
farther/further*
older/elder*
younear
ask
use
better*
worse*
the
himfurthest
`elder'
worst
oldest/eldest
when
bestor
farthest/furthest
she`eldest'
window.
knew himtobetter.
say which brother, sister,
or childMain
Unit
in apoints
36family
Our eldest
Comparison:
*you
Comparative
mean.
daughter
uses adjectives
couldn't come.
are used to compare people or thing
s.
* Superlative adjectives are used to say that one person or
thing has more of a *quality
Comparative
than others
adverbsinare
a group
used in
or the
others
sameofway
thataskind.
adjectives
.
1
You use comparative adjectives to compare one person or thin
g with another, or with the same person or thing at another time. After a compar
ative adjective,
2
IShe
you
amwas
You
happier
often
much
useuse
athan
older
superlative
`than'.
Ithan
haveme.
ever
to say
been.
that one person or thing has mo
re of a 3quality Buses
Tokyo
He
thanwas
You
others
isthe
are
can
Japan's
often
tallest
use
in athe
comparative
largest
group
person
cheapest
orcity.
there.
others
and
waysuperlative
of travelling.
that kind.
adjectives in front
of a noun. You can
He
It
I was
had
was
also
athe
more
better
usequickest
important
comparative
writerroute
things
thanand
from
hesuperlative
towas.
Rome
do. to Naples.
adjectives after link v
erbs. 4
He
The
This
My feels
brother
sergeant
You
bookcan
more
was
isuse
was
content
the
younger
adverbs
the
mosttallest.
now.
than
interesting.
of degree
me.
in front of comparative adject

ives.
a bit, far, a great/good deal, a little, a lot, much, rather, sl
ightly
You can
Now
It's
Thisalso
Iacar's
feel
rather
usea adverbs
great
bit
moremore
deal
complicated
ofexpensive.
more confident.
degree
storyasthan
such
`bythat.
far', `easily', `much
', or `quite'Note
inShe
Itthat
front
was
wasyou
by
ofeasily
far
can
`the'put
the
the
and`very'
worst
most
superlative
hospital
intelligent
betweenadjectives.
I had
`the'
person
everainseen.
and
superlative
the class. adjecti
ve ending5 in `-est'.
It was
Whenofyou
thewant
verytohighest
say that
quality.
one situation depends on another,
you can use `the'Theandlarger
smaller
a comparative
the
it organisation
is, the
followed
cheaper
is,
byitthe
`the'
isgreater
toandpost.
another
the problem
comparative.
of admin
istration becomes.
When you want to say that something increases or decreases, you can
use two 6comparatives
It'sAfter
Cars
getting
are
linked
becoming
a superlative
byharder
`and'.
more
andand
harder
adjective,
moretoexpensive.
find
you acanjob.
use a prepositional p
hrase to7specifyHe
Henry
These
thewas
You
group
was
cakes
the
usethe
most
you
are
thebiggest
are
probably
dangerous
sametalking
structures
of the
them.
man
about.
best
ininthe
incomparisons
the world.using adverbs as
country.
those given *for`the'
`than'
Prices
adjectives:
and
after
have
a comparative
comparative
been risingadverb
adverbs
fasterfollowed
than incomes.
by `the' and another compa
rative adverb
Unit*points
Main
37twoOther
He
Thecomparative
sounded
drove
*quicker
ways
Thisfaster
worse
of
includes
wecomparing
adverbs
finish,
and
andfaster
words
worse.
linked
thelike:
till
sooner
by we
`and'
`as...as',
wetold
willhimgo`the
tohome.
stop.
same (as)' and `
like'.
* You can
use also
`as...as...'
compare people
to compare
or things
peoplebyorusing
things.
`the same (
as)'.
* You can also compare people or things by using a link verb
and a phrase
1
beginning
You use
with`as...as...'
`like'.
to compare people or things that are si
milar in some way.You use `as' and an adjective or adverb, followed by `as' and
a noun group,
2
anLet
You're
IThe
adverbial,
amus
airport
You
asexamine
asgood
canbadwas
make
orasasit
ashe
asyour
aclause.
ascrowded
negative
is.
carefully
sister.
ascomparison
ever.
as we can.
using `not as...as...' or
`not so...as...'.
3
They
He
TheisYou
food
are
notcan
not
wasn't
souse
as clever
old
asasgood
the
Iadverbs
thought.
asasthey
yesterday.
`almost',
appear to
`just',
be. `nearly', or `quit
e' in front In
of a`as...as...'.
Henegative
Mary
She
was
was
wasalmost
nearly
just
comparison,
asaspale
fast
tallyou
asasbefore.
his
he was.
can
brother.
use `not nearly' or `not quite' be
fore `as...as...'.
4
The
Thishotel
When
is not
you
wasnearly
want
not quite
toassay
complicated
asthat
goodoneasthing
asthey
it expected.
sounds.
is
very similar to somet
hing else, you can use `the same as' followed by a noun group, an adverbial, or
a clause. If people
IYour
She
said
looked
bag
orthethings
isthe
same
thesame
as
are
samealways.
asasshe
very
mine.
similar
did yesterday.
or identical, you can also say
that they are `the
Teenage
The
same'.
initial
fashions
stageare
of learning
the same English
all overisthetheworld.
same for many stude
nts.
You can
exactlymore
almostjustmuchroughly
He
You
did
twoexactly
use
look
`the
someorsame'
almost
adverbs
lessnearlyvirtually
the
same
in
the
infront
as
same.
front
John
ofofadid.
noun
`the group,
same as'with
or or
`thewithout
same'.`as
' after 5the nounIt
They
group.
was
You
reached
painted
can also
almost
thecompare
same
the colour
same
people
height.
asorthe
things
wall.by using a link verb s
uch as `be',You
`feel',
Itbit,
He
The
acan
was
still
looked
houses
use
`look',
alike
some
feels
little,
like
seemed
aadverbs
ordream.
like
an
`seem'
exactly,
actor.
like
ainchild.
mansions.
and
front
just,
a phrase
ofleast,
`like'.
beginning
less, more,
with most,
`like'.quite,
rather, 6somewhat,Of
Hevery
looks
all
If his
thejust
children,
nounlike
group
a she
baby.
after
was`as'
the one
or `like'
most like
in any
me.of these struc
tures is7a pronoun,
Janecar
His
You
you
wasis
can
use
asthe
clever
also
an same
object
useasas`less'
him.
pronoun
mine.andor`least'
possessive
to make
pronoun.
comparisons with
the opposite
Unit points
Main
38meaning
Theysee
He
We
Adverbials
was
*were
Adverbials
tohim
the`more'
less
leastfortunate
less
frequently
and
skilled
are`most'.
usually
than
of
than
the
adverbs,
us.we
workers.
usedadverb
to. phrases, or preposi
tional phrases.
* Adverbials of manner, place, and time are used to say how,
where, or when something
* Adverbials
happens.usually come after the verb, or after the objec
t if there is one. * The usual order of adverbials is manner, then place, then
time. 21 *However,
aanCome
Sit
He
prepositional
The
noun
adverb
did
there
children
You
Anand
annot
group,
adverbial
adverbial
phrase
use
see
quietly,
play
usually
anme
were
phrase
adverbial
well
next
isplaying
can
and
aoften
enough
week.
also
time
listen
ofin
one
beto
expression
manner
the
ato
word,
win.
group
this
park.
toanof
music.
describe
adverb.
words:the way in which
something3 happens
You He
AThey
No
use
She
plane
orwas
birds
listened
an
will
You
looked
isborn
adverbial
flew
normally
done.
or on
be
anxiously
animals
here
with
overhead.
3 April
of
soon.
put
great
place
came
time
adverbials
at1925.
patience
each
near
to
tosay
say
other.
the
when
ofwhere
asbody.
manner,
hesomething
toldplace,
something
hishappens.
story.
happens.
and time after
the main verb.
If you
the
IThe
Thomas
He
Shedid
verb
took
are
book
car
sang
learn
made
using
broke
has
the
was
beautifully.
anmore
to
his
glasses
lying
down
object,
play
decision
than
onto
yesterday.
a few
the
youimmediately.
the
one
table.
tunes
putthese
kitchen.
of
the
veryadverbial
adverbials
badly. after
in athe
clause,
object.
the
usual order is manner,
Theyspoke
She
were
thenvery
sitting
place,
wellquite
then
at the
happily
time.
village
in hall
the car.
last(manner,
night. (manner,
place) pla
ce, time)4
You usually put adverbials of frequency, probability, and du
ration in5 front
A fewShe
You
They
ofadverbs
the
occasionally
have
really
When
hadmain
very
already
you
ofenjoyed
verb.
degree
want
probably
comes
given
tothe
also
focus
tousually
heard
me
party.
myonthe
the
house.
money.
an come
news
adverbial,
by front
in
now.youofcanthedomain
thisverb.
by p
utting it in*ayou
different
can putplace
an adverbial
in the clause:
at the beginning of a clause, usually for
emphasis NoteNext
In
Slowly,
that
September
toafter
the
he opened
coffee
adverbials
I travelled
his
machine
eyes.
oftoplace,
stood
California.
a pile
as
in the
of last
cups.example, the ver
b can come in* you
frontcanofsometimes
the subject.
put adverbs and adverb phrases in front of the m
ain verb for*emphasis,
youIHecan
very
deliberately
change
much
but not
wanted
theprepositional
chose
order
to go
itofwith
because
adverbials
phrases
them.
it was
of
or manner,
cheap.
noun groups
place, and time
when you want toAt
They
change
thewere
meeting
thesitting
emphasis
lastinnight,
the carshequite
spokehappily.
very well.
(place,
(place,
manner)
time, ma
nner) Main
Unit points
39 Adverbials
* Most adverbs
of mannerof manner are formed by adding `-ly' to an ad
jective, but sometimes
* You
Some
other
cannot
do
adverbs
not
spelling
form
use
have
adverbs
changes
adverbs
the same
after
areform
from
needed.
adjectives
link
asverbs,
adjectives.
that
you use
end adjective
in `-ly'.
s.
* Adverbials of manner are sometimes prepositional phrases o
r noun groups.
1
Adverbs of manner are often formed by adding `-ly' to an adj
ective. 2
Adverbs:badly
Adjectives:bad
Adverbs formed
beautifully
beautiful
in thiscareful
carefully
way usually
quick
quickly
quietquietly
have
asoft
similarsoftly
meaning to
the adjective.
3
He talked
`We
She
must
wanted
There
is asnot
so
are
clever
totalk.
politely
sit
sometimes
asquietly,
Weshemust
andchanges
isdanced
be
to
beautiful.
quiet,'
relax.
insospelling
beautifully.
said Sita.
when an adverb is fo
rmed from anWARNING:
Note
adjective.
`-le'
`-y'
`-ic'
`-ue'
`-ll'
thatYou
changes
changes
`public'
cannot
totochanges
`-ily':easy
form
`-ly':gentle
`-ically':automatic
`-uly':true
`-lly':full
adverbs
to `publicly',
*from
*easily
*fully
truly
gently
adjectives
*not
automatically
`publically'.
that already end in
`-ly'. For example, you cannot say `He smiled at me friendlily'. You can someti
mes use 4a prepositional
Somephrase
adverbsinstead:
of manner
`Hehave
smiled
theatsame
me form
in a as
friendly
adjectives
way'.and
have similarNote
meanings,
I've
The
thatdriver
always
`hardly'
for was
example
beenand
driving
interested
`lately'
`fast',
too fast.
`hard',
in fast
are
notand
cars.
adverbs
`late'.
(adjective)
of manner
(adverb)and have d
ifferent5meaningsHave
IIthardly
The
from
was
train
The
youathe
adverb
hard
had
seen
was
adjectives
any
decision
late
John
oftime
manner
as usual.
lately?
to
`hard'
totalk
related
make.
and
to her.
`late'.
to
the adjective `good' is `wel
l'.
NoteHethat
dances
is `well'
a good
well.
can
dancer.
sometimes be an adjective when it refers to som
eone's health.
6
`HowYou
aredoyou?'
not use
- `Iadverbs
am veryafter
well,link
thankverbs
you.'such as `be', `becom
e', `feel', `get', `look', and `seem'. You use an adjective after these verbs. F
or example,
7 See
you Unit
do not
You
73say
for
do not
`Sue
moreoften
felt
information
happily'.
use
prepositional
onYou
linksayverbs.
`Sue feltorhappy'.
phrases
noun groups as
adverbials of manner. However, you occasionally need to use them, for example w
hen there is no adverb form available. The prepositional phrases and noun groups
usually include a noun such as `way', `fashion', or `manner', or a noun that re
fers to someone's
Prepositional
Shevoice.
He
They
did
asked
spoke
it phrases
meininangry
the
right
such
with
way.
tones.
a `like'
nice manner
are also
thatused
I couldn't
as adverbials
refuse.of man

ner.
Unit points
Main
40 Adverbials
He
I slept
drove
* Adverbials
like
like
ofatime
ababy.
madman.
of time can be time expressions such as `last n
ight'.
* Adverbials of time can be prepositional phrases with `at',
`in', or `on'.
* `For' refers to a period of time in the past, present, or
future. 1
You
* `Since'
use adverbials
refers toofa time
pointtoinsay
pastwhen
time.
something happens. Yo
u often use Note
nountomorrow
yesterdaylast
todaylast
that
groupsyoucalled
yearnext
do
not
nightnext
time
useweekthe
expressions
theSaturdaythe
prepositions
otherasdayadverbials
day`at',
after`in',
tomorrow
of time.
or `on' with t
ime expressions.One
You often
So, you're
ofuse
my time
children
coming
expressions
back
wrotenext
towith
week?
me today.
verbs in the present tense to ta
lk about2the*future.
`at'
Theisplane
They're
clock
religious
mealtimes:at
specific
Youtimes:at
used
coming
can
periods:at
leaves
festivals:at
with:
use
breakfast,
next
eight
prepositional
tomorrow
week.
night,
o'clock,
Christmas,
atmorning.
lunchtimes
at
at
the
phrases
three
at Easter
weekend,
asfifteen
adverbials
at weekends,
of time:
at halfterm
* `in'
seasons:in
years
is and
usedcenturies:in
autumn,
with: in the
1985,
spring
in the year 2000, in the nineteenth
century
Noteparts
months:in
that you
of the
also
July,
day:in
use
in `in'
December
the to
morning,
say that
in something
the evenings
will happen during
or after a *period
`on'
I think
days:on
special
is
of used
time
we'll
Monday,
days:on
with:
in find
theChristmas
onfuture.
out in Day,
Tuesday
the
morning,
next
on myfew
onbirthday,
days. evenings
Sunday
on his wedding an
niversary3
dates:on
You use
the`for'
twentieth
with verbs
of July,
in any
on June
tense21st
to say how long someth
ing continuesWARNING:
toIHehappen.
remained
will
isYou
inbedo
Italy
insilent
not
London
for
usefor
a`during'
for
month.
a three
long to
time.
months.
say how long something continues
to happen.
4 You cannot
Yousay
use`I`since'
went there
with aduring
verb in
three
theweeks'.
present perfect or past p
erfect tense
5
to IMarilyn
sayhadYou
when
eaten
has
can
something
lived
nothing
use many
instarted
since
Paris
otherbreakfast.
since
to happen.
prepositional
1984. phrases as adverbials o
f time. You *use:
`during' and `over' for a period of time in which something happen
s
* `from...to/till/until'
Will
I sawyou
himstay
twicehere
during
over
andthe
Christmas?
`between...and'
holidays.
for the beginning and e
nd of a period
* `before'
`Since',
`by'
ofShe
Thesaw
By
ICan
time
when
eleven
building
worked
you
we
left
`till',
him
get
and
take
you
the
o'clock,
before
from
this
`after'
mean
is finished
the
house
`until',
closed
four
test
`not
the
Brody
after
o'clock
match.
between
later
`after',
from
wastomorrow?
by
ten
April
than'
till
back
o'clock.
now
andin
to`before'
ten
and
May.
his
o'clock.
June?
office.
can also be conjunct
ions with6 time
Seeclauses.
UnitYou
I've
96.usewearing
been
the adverb
glasses
`ago'
since
withI was
the three.
past simple to say how lon
g before the time of speaking something happened. You always put `ago' after the
period of time.We
WARNING:
John's
sawYouwife
himdoabout
dieduse
not
five
a month
`ago'
years
ago.
with
ago.the present perfect tense. You ca
nnot sayMain
Unit
`We points
41
haveFrequency
gone
* This
to and
Spain
includes
probability
two words
years like:
ago'. `always', `ever', `never', `perh
aps', `possibly' and*`probably'.
Adverbials of frequency are used to say how often somethin
g happens.
* Adverbials of probability are used to say how sure you are
about something. * These adverbials usually come before the main verb, but th
ey come 1after `be' asYoua use
mainadverbials
verb.
of frequency to say how often something h
appens.
a lot, always, ever, frequently, hardly ever, never, normally, o
ccasionally,
2
often,
We often
She
never
You
rarely,
use
swam
comes
adverbials
sometimes,
intothemysea.
parties.
usually
of
probability to say how sure you are ab
out something.
3
Icertainlydefinitelymaybeobviously
perhapspossiblyprobablyreally
The
definitely
driver
You usually
probably
sawput
herknows
adverbials
yesterday.
the quickest
of frequency
route.and probability befo
re the main
4 You
Note
`Perhaps'
`A
verblot'
Hethat
You
IPerhaps
She
I've
normally
and
have
shall
go
sometimes
is
are
always
never
`Never'
swimming
never
after
you
always
usually
never
definitely
never
probably
the
you
use
usually
goes
comes
been
anneed
beaches
is`ever'
works
had
careful
forget
acomes
auxiliary
abroad.
ato
lot
such
aright.
after
negative
put
downstairs
wasting
membership
Europe.
atwith
are
in
this
aquestions,
them
the
horrible
cleaner
orhis
day.
adverb.
your
after
beginning
main
summer.
a modal.
inverb.
money.
card
time.
in
the
meal!
`be'
negative
theof
to
kitchen.
asnorth.
get
the
ain.
main
sentences,
sentence.
verb. and `if'-c
lauses.
NoteIf
Don't
Have
that
youyou
ever
you
ever
ever
can
doneed
that
sometimes
beenanything,
again!
to a use
football
just
`ever'
call
match?
inme.
affirmative sentences, for
exampleMain
Unit
after
You
42aAdverbials
points
She
use
We
superlative.
hardly
is
`hardly
* `Already'
theever
best
of
ever'
duration
meet.
dancer
isinused
affirmative
Itohave
sayever
that
sentences
seen.
something
to mean
has happened
almost never.
earli
er than expected. * `Still' is used to say that something continues to happen
until a particular time.
* `Yet' is used to say that something has not happened befor
e a particular time.* `Any longer', `any more', `no longer', and `no more' are u
sed to say
1 that something
You usehasadverbials
stopped happening.
of duration to say that an event or situa
tion is 2continuing,
IShecouldn't
It
isn't
still
You
stopping,
use
dark
lives
stand
`already'
yet.
orinit
isLondon.
any
nottomore.
happening
say that something
at the moment.
has happened sooner
than it was You
expected
He had
I've
The
put
Julie
can
guests
`already'
also
already
towas
already
happen.
use
already
were
seen
`already'
after
bought
already
Youin
them.
`be'
put
bed.
the
tocoming
`already'
asemphasize
cups
a main
andinverb.
in.
saucers.
that
frontsomething
of the main
is the
verb.
case,
for example You
whendo
Isomeone
amnotalready
normally
elseaware
does
useof
not
`already'
that
knowproblem.
orinisnegative
not sure.statements, but you ca
n use it in You
negative
Showput
can
it
`if'-clauses.
to him if at
`already'
he the
hasn't
beginning
alreadyorseen
endit.
of a clause for emphas
is.
3
I've
Already
You
doneuse
heitwas
`still'
already.
calculating
to say that
the profit
a situation
he could
continues
make. to exist u
p to a particular time in the past, present, or future. You put `still' in front
of the mainYou
verb.
My
You
put
Martin's
can
We family
were
will`still'
`still'
use
still
still
mother
still
after
waiting
get
live
died,
after
`be'
tickets,
inthe
but
for
asIndia.
athemain
his
subject
iffather
election
youverb.
and
hurry.
isbefore
results.
stillthe
alive.
verb group in n
egative sentences
Remember
Youtowas
He
It
still
still
that
express
after
didn't
haven't
you
midnight,
surprise
cansayuse
given
a `still'
word.
orand
usimpatience.
theat
he
still
keys.
thewouldn't
beginningleave.
of a clause with
a similar4 meaningStill,
toYou
`after
heuseisnot
it's
`yet'
all'
my too
brother,
oratbad.
`nevertheless'.
the We
so
enddidn't
I'll
of negative
have
losetoall
help
sentences
thehim.
money.
and questions
to say that something has not happened or had not happened up to a particular t
ime, but is Remember
or was
We haven't
Have
They
expected
you joined
hadn't
that
`yet'
got
seen
to the
happen
the
can
thetickets
swimming
also
baby
later.
beyet.
yet.
used
clubatyet?
the beginning of a clause wi
th a similar
5
meaning
I don't
They
You
know
to miss
use
`but'.
they
`any
her,
won't
longer'
yetwin.
I doand
Yet
often
`any
theywonder
more'
keep on
where
at trying.
theshe
endwent.
of negative c
lauses to say that a past situation has ended and does not exist now or will not
exist in theInfuture.
formal
I wanted
He's
not
English,
the job,
going
to play
you
but
canIuse
any
couldn't
more.
an
affirmative
wait any clause
longer.with `no longer
' and `no more'. You can put them at the end of the clause, or in front of the m
ain verb.Main
Unit points
43 Adverbials
He no
could
* longer
Adverbs
Some
stand
of
adverbs
wanted
degree
ofthedegree
of
pain
todegree
buy
usually
no it.
more.
canmodify
modifyverbs.
adjectives, other adverb
s, or clauses.
1
You use adverbs of degree to modify verbs. They make the ver
b stronger
2 or weaker.
I can
totally
Some
nearly
adverbs
disagree.
swim.can come in front of a main verb, after a main
verb, or after
Somethe
Note
Mrthat
completelyseriouslytotally
Ibadlygreatlystrongly
That
He
almostlargelynearlyreallyquite
adverbs
disagree
Brooke
almost
object
argument
`really'
are
strongly
crashed
ifcompletely
mostly
there
doesn't
is used
into
criticized
isused
with
convince
one.
a lorry.
at
inthe
John
front
the
beginning
meTaylor.
Banktheofofverb.
totally.
of
England.
a clause to express s
urprise, and`Aatlot'
Really,
He
thewanted
and
end `very
Iofit
didn't
a really,
clause
much'
knowcome
asbut
that!
anafter
was
adverb
tootheshy
ofmain
manner.
to verb
ask. if there is no obje
ct, or after`Very
theWe
She
object.
much'
liked
helped
can
himacome
lot.after
very
much.the subject and in front of verbs like `w
ant', `prefer',
3
Iandvery
Some
`enjoy'.
much
adverbs
wantedoftodegree
take it
go with
in front
me. of adjectives or other ad
verbs and modify
Noteawfullyfairlyquitereally
...a
extremelyprettyrathervery
that
them.fairly
you canlarge
use `rather'
office, with
before
filing
or after
space.`a' or `an' followed
by an adjective
WhenIt
Seaford
and
`quite'
isa anoun.
ismeans
rather
rather
complicated
`fairly',
a pleasant
youstory.
town.it in front of `a' or `an' foll
put
owed by an adjective
However,
My father
when
and a`quite'
gave
noun.me means
quite `extremely',
a large sum ofyoumoney.
can put it after `a'. Y

ou can say
4 `a quite You
enormous
use some
sum'.adverbs of degree to modify clauses and preposi
tional phrases.
5
IAre
entirelyjustlargelymainlypartlysimply
don't
you
You think
saying
use `so'
it's
that
andworth
simply
`such'
going
because
to just
emphasize
Ifor
am ahere?
aday.
quality that someone
or something has. `So' can be followed by an adjective, an adverb, or a noun gro
up beginning`Such'
withIScience
John
want
`many',
isisfollowed
tois
sodo
`much',
interesting
changing
sobymany
a`few',
sodifferent
singular
toortalk
rapidly.
`little'.
noun
to.group with `a', or a plural no
things.
un group. WARNING:
They
There`So'
said
was is
suchnever
nasty
a noise
followed
things
we couldn't
. a singular
by
hear. noun group with `a' or
a plural6 noun group.You use `too' when you mean `more than is necessary' or `mor
e than is good'. You can use `too' before adjectives and adverbs, and before `ma
ny', `much',
7 Note
You
`few',
The
I've
Iuse
He
We've
that
waited
didn't
prices
`enough'
You
orbeen
`enough'
got
`little'.
use
until
paying
work
enough
are
emphasizing
after
toomoney
my
quickly
is
too
daughter
also
high.
adjectives
much
aenough.
to
adverbs
determiner.
tax.
buy
wasthat
and
old
toadverbs.
enough
car
modify
now.to
adjectives
read. such as `as
tonishing',
Unit`furious',
Main
44 Place
points
I think
completelyperfectlyquitesimplyutterly
absolutelyentirelypurelyreallytotally
* and
This
and
he's
direction
includes
`wonderful',
absolutely
wordswonderful.
which
like:express
`above',
extreme
`below',
qualities.
`down', `from'
, `to', `towards'and*`up'.
You normally use prepositional phrases to say where a pers
on or thing is, or the
* You
direction
can alsothey
useare
adverbs
movingandin.adverb phrases for place and
direction.
1
You
* Many
usewords
prepositions
are bothtoprepositions
talk about the
and place
adverbs.
where someone o
r something is. Prepositions are always followed by a noun group, which is calle
d the object of above,
the preposition.
among, at, behind, below, beneath, beside, between, in, i
nside, near,
2 Note
on,The
Hethat
Two
in
There
opposite,
stood
between,
minutes
books
Youwas
some
can
near
aprepositions
were
outside,
later
in
man
also
the
front
piled
standing
use
door.
we
over,
were
of,
on
prepositions
consist
top
next
in
safely
round,
front
of
to,
each
ofinside
through,
on
of
tomore
other.
top
me.
talkthan
the
ofabout
under,
taxi.
onethe
word.
underneath
direction th
at someone or something is moving in, or the place that someone or something is
moving towards.
43
back
alongintopastto
They
She
The
IWe
acrossdownout
walked
stole
live
turned
bank
Many
You
toontoroundtowards
dived
in
his
can
is
across
prepositions
into
and
the
just
keys
also
ofthroughup
rushed
house
the
across
and
useroom.
water.
over
escaped
adverbs
out
canthethe
of
(direction)
beHigh
the
over
used
and
road.
room.
Street.
adverb
the
both
(place)
wall.
for
phrases
(place)
place
(direction)
for
andplace
direction.
and di
rection.
NoteCan't
downwardstheresomewhere
downstairsoutdoorsnowhere
awayindoorsupstairseverywhere
abroadhereundergroundanywhere
Sheila
that ayou
was
fewgohere
noun
upstairs
agroups
moment
andcan
ago.
turn
alsothebebedroom
used aslight
adverbials
off? of place
or direction.
5
ISteve
thought
Many
lives
words
wenext
went
candoor
the
be other
used
at number
aswayprepositions
last
23. time. and as adverbs, with
no difference in meaning. Remember that prepositions have noun groups as objects
, but adverbs
Unit points
1Main
45doPlace
Did
IPlease
Always
not.
looked
he
* *You
You
fall
do
put
at,
use
underneath
sit
use
ain,
down
`at'
sheet
down.
`at'
`in'
`on'
onthe
when
of
tothe
stairs?
paper
talk
you
bed,
are
about
underneath.
but
thinking
the
a place
boxofhad
asa place
aangone!
point.
surface.
area.
as a point in
space. 2
`Where
She You
waited
were
alsoatyou
use
thelast
`at'
busnight?'
stop words
with
for- `At
over
such
Mick's
twenty
as `back',
house.'
minutes.
`bottom', `end'
, `front', and
You`top'
Mrssaw`at'
IThey
use
Castle
escaped
toa taxi
talk
with
wasat
by
about
public
waiting
a window
the
the
end
places
at
different
ofatthe
the
thebottom
and
street.
back
institutions.
partsofofthea house.
stairs.
place.
Note that you also
say `at home'
Youand
I friend
AWe
She
say
have
landed
`at
wanted
`at
to
work'.
the
ofat
betocorner'
mine
aatstay
small
the
isator
station
at
airport.
home.
Training
`on
the
by corner'
ten
College.
o'clock.
when you are talking abou
t streets.
3 You She
There's
say
The put
`in
You
car the
ause
wastelephone
corner'
chair
`in'
parkedwhen
inatwhen
box
the
you
theoncorner
you
are
corner
theare
talking
corner.
oftalking
ofthe
theabout
room.
street.
about
a place
a room.
as an area.
You use `in'You
*with:
a also
country
AWhen
city,
I've
building
They
thousand
Itown,
been
were
use
was
or`in'
when
teaching
sitting
geographical
in
homes
orwith
Spain,
you
village
inhaving
are
atthe
containers
ittalking
a college
region
was
east
dinner
terribly
ofof
about
Scotland
in
anythe
London.
people
cold.
kind
restaurant.
suffered
when
or things
talking
power
inside
about
cuts.itthi
ngs inside
4 them.She
I hadCompare
kept
a hard
thethe
day
cards
use
atinthe
ofa`at'
office.
little
andbox.
(`at'
`in' inemphasizes
these examples.
the office as a
public place orIinstitution)
left my coat behind in the office. (`in' emphasizes the office
as a building) There's a good film at the cinema. (`at' emphasizes the cinema a
s a public place)It was very cold in the cinema. (`in' emphasizes the cinema as a
building.)
5
When talking about addresses, you use `at' when you give the
house number,
6 You
Noteand
They
She
use
I'll
that
`in'
got
`at'
You
used
see
American
ause
when
when
you
to`on'
job
live
at
you
inEnglish
you
Fred's
Oxford
when
just
at 5,talking
are
give
you
uses
house.
Weston
Street.
are
the
`on':
about
talking
Road.
name`Hesomeone's
oflived
about
the street.
on
a house.
place
Penn Street.'
as a surface
. You can also
Youuse
I sat
She
also
`on
put
use
down
top
her
`on'
on
of'.
keys
theonsofa.
when
you
topare
of thinking
the television.
of a place as a point on a l
ine, such asSee
a road,
Scrabster
Oxford
Unit
40
a is
railway
foron
isinformation
online,
the
the
A34north
between
a river,
oncoast.
`at',
Birmingham
or `in',
a coastline.
and
and`on'
London.
in adverbials of
time. Main
Unit points
46 Transport
* Thisprepositions
includes phrases like: `by bus', `in a car', `on the
plane', and `off the*train'.
You normally
can `in',
use
use `by'
use
`into',
with and
`on',
most
`onto',
`out
formsand
of'of`off'
with
transport.
cars.
with other forms
of transport.
1
When you talk about the type of vehicle or transport you use
to travel somewhere,
byleft
IShe
bus,
hadyou
Walsall
byuse
come
bicycle,
by`by'.
incarthewith
byafternoon
car,
herbyhusband
coach,
and went
and
by by
plane,
her
bus
fourand
bychildren.
train
train to Not
tingham.
WARNING: If you want to say you walk somewhere, you say you go `on f
oot'. You2 do notMarie
sayYou
`by
decided
use
foot'.
`in',
to continue
`into', on
andfoot.
`out of' when you are talking abou
t cars, 3vans, lorries,
I followed
The
Mr
She
Ward
carpets
was
Youtaxis,
happened
carried
usethem
had
`on',
andout
into`onto',
to
ambulances.
myof
be
becollected
car.
getting
the
and
ambulance
`off'
into
in ahis
when
van.lorry.
and
up
youthe
aresteps.
talking about o
ther forms of transport,
Why last
Peter
The
don't
Hurdthing
such
you
wascome
ashe
already
buses,
wanted
on the
oncoaches,
was
train
the
toplane
with
spend
trains,
from
metentoCalifornia.
ships,
days
New on
York?
anda boat
planes.
with Ho
oper.
You can
Mr
He Bixby
jumped
use `in',
stepped
back`into',
onto
offthe
the
andold
train
`out
bus,of'
andnowwith
walked
nearly
these
quickly
empty.
othertoforms
the exit.
of tra
nsport, usually when you are focusing on the physical position or movement of th
e person,Main
Unit
rather
47 Adjective
points
The
He
We
than
got
jumped
passengers
* Some
stating
back+out
adjectives
into
preposition
of
what
inthe
the
form
train
bus
plane
used
ofandquickly,
transport
after
were
ran into
beginning
linkbefore
they
the
verbsnearest
are
tocanpanic.
Batt
using.
could
beshop.
usedstop
alone
him.or
followed by a prepositional
* Some adjectives
phrase. must be followed by particular preposition
s.
* Some adjectives can be followed by different prepositions
to introduce
1
different
Whentypes
you use
of information.
an adjective after a link verb, you can often u
se the adjective
2 See He
Unit
onwas
Some
its
33afraid
afraid.
for
own
adjectives
other
oroffollowed
his
patterns.
cannot
enemies.
by be
a prepositional
used alone after
phrase.
a link verb. If t
hey are followed by a prepositional phrase, it must have a particular prepositio
n:
aware of, accustomed to, unaware of, unaccustomed to, fond of, u
sed to 3
He
I'veisSome
always
unaccustomed
adjectives
been terribly
tocanthebeheat.
fond
usedofalone,
you. or followed by a particul
ar preposition:
* used
afraid,
alone,ashamed,
or withconvinced,
`of' to specify
critical,
the envious,
cause of frightened,
a feeling jealo
us, proud, scared,
* used
IThey
brave,
was
alone,
suspicious,
may
terrified
careless,
feel
or with
jealous
terrified,
ofclever,
`of'
her.oftogenerous,
your
specify
tiredsuccess.
the
good,
person
intelligent,
who has akind,
quality
nice
, polite, sensible,
* used
used
IThat
similarity:close
marriage:married
loyalty:dedicated
rank:junior
My
He
turned
problems
was
alone,
alone
silly,
wasdedicated
clever
the
orstupid,
senior
are
jobvery
used
followed
ofto
down,
equal
engaged
with
devoted
you!
thoughtful,
his
similar
byidentical
which
`to',
job.
`with'
loyal
wasunkind,
usually
to
yours.
to
stupid
related
specify
referring
unreasonable,
ofsimilar
me. cause
the
to: of
wrong
a feelin
g
bored, content, displeased, dissatisfied, impatient, impressed,
pleased, satisfied
* used
strong
ability:bad
He
She
I could
was
alone,
hadshocked
pleased
reactions:alarmed
always
never
orexcellent
with
bebeen
with
at
bored
`at',
the
`for'
her.
good
good
hatred
with
usually
to
amazed
at
hopeless
specify
languages.
football.
theyastonished
referring
had
the
useless
known.
person
to:
shocked
or thing
surprised
that a qu
ality relates tocommon, difficult, easy, essential, important, necessary, possib
le, unnecessary,
4
It's
It
unusual,
was
Some
difficult
unusual
adjectives
usualfor them
young
can to
bepeople
go
usedaway
on
alone,
their
at
the
orown.
weekend.
used with different pr
epositions. * used alone, with an impersonal subject and `of' and the subject of

the action, or cruel,

with a friendly,
personal subject
generous,
andgood,
`to' kind,
and themean,
object
nasty,
of the
nice,
action.
polite
, rude, unfriendly,
* used
It alone,
She
was
was
unkind
rude
rude
with
ofto`about'
him
himtoforleave
tonospecify
reason.
so suddenly.
a thing or `with' to specify a
person
angry, annoyed, delighted, disappointed, fed up, furious, happy,
upset Main
Unit points
48 Noun
They're
She *was
+`Of'
preposition
getting
still
canangry
bepretty
used
about
fed
to add
the
up with
result.
many
him.
different types of informatio
n, `with'1 is used toYou
*specify
Some
cannouns
give
a quality
are always
more
information
or possession.
followed
about
by aparticular
noun by adding
prepositions.
a prepo
sitional2phrase AFour
after
sound
You
men
it.behind
often
on holiday
use
himthe
made
were
preposition
him
in turn.
the car.
`of' after a noun to add vario
us kinds3of *information.
what
A...a
There
The
She
They
feeling
something
athe
qualities
gave
boys
was
After
wall
person
faced
was
subject
athe
aFor
sat
aof
woman
nouns
brief
problems
picture
or
daughter
is
stone.
panic
aon
example,
matter
thing
person
made
the
of
referring
account
was
energy
floor
of
belongs
of
of
or
you
rising
them
great
orthing
the
speech,
of
of
and
can
to
consists
her
both
village
to
the
complexity.
actions,
in
ambition.
use
has
interview.
or
him.
writing,
in
living
`of'
ispriest.
ofconnected
the
you
toroom.
paper.
or
indicate:
use
a`of'
picture
withto indicate
is
t
he subject orAfter
object
...the
nouns
ofdestruction
arrival
referring
the action.
of to
the
ofpeople
police.who
their
city.perform an action, you use `of'
to say what Note
the ...a
...supporters
action
thatstudent
you
involves
often
ofofuse
English.
ortheistwo
hunger
aimed
nouns,
strike.
at.rather than a noun and a preposit
ional phrase.
4
For example,
After nouns
you say
referring
`bank robbers',
to measurement,
not `robbers
you useof`of'
the to
bank'.
give t
he exact5figure....an
You Jonathan
...ause
can
You
speed
average
`of'
use
wasof`with'
aafter
25
annual
child
kilometres
aafter
noun
of
temperature
seven
atonoun
angive
when
hour.
toofsomeone's
it
say
20happened.
degrees.
that
age.
a person or thing ha
s a particular
6 Notequality,
...a
...the
thatSome
girl
grey-haired
you
man
feature,
nouns
with
use
withdark
in
`in'
red
are
the
man
orglasses.
hair.
after
usually
gun.
possession.
in aaraincoat.
noun
followed
to say
by what
a particular
someone is
preposition.
wearing.
Here are some
* nouns
examples
alternative,
followed
of: answer,
by `to' approach, attitude, introduction, invitatio
n, reaction,*reference,
nouns
Thisfollowed
admiration,
wasresistance,
my desire,
first
by `for'
real
dislike,
return
introduction
need, reason,
to Africa.
respect, responsibili
ty, search,
Unit*substitute,
Main
49nouns
points
Theirfollowed
She
agreementattackcommenteffecttax
His
connectioncontactlinkrelationship
They
decreasedifficultyfallincreaserise
Verb
had
illness
*+demanded
need
Some
preposition
ataste,
dreadful
for
verbs
had
byamoney
thirst
`on'
`with'
some
`in'
large
doeffect
not
isincrease
connection
orgrowing
take
on me.
`between'
aninwith
fast.
object
wages.
hisanddiet.
are normally followed
by a preposition. * Some verbs take an object followed by a particular preposi
tion. 1
Many
* Someverbs
verbsthat
canare
takeused
either
without
an object
an object
or aare
preposition.
normally foll
owed by a prepositional
belong to,
phrase.
consist
Someof,verbs
hinttake
at, hope
a particular
for, insist
preposition:
on, lead to, li
sten to,2pay for,She
Thequalify
land
then
With referred
belongs
other
for, verbs
refer
totoathe
to,
that
richMinister's
relate
are
family.
used
to,without
report.
sympathize
an object,
with the choice
of a different
3
agree
appeal
They
You
His
The
preposition
agreed
failure
match
With
agreed
on/withapologize
for/toconform
verbs
resulted
with
on
resulted
mayathat
me
alter
plan
that
in
are
to/withsuffer
from
aof
the
for/toresult
we
draw.
used
action.
lack
meaning
should
without
of attention
buy
offrom/with
from/in
the
an
a car.
object,
clause.
to details.
different prepos
itions are
4 used
* `with'
`about'
`at'
`for'
`into'
`of'
`on'
`to'
complainexplainknowtalkwrite
caredreamhearspeakthink
Tonight
glarelaughshoutstare
glancegrinlooksmile
`Hey!'
He
apologizeapplyasklookwait
I'm
His
bumpcrashdriverun
She
I've
hearknowspeaktalkthink
countdependplanrely
You
explainsaytalk
complainlistenspeakwrite
Mary
Do
agreearguedisagreeside
The
todon't
IWe
They
wanted
indicates
you
introduce
will
indicates
going
car
drove
can
daughters
Some
heard
turned
indicates
complained
indicates
she
know
agree
I'm
crashed
count
rely
always
know
verbs
toof
into
shouted
going
of
her
direction
apologize
wait
facts
confidence
on
the
with
different
why
purpose
him
on
sided
the
someone
have
care
the
into
him
head
tolistener
me.
heme
tonew
for
but
at
object
back
or
mewith
subject
to
about
was
an
talk
the
to
about
him.
or
the
Iinformation
about
for
plans
be
whose
types
object,
of
don't
or
speak
laughing
reason
wall.
their
about
next
involved
polite.
or
freedom.
abeing
certainty
this?
matter
the
lorry.
for
reader
opinion
ofto
know
bus.
mothers.
but
engines.
information.
noise.
late.
the
him.
atwho
in
are
that
sports
is
ahe
also
collision
the
joke.
is.same
centre?
followed
or different
by a prepos
ition.
SomeThey
The
verbs
police
borrowed
can take
accused
some
either
money
him an
offrom
object
murder.
theorbank.
a prepositional phrase with
no changeMain
Unit
in points
50
meaning.
He was
Phrasal
had
* Afighting
toverbs
phrasal
fight against
them
verb .is history.
a combination of a verb and an adverb or
preposition.
1
* Phrasal
Phrasal
The usual
verbs
verbs
meaning
areareverbs
of the
used
that
inverb
four
combine
ismain
normally
with
structures.
adverbs
altered.
or preposi
tions. The adverbs and prepositions are called particles, for example `down', `i
n', `off',
2 `out',Mr
Sheand
Knight
turned
Phrasal
`up'.offered
off
verbs
theto
extend
radio.
put him
the up.
usual meaning of the verb or create
a new meaning. For example, if you `break' something, you damage it, but if you
`break 3out of' The
They
a place,
pain
Phrasal
brokegradually
youout
verbs
escape
of prison
are
wore
from
normally
off.
on
it.Thursday
used innight.
one of four main structur
es. In the first structure, the verb is followed by a particle, and there is no
object. 4
catch
check
come
You'll
breakIn
War
broke
ingrow
ongive
upgo
outget
have
theout
awaystart
second
upstay
to
inring
bylook
instay
September.
structure,
upwear
offwait
up
instop
outwatch
lateoff
off
upthe
tonight.
outverb is followed by a particle
and an object.
5
feel
She
Peter
falllooked
Inforlook
forgrow
takes
the after
third
after
afterpick
onpart
her
structure,
hiswithset
invalid
father
ontakethe
about
mother.
but
after
verb
Johnisisfollowed
more likebyme.
an object an
d a particle.
6
ask
He
Ianswer
answered
loved
incatch
Somebackcall
to
phrasal
him
outinvite
order
back
backcount
verbs
people
andouttell
can
took
about.
inorder
bemyapart
used
chances.
about
in both the second structure
and the third structure: verb followed by a particle and an object, or verb foll
owed by an objectaddandon,a bring
particle.
up, call up, fold up, hand over, knock over, point
out, pull down, put away, put up, rub out, sort out, take up, tear up, throw aw
ay, try out WARNING:
It took
There
Ifwasthe
ages
such
object
toaclean
mess.
is athe
uppronoun,
Itthe
mess
took
mess.
up.
ages
it must
to clean
go initfront
up. of the part
icle. You7 cannot sayIn`Hethecleaned
fourthupstructure,
it'.
the verb is followed by a particle
and a prepositionbreak
without
an of,
object.
catch up with, come down with, get on with, go dow
n with, keep on at, look forward to, make off with, miss out on, play around wit
h, put up8 with, Children
You
run go
Aaway
very
onhave
with,
ahead.
fewtoverbs
stick
I'llare
learn
upcatch
tofor,
used
stick
uptalk
inwith
upthe
down
for
you
structure:
themselves.
to,
later.
walk verb
out onfollowed by
an object, a particle,
do out of,
andlet
a preposition
in for, putwith
downits
to,object.
put up to, take out on, talk
out of Main
Unit points
51 Verbs
Kroop
I'll*take
tried
and
Intransitive
Transitive
Some
objects
you
verbs
touptalk
verbs
can
onverbs
her
that
behave
out
used
generous
do
of
not
an
with
it.
object.
have
invitation.
or
an object.
without
an object, dependin
g on the1situation orMany
their
verbs
meaning.
do not normally have an object. They are called `
intransitive' verbs.
existence:appear
the
human
light,
position,
human
They
noises:cough
smell,
body:ache
movement:arrive
oftenvibration:glow
refer
diecry
bleed
disappear
to:
laugh
blush
come
scream
shine
happen
depart
faint
sparkle
snore
livespeak
shiver
fall
remain
stink
flow
smile
yawn
go
throb
kneelvibrate
run sit
sleep stand
2 Note
swimIThe
Anthat
waited.
wait
awful
girl
Many
intransitive
walk
thing
screamed.
verbs
workhas
normally
happened.
verbs
have
cannot
an be
object.
used in
These
theverbs
passive.
are called `
transitive' verbs.
physical
They are
objects:build
often connected
buy carry
with:catch cover cut destroy hit own
remove sell usefeelings:admire
senses:feel
waste wear hearenjoy
see smell
fear frighten
taste touch
hate like love need prefer s
urprise trust want
facts, ideas:accept believe correct discuss expect express forge
t include know mean
people:address
remember report
blame comfort contact convince defy kill persuade
please teaseWARNING:
Note
thank
Hethat
Did
She
Don't
They
hit
you
reported
warn
both
were
`Have'
blame
transitive
the
seeblamed
enjoyed
ball
the
me.
is
thearainbow?
really
accident
verbs
for
transitive
theeverything.
film.
hard.
can
tobeverb,
the
usedpolice.
but
in cannot
the passive.
be used in the pass
ive. You3can say `I Often,
have a the
car'people
but notyou`Aare
cartalking
is had to
by know
me'. what the object is
because of the situation, or because it has already been mentioned. In this cas
e you can omit the
accept,
object,
answer,
even change,
though the
choose,
verb clean,
is transitive.
cook, draw, drive, eat, e
xplain, forget, help, iron, know, learn, leave, paint, park, phone, read, rememb
er, ride,4 sing, Both
IYou
steal,
don't
asked
don't
Many
dresses
study,
aown
verbs
smoke,
question
aare
car.
type,
have
doand
beautiful.
Iyou?
understand,
more
can't
George
than
drive.
It's
answered.
onewash,
difficult
meaning,
watch,to
andwrite
choose.
are transitive in
one meaning and intransitive in another meaning. For example, the verb `run' is
intransitive when you use it to mean `move quickly' but transitive when you use
it to mean
5 `manage
call,whole
She
The
hare
runs
moved
Aorfit,
few
operate'.
aruns
gracefully.
incident
verbs
lose,
hotel.
atare
manage,
enormous
had
normally
moved
miss,
speed.
her
intransitive,
move,
profoundly.
play, run,
but can
show,
be spread
used with
an object that isdance
closely
(a dance),
relateddie
to (a
thedeath),
verb. dream (a dream), , laugh (a lau
gh), live (aNote
life),
Steve
IHe
that
once
appears
sigh
smiled
you
dreamed
(anormally
tosigh),
his
have
a very
thin,
lived
add
smile
nice
cruel
more
the
(adream.
information
smile)
smile.of anyabout
life
otherthe
richobject,
gentleman.
for ex

ample byMain
Unit
usingpoints
52adjectives
Verbs* with
Someintwo
verbs
front
objects
have
of two
the objects,
noun.
a direct object and an indire
ct object.
* The indirect object can be used without a preposition, or
after `to'
1 or `for'.Some verbs have two objects after them, a direct object and
an indirect object. For example, in the sentence `I gave John the book', `the bo
ok' is the direct object. `John' is the indirect object. Verbs that have two obj
ects are2sometimes
Hispassed
IShe
called
uncle
sends
When him
the
had
you
`ditransitive'
the
indirect
given
her
cup.
love.
himobject
books
verbsisonoraIndia.
`double-transitive'
pronoun,
or another short
verbs.noun
group such as a noun with `the', you put the indirect object in front of the di
rect object.
3
You
He
She
Dadhad
promised
bought
You
gavelent
can
meDave
my
also
athe
car.
cousin
and
lad
usemeathe
the
job.
an
prepositions
money.
ice
cream. `to' and `for' to introduc
e the indirect object. If you do this, you put the preposition and indirect obje
ct after theWhen
direct
Hethehanded
Bill
object.
savedhis
indirect
a piece
room of
object
keyconsists
cake
to the
forof
receptionist.
theseveral
children.
words, you normally use
a preposition
Youtooften
IShemade
introduce
taught
use
thataphysics
lamp
preposition
it. foranda seventy-year-old
chemistry
when you want
to pupils
towoman.
emphasize
at the local
the indirect
school.
object. 4
Did With
you really
some verbs
buy that
you can
for only
me? use `for', not `to', to introdu
ce the indirect
5
cookkeeppourwin
buyfindpaintsave
bookcutmakeprepare
He
They
She
object.
had
painted
With
bought
booked
found
someasome
present
picture
verbs
placeoldyou
forfor
clothes
me.her
normally
the father.
foruse
teacher.
the`to'
beggar.
to introduce the indir
ect object. NoteHe
Igivepayreadshow
pass
offerpromisesendtell
lendpostsellteach
Ralph
They
that
had
sold
say
lent
passed
you
itthey
can
myause
to
bicycle
posted
me.
message
`for'
the
totowith
aJack.
letter
friend.
these
to verbs,
me lastbut
week.
it has a different
meaning. `For' indicates that one person does something on behalf of another pe
rson, soMain
Unit
thatpoints
53theReflexive
Hisother
If
you're
mother
* Transitive
person
going
verbs
paiddoes
the
out,
verbs
bill
not
canare
have
forused
you
him.
post
to with
dothis
it.a for
reflexive
me, please?
pronoun to indi
cate that the object*isSome
theverbs
same which
as thedosubject,
not normally
for example:
have a person
`I hurtasmyself'.
the obje
ct can have
1 reflexiveYoupronouns
use a reflexive
as the object.
pronoun after a transitive verb to indic
ate that2theSee
object
IHetaught
Unit
blamed
In
is20theory,
the
for
myself
himself
same
moremost
French.
asinformation
for
the
transitive
his
subject.
friend's
onverbs
reflexive
death.
can bepronouns.
used with a reflexiv
e pronoun.
3 However,
Samintroduced
cuthurtpreparesatisfy
blamehelpkillrestrict
amusedryintroducerepeatteach
`Can
Prepare
He
amused
Verbs
you
I borrow
yourself
often
like
himself
ause
himself
`dress',
pencil?'
for
reflexive
byato
throwing
shock.
`shave',
- `Yes,
me.
pronouns
branches
help
and `wash',
with
yourself.'
into
thethe
which
following
fire.
describe
verbs.
acti
ons that people do to themselves, do not usually take reflexive pronouns in Engl
ish, although they do in some other languages. With these verbs, reflexive prono
uns are 4only usedChildren
I usually
He
She
for
prefers
washed
`Behave'
emphasis.
were
shave
todoes
very
shave
encouraged
before
quickly
nothimself,
normally
breakfast.
and
to wash
rushed
even
take
themselves.
with
downstairs.
an that
objectbroken
at all,
arm.but can ta
ke a reflexive
5
pronoun
If is
He
they
Some
old
asdon't
verbs
enough
object.
behave,
dotonotbehave
send
normally
themhave
himself.
to bed.
a person as object, because
they describe actions that you do not do to other people. However, these verbs c
an have reflexive pronouns as object, because you can do these actions to yourse
lf.
6
Iapply,
Just
She
Professor
really
expressed
When
gocompose,
out
enjoyed
`busy'
Dale
there
surprise
expressed
and
distance,
the
and`content'
party.
enjoy
athimself
the
enjoy,
yourself.
news.
arevery
excel,
usedforcibly.
asexert,
verbs,express,
they always
straintak
e a reflexive pronoun as their direct object. They are therefore true `reflexive
verbs'.Main
Unit points
54 Reciprocal
IHehad
had
* to
Some
busied
content
verbs
himself
myself
describe
inwith
the
twowatching
laboratory.
people orthetwolittle
groupsmoving
of people
lights.
doi
ng the same thing to each other, for example: `We met', `I met you', `We met eac
h other'.
* With
You use
some`each
verbs,
other'
you use
or `one
`eachanother'
other' or
for`one
emphasis.
another' aft
er `with'.
1
Some verbs refer to actions that involve two people or two g
roups of people doing the same thing to each other. These verbs are sometimes ca
lled `reciprocal'
2
Weverbs.
Jane
They
met
The
andintwo
met
Sarah
each
Delhi.
people
other
toldorfor
megroups
that
the first
they
of people
met
timeyou.
last
involved
week.in the action ar
e often mentioned as the plural subject of the verb, and the verb does not have
an object. For example, `John and Mary argued' means that John argued with Mary
and Mary argued argue,
with John.
clash, coincide, combine, compete, fight, kiss, marry, ma
tch, meet3
We
Their
They
Thecompeted
When
pair
kissed.
children
you
of furiously.
you
want
are
have
toalways
emphasize
arguedfighting.
about
thatthat
bothforpeople
years.or groups of peo
ple are equally involved, you can use the pronouns `each other' or `one another'
as the object of the verb. Verbs that refer to actions in which there is physic
al contact
4 between
cuddle,
We
They
It
embraced
was
people
Some
fought
kissed
the
embrace,
verbs
are
first
oneoften
each
doanother
fight,
other.
other
time
notused
they
take
indesperately
hug,
with
greeting.
had
ankiss,
`each
object,
touched
touch
for
other'
soone
it.
youanother.
oruse
`onea preposition
another'. b
efore `each
5 other'
Theytalk
We
orWith
parted
`one
tosome
one
another'.
from
verbs
another
eachyouother
ashave
often
after
a choice
asonly
possible.
oftwopreposition
weeks.
before `eac
h other' or `one another'. For example, you can `fight with' one another or `fig
ht against'
6 one They
with/against:compete
with/to:correspond
with/from:part
Many
Did
Stephen
another.
you
With
countries
parted
compete
and
somefrom
I parted
verbs,
are
against
onecompeting
relate
fight
with
another
youeach
can
talkquite
one
with
other
only
another
each
use
in on
suddenly.
yesterday's
`with'
other.
goodbefore
terms.
race?
`each other'
or `one another'. Note that most of these verbs refer to people talking or work
ing together. agree, argue, clash, collide, communicate, co-operate, disagree,
quarrel7
Have
The
We dotwo
Ifthey
agree
you
lorries
communicated
want
withcollided
toeach
focus
other
with
with
on each
sometimes.
one
oneofother
another
the since
people
on the
then?
involved,
motorway.
you make
them the subject
If the
Sheofverb
You
married
could
thecannot
verb
meet
a young
and
me at
take
make
engineer.
an
theobject,
therestaurant.
otheryouperson
mention
thethe
object.
other person afte
r a preposition.Youths
Unit points
Main
55 Ergative
She was
* Ergative
clashed
always
verbs quarrelling
verbs
with police
are both
with
in transitive
Belfast.
him.
and intransitive. The o
bject of the transitive use is the subject of the intransitive use, for example:
`I opened the door',* A`The
fewdoor
verbs
of
these
opened'.
areverbs
only need
ergative
an adverbial
with particular
when they
nouns.
are used
without 1an object. Some verbs can be used as transitive verbs to focus on the p
erson who performs an action, and as intransitive verbs to focus on the thing af
fected by theNote
action.
When
Suddenly
thatIthe
opened
the
object
door
theofopened.
door,
the transitive
there was Laverne.
verb, in this case `the door'
, is the subject of the intransitive verb. Verbs like these are called `ergative
' verbs.2 * changes
begin,
Ergative
break,verbs
change,
often
crack,
referdry,
to:end, finish, grow, improve, in
crease, 3slow,* vehicles
cooking
position
start,
AI big
bake,
I've
I'm
balance,
An
He
crashflyrun
backdrivereversesail
Her
She
The
broke
explosion
had
glass
driver
porridge
cooking
rice
rested
head
whole
car
sailed
ship
Some
boiled
stop,
car
boil,
orcrashed
crashed
the
is
close,
rested
sailed
verbs
broke
stopped.
movement
room
stopped
her
tear
glass.
cook,
an
spaghetti.
cooking.
isyacht
shook
egg.
head
shook.
the
can
alldefrost,
boiling.
drop,
into
on
the
car
Monday.
beon
over
amove,
round
used
car.
his
table.
hotel.
twice.
tree.
thethe
fry,
shoulder.
inopen,
floor.
these
world.
melt,
rest,
tworoast,
rock,
ways simmer
only
shake,
withstand,
a small
turns
et of nouns. For example, you can say `He fired a gun' or `The gun fired'. You c
an do the same with other words referring to types of gun, `cannon', `pistol',
or `rifle'. However, although you can say `He fired a bullet', you cannot say `T

he bullet4 fired'.AMy
fire:cannon,
play:guitar,
ring:alarm,
show:anger,
Isound:alarm,
catch:belt,
caught
car
horn
tights
A was
few
sounded
mysounding
caught
verbs
bell
disappointment,
dress
cloth,
gun,
music,
bell,
incan
onthe
pistol,
on
horn
its
clothing,
apiano,
bethe
nail.
night.
horn.
used
fence.
rifle
violin
emotions,
indress,
both ways,
shirt,
fear,but
trousers
joyneed an adverbial
when theyMain
Unit
arepoints
56used
He sells
freezemarksellwash
cleanhandlepolishstain
She
This
Common
without
had
*car
book
Examples
verb
handled
books.
handles
isan+selling
noun
object.
are:
avery
machine
patterns
`have
well.
nicely.
gun.
a bath'; `give a shout'; `make promise
s'; `take care'.
* Common verbs are often used with nouns to describe actions
.
* You use `have' with nouns referring to eating, drinking, t
alking, and washing.* You use `give' with nouns referring to noises, hitting, an
d talking.
* You use `make' with nouns referring to talking, plans, and
travelling.
1
When you want to talk about actions, you often use common ve
rbs with nouns as their object. The nouns describe the action. For example, if y
ou say `I had a shower', the noun tells you what the action was. The common verb
s have very
32 You
The
little
Sheremarked
nouns
IHelen
use
meals:breakfast
talking:chat
washing:bath
relaxation:break
disagreement:argument
We
He
human
had
usually
was
meaning.
made
`have'
Different
You
ahaving
often
went
noises:cry
nice
use
a have
remark
upstairs
that
with
have
`give'
rest.
conversation
shower
his
verbs
itgasp
nouns
dinner
lunch
related
holiday
about
first
would
with
to
wash
aregiggle
referring
fight
at
rest.
drink
the
holiday
used
nouns
verbs
be
rest
one
discussion
weather.
better
quarrel
lunch
o'clock.
groan
with
referring
that
to:different
for
iffive
meal
laugh
dotalk
trouble
Inot
came.
taste
to:
years.
scream
take
nouns.
teashout
an object.
sigh whist
le yell
hitting:kick
talking:advice
facial expressions:grin
punch
answer
pushexample
slap
smile information interview lecture news
report 4speech talk
Mr Sutton
She
talking
gave
You
warning
and
use
agave
long
sounds:comment
`make'
alecture
shout
withofabout
nouns
triumph.
enquiry
Roosevelt.
referring
noiseto:
point promise remark so
und speech
65 suggestion
plans:arrangement
travelling:journey
He
In
decisionresponsibilityturns
chargephotographtrouble
chanceoffencetime
careinterestrisk
She
made
1978
was
was
Youtaking
the
he
prepared
usemade
shortest
`take'
`go'
nohis
to
and
chances.
choice
tour
with
first
take
speech
`come'
trip
these
decision
great
visit
I've
with
visit
nouns:
risks.
toever
`-ing'
plan
Australia.
heard.
nouns referring to sport
s and outdoorNote
activities.
She
Every
thatgoes
morning,
you
climbing
can also
he goes
inuseher`go
jogging
holidays.
for'with
and `come
Tommy.for' with `a jog', `a
run', `a7swim', They
`a walk'.
You
wentusefor`do'
a run
withbefore
`-ing'breakfast.
nouns referring to jobs connected w
ith the home, andHenouns
wanrbials
referring
of place
generally
and negative
to work.adverbials, you normally put
the subject afterShetherang
verb.
the bell for Sylvia. In came a girl she had not seen be
fore.
AfterOnadverbials
no accountofmust
place,
theyyou
be can
let also
in. put the subject before the v
erb. You3must doHe'd
The
so,door
When
chosen
if the
opened
youJapan,
subject
wantandtosoin
issay
off
she
a that
pronoun.
wecame.
went
you to
do the
not Japanese
know something,
Embassy.you can
put a reported
4
What
How
question
he
Another
I'mmanaged
going
at way
theItoof
beginning
can't
dofocusing
next
imagine.
Iofdon't
ontheinformation
sentence.
quite know.
is to use a structure
which introduces what you want to say by using `the' and a noun, followed by `i
s'. The nouns most
answer,
commonly
conclusion,
used in fact,
this way
point,
are:problem, question, rule, soluti
on, thing, trouble,
The second
truth
part of the sentence is usually a `that'-clause or a `wh'
-clause, althoughTheitsolution
problem
thing
can also
is,isishow
bethat
toaare
adopt
`to'-infinitive
shewecan't
goingpolicy
the
cook.
to get
clause
which
her will
out?
or a produce
noun group.
the great
est benefits. The answer is planning, timing, and, above all, practical experi
ence.
It is also common to use a whole sentence to introduce information i
n following
5 sentences.
YouSee
canUnit
also102
focus
foronmore
information
information.
by using impersonal `it',
followed6by There
The
`be',What
noun
It's
It
Ted
Money
are
awas
iswas
You
noun
group
money
we
usually
many
is
Ted
me
the
want
can
what
group,
Dookie
can
who
that
other
one
also
iswe
the
bemoney.
broke
they
who
and
wanted.
ways
want.
focus
thebroke
other
awant.
the
subject
of
relative
onvehicle
news
focusing
the news
or
to
information
clause.
that
object
me.
ontoinformation:
suffers
me.ofgiven
themost.
relative
in the other
clause.
par
ts of a clause, or a whole clause, using impersonal `it'. In this case, the seco
nd part of the sentence
It was meeting
from
is aFrancis
`that'-clause.
Peterthat
thatshe
really
firststarted
heard me
theoff
news.
on this new line
of work.Main
Unit points
102Perhaps
Cohesion
* Youit's
canbecause
use pronouns
he's aand
misfit
determiners
that I get
to refer
along back
with to
him.some
thing that
1 has already
* You
When
been
you
usementioned.
speak
coordinating
or write,conjunctions
you usuallytoneed
linktoclauses.
make some conne
ction with other things that you are saying or writing. The most common way of d
oing this2 is by referring
One wayback
of referring
to something
backthat
to something
has alreadyisbeen
to use
mentioned.
a personal
pronoun such as `she', `it', or `them', or a possessive pronoun such as `mine' o
r `hers'.
Mary
`Have
My father
came
you heard
in.
been
is fat.
She
toofLondon
was
HeDavid
weighs
a good-looking
?' -over
Lodge
`Yes,
?'fifteen
- `Yes,
itwoman.
wasstone.
I've
veryjust
crowded.'
read a novel
of his.'3
`Would
Youyou
canmind
alsomoving
use a specific
your car determiner
, please?' such
- `It's
as `the'
not mine.'
or `his
' in front of a Anoun
mantoandrefer
a woman
backwere
to something.
walking up the hill. The man wore shorts,
a T-shirt, and `Thanks,'said
basketball sneakers.
Brody. He
Theput
woman
thewore
telephone
a printdown,
dress.
turned out the l
ight in 4his office, The
and demonstratives
walked out to his
`this',
car. `that', `these' and `those' are a
lso used to referInback
1973toheawent
thingonora caravan
fact thatholiday
has just
. Atbeen
thementioned.
beginning of this
holiday 5he beganThere's
to The
experience
afollowing
lot ofpain
material
general
in histhere.
determiners
chest.You can
canuse
alsosome
be of
usedthat.
to refer
back to something:
Five
botheitherneither
There
anothereacheveryother
officials
are more than
were two
sacked.
hundred
Another
and fifty
four were
species
arrested.
of shark, and
every one6 is different.
Another common way of making connections in spoken or writte
n English isYou
by can
Anna
butorthen
Iandnorsoyet
He
using
asked
was
use
had
one
only
aiftocoordinating
ofIagocould
the
boy
into
following
then,
borrow
townconjunction
yet
and
her
coordinating
heshe
bicycle
waswanted
notlink
to
but
afraid.
to
conjunctions:
she
go refused.
clauses
to Bride
thatStreet.
have the
same subject. When you link clauses which have the same subject, you do not alw
ays need7to repeat
Shedidn't
He
When
the
was
Most
shesubject
born
saw
subordinating
yellMorris
inor
inBudapest
scream.
theshesecond
conjunctions
went
and pale,
raised
clause.then
in
canManhattan.
blushed.
also be used to link sen
tences together, rather than to link a subordinate clause with a main clause in
the same sentence.
`Can
We
`When
send
Iwill
borrow
thatyoubyyour
doairmail.
it?'
car?'- Therefore
-`When
`So long
I get,asit's
time.'
youaway
driveoncarefully.'
Thursday and o
ur client8 gets it onWhen
Monday.
people are speaking or writing, they often use words th
at refer back to similar words, or words that refer back to a whole sentence or
paragraph.
Everything was quiet . Everywhere there was the silence of the w
%'2Dinter night.
`What are you going to do?' - `That's a good question.'
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