1

Page |1
AAA
Temperature, heat and thermal equilibrium, basic definition and law of heat transfer, modes of heat
transfer, steady and unsteady heat transfer, and significance of heat transfer. Conduction Heat Transfer:
Fourier equation, general heat conduction equation: Cartesian co-ordinate, cylinder co-ordinate, spherical
co-ordination, conduction through plane wall, composite wall cylindrical, multi cylindrical wall, spheres.
Critical thickness of insulation , heat transfer from extended surface , steady state flow of heat along a rod,
governing differential equations and their solution, heat dissipation from infinite long fin, insulated tip , fin
performance .
Unit 2. Convection: Stroke energy equation, hydrodynamic and thermal boundary layers: laminar
boundary layer equation; forced convection appropriate non dimensional members, flow over flat plate,
similarity solution. Von-karmans method, effect of Prandtl number. laminar flow through circular pipe.
Natural Convection: Dimensional analysis Grashoff number, boundary layers in external flow (flow over
a flat plate only), boundary layer equations and their solutions. Heat transfer Correlation.
Unit 3. Radiation: Salient features and characteristics of radiations, absorptive, reflectivity and
transmissivity, spectral and spatial energy distribution, wavelength distribution of black body radiation,
plancks law. Total emission power. Stefan Boltzman law, Wiens displacement law,kirchoffs law ,
intensity of radiation & Lamberts consine law.
Unit 4 Heat transfer in IC engine: Water and air cooling of engines, combustion systems and variation
of gas temperatures, heat transfer coefficients, calculations of heat rejection to coolant. Heat transfer,
temperature distribution and thermal stress in piston, piston ring, cylinder liner. Heat transfer through
cylinder head, fins and valves, Effect of various operating parameter on engine heat transfer.
Unit 5. Heat exchangers used in IC engine : Principles of different type of Heat exchanger. Type of
radiators , inter cooler and after cooler . EGR cooling and EGR coolers. Engine coolant and their
properties.
CONTENTS
ARYA COLLAGE OF ENGINEERING AND INFORMATION TECHNOLOGY
BY MANU GUPTA- manukota1@gmail.com
Page |2
Unit 1
Unit 1 interview questions
Unit 1 numerical questions
First mid term paper
3-30
31,32
33
Unit 2
Unit 3
Unit 3 interview questions
35-51
52-55
HEAT TRANSFER
Unit1
Page |3
DIFFERENCE BETWEEN HEAT AND TEMPERATURE

Temperature is a measure of the amount of energy possessed by the molecules of a substance. It
manifests itself as a degree of hotness, and can be used to predict the direction of heat transfer. The
usual symbol for temperature is T.
SI units scales are Celsius and Kelvin temperature.
Heat, on the other hand, is energy in transit. Spontaneously, heat flows from a hotter body to a colder
one.
SI systemcommon units for measuring heat are the Joule and calorie.
INTRODUCTION
Energy can be converted from one form to another. (Second law)
Heat is energy in transition.
And this heat transfer is caused by temperature difference.
Rate of heat transfer is temp difference and 1/ to resistance by material.
DIFFERENCE BETWEEN THERMODYNAMICS AND HEAT TRANSFER they are
complimentary
Thermodynamics tells us:
How much heat is transferred (dQ)
How much work is done (dW)
Final state of the system
Heat transfer tells us:
How (with what modes) dQ is transferred
At what rate dQ is transferred
Temperature distribution inside the body
Classification
Transit: example radiator.
Periodic: example of engine.
Modes of Heat Transfer
Conduction:
An energy transfer across a system boundary due to a temperature difference by the mechanism of
intermolecular interactions. Conduction needs matter and does not require any bulk motion of
matter.
By Oscillation: in non conductor
By electron and oscillation: in conductor
By impact: in fluids
Examples:
Conduction rate equation is described by the Fourier Law: this law is based on observations
rate of heat flow is to area of flow (A) and temperature difference (T) and 1/ to thickness
(dx) So ..
We assume case of one dimensional heat flow and k remains constant.
q Ax dT/dx = kAx dT/dx
k = thermal conductivity of material (W/m K) (which varies with temperature but we
assume it to be constant..)
q = heat flow vector, (W) or (J/s)

Page |4
2
A = Cross sectional area in direction of heat flow. (m )

dT = temp difference in one direction.
Conduction rate equation rectangular coordinate system
q = kAx (dT/dx i + dT/dy j + dT/dz k)
Conduction rate equation radial system
qr = kAr dT/dr
Conduction rate equation if temperature gradient is constant
q = kA T2-T1
x2-x1
** Here area will remain constant in direction of flow, later we will derive other cases.
One end of the block of 1mx1mx.5m is at
A=1m2
o
o
100 C, another is maintained at 0 C. (k=
l= .05m
385W/m K). find (1)rate of heat transfer (2) k= 385W/m K
thermal resistance.
T= 385
(i)
q = kA T = 385X1X100/0.05 = 770
kW
l
(ii)
R= l/kA = 0.05/(385X1)=1.3 X 10-4
Convection: heat transfer is by mixing of fluid

An energy transfer across a system boundary due to a temperature difference by the combined
mechanisms of intermolecular interactions and bulk transport. Convection needs fluid matter.
Type :
Natural convection: the mixing is carried out by difference in density of cold and hot partials(induced
by buoyancy forces)..
Ex:
Hot plate to atmosphere.
Water heating system.
Heating of room by stove.
Forced convection: the mixing is carried out by pump, fan etc. here heat transfer rate speeds up.
Cooling of I.C engine.
Heat transfer through wall to fluid or fluid to wall is very important in engineering heat transfer.
Convection rate equation is described by the Newtons Law of Cooling:

q = h As T
but
q = kA dT/dx = kA(Tw Ts) = h As (Tw Ts)/
so
k=h/

Page |5
q = h As T
Where:
q = heat flow from surface, (W)
h = heat transfer coefficient (which is not a thermodynamic property of the material, but may
depend on geometry of surface, flow characteristics, thermodynamic properties of the fluid,
etc. (W/m 2 K)
As = Surface area from which convection is occurring. (m 2 )
T = TS Tw Temperature Difference between surface and coolant. (K)
Q. An air cooler has surface area 0.12m2 and temp 65 oC. atmospheric temp is 30 oC surface
coefficient of heat transfer 45.5 W/m 2 K. calculate heat transfer.
Sol.
q = h As (TS Tatm)
= 45.4 X (0.12)(65-30) =190W
Q. Water is heated up to boiling by a wire (rod) of 10cm X 1mm , 23.5 watt of power is
consumed. h=5000 W/m 2 K find temperature of wire for steady state.
Sol.
q = h As (Twire Twater)
23.5=5000 x ( x d x l) (Twire Twater)= 5000 x ( x 0.001x 0.1) (Twire 100)= 1.57(Twire 100)
Twire= 23.5/1.57 + 100 = 115 oC
Radiation:
Radiation heat transfer involves the transfer of heat by electromagnetic radiation (where the energy is
carried by photons of light in the infrared and visible portions of the electromagnetic spectrum) that
arises due to the temperature of the body. Radiation does not need matter.
Mechanism: heat flow through radiation occurs in 3 phase
1. Thermal energy is converted in to em waves: all body above absolute zero emit radiant energy
via photons.
2. photons can travel in space without media @ light
3. when photon strike another surface they are absorbed /reflected/ transmitted but absorbed
and converted in to heat in perfect black body.
Radiation rate equation is described by the STEFAN BOLTZMAN LAW: Total emission
from a black body per unit area per unit time is proportional to forth power of absolute
temperature of the body.
E=Ts4 (W/ m 2 )
Where:
= emissivity, which depand on surface, finish and material ( = 1 is black body)

= Steffan Boltzman constant = 5.67 x 10 -8W/m 2 K 4 .
Ts = Absolute temperature of the surface (K)
This eq does not give heat exchange, for heat exchange

Page |6
E=A(Ts4 - Tsur4 )
Where:
Tsur = Absolute temperature of surroundings. (K)
EXAMPLE1:
Two perfect black bodies surround each other such that all radiant energy of inner surface at 1000oC
reaches outer surface at 200oC find net rate of heat transfer per unit area.
Sol
Ts1 = 200+273 = 473
Ts2 = 1000+273= 1273
E/A=(Ts14 Ts24 )
= 146kW/m2
EXAMPLE2:
5 cm dia pipe at steady state temp 60 oC kept in a room of temp 25 oC , =0.7, h= 6.5 W/m 2 K
Calculate total heat loss / unit length
Sol
Conv. q = h As T= h ( x d x l)(60-25)= 6.5x ( x 0.05x1)(60-25) = 35.72W
Rad. q= A(Ts14 Ts24 ) = 0.7 x ( x d x l) x 5.67 x 10 -8 ((60+273)4-(25+273)4)
total
q= 33.72W
Q=35.72+33.72=69.44W
OVERALL HEAT TRANSFER COFF.:

qci=
qk =
hiA(Ti-Ta)
kA(Ta-Tb)
l
qco = hoA(Tb-To)
= (Ti-Ta)
Rci
= (Ta-Tb)
Rk
= (Tb-To)
Rco
Ti
Ta
q
ci
Tb
q
To
q
co
qci = qk = qco = q
Now we can measure Ti and T o but not Ta and Tb so we eliminate them
(Ti-Ta) + (Ta-Tb) + (Tb-To) = q Rci + q Rk + q Rco
Ti To = q (Rci + Rk + Rco)
q=
(Ti To)
(Rci + Rk + Rco)
By Newtons law of cooling
q = UAT = (Ti To)
(Rci + Rk + Rco)
UA=
1
.

Page |7
(Rci + Rk + Rco)
ELECTRICAL ANALOGY TO HEAT FLOW
Ti
Ti
Ta
q
ci
Tb
q
Ta
Tb
To
To
q
co
V= I(R1+R2+R3)
T= q (Rci + Rk + Rco)
Rci
1/ hiA
Rk
l/kA
Rco
1/ hoA
Q. in furnace, combustion is at 1000oC and

outside temp is 25oC, convection heat
transfer coefficient between furnace and
wall= 10W/m2 and wall to outside air 5
W/m2 , thermal conductivity of brick
material of wall is k= 1.04 W/mK. Find
thickness of wall if wall temperature should
not exceed 800oC.
Heat from furnace to wall

qci/A= hi(Ti-Ta) =10(1000-800)=2000Wm2
From wall to atmos.
q/A = ho(Tb-To) = 5(Tb - 25) = 2000
Tb = 425 oC
Eq for conduction
q/A = k(Ta - Tb)/ l = 2000
l
= 0.195 m
USE OF HEAT TRANSFER CALCULATIONS IN DESIGN:

Engineers have only two types of problems regarding HMT they either have to stop heat flow or to
promote heat flow.
Design of condenser, heat exchanger, air-conditioning (to calculate heat load as well as airconditioning required).
To calculate heat load of a building in civil engineering.
Heat treatment of metals,

Page |8
UNIT 1 Lesson 2 CONDUCTANCE

GENERAL HEAT EQUATION
Why We Need It?
Fourier Law is for steady flow, in one dimension, and without heat generation.
The cases other then this can not be solved by this equation.
Cartesian Coordinates: T(r, , z)
Derivation:
Assumptions:
K (conductivity), c (pecific heat) and (denisity) do not vary with

position.
Heat generation is uniform.
Consider a small volume whose dimensions are dx, dy, dz. Material is
homogenous and isotropic. Means its properties (density, h, k ) are same
everywhere.
Temperature is indicated by T
Temperature is a function of distance do T changes as distance changes ( T changes as dx changes).
So rate of change of temperature T/ x
Change of temperature at a distance dx=> Tx - Tx+dx =>
In d s Kumar it is
Now
heat inflow during
time dt
=>
+ heat generated Eg
during time dt
ENERGY BALANCE EQ.

(dqx+dqy+dqz)dt
+Eg(dxdydz)dt
/x
dx
/x dx
= heat outflow
during time dt
+ change in
internal energy
during time dt Est
(dqx+dx + dqy+dy +dqz+dz)dt
c(dx.dy.dz)dT

Page |9
Est =mcdT
m= X volume
Now consider single direction x and apply Fourier eq
Heat inflow per unit time:
dqx = -k(dydz)
/x
where dy.dz is area
Heat outflow in x direction per unit time: it is increased by dx

dqx+dx = dqx +
/x (dqs ).dx = - /x (-k(dydz) T/x ) + /x { (-k(dydz) T/x) dx}
=qx= -k (dx dydz) /x { (T/x ) }

T
dqx+dx dqx = -k (dx dydz) 2 /x2
dqx+dx dqx
Heat outflow in y direction

dqy+dy dqy
-k (dx dydz)
Heat outflow in z direction

dqy+dy dqy
= -k (dx dydz)
2T
2T
/y2
/y2
Putting them in energy balance eq and solving we get GENERAL HEAT CONDUCTION EQ
2T
/x2 + 2T/y2 + 2T/z2 + Eg/k
cT
/kt = (c/k) (T/t)
Net transfer of thermal energy into Thermal energy

the control volume (inflowgeneration
outflow)
Change in thermal
energy storage
control volume (inflowSIGNIFICANCE OF GENERAL HEAT CONDUCTION EQ

This eq. tells us about temp. distribution and heat flow in a solid homogeneous and isotropic
material Via conduction.
Thermal Diffusivity
o k/ c = is called thermal diffusivity and is property of the material science it consist of all
property terms. Greater it is greater is the ability to store or conduct heat.
o Thermal diffusivity is ratio of conductivity (k) to thermal storage capacity(c) .
o Liquids have low conductivity but high heat storage capacity. Metals have low c and high k.
o This also tells us how fast temperature change can occur in a material if surrounding
temperature is changed.
o Temperature distribution in unsteady state depend on conductivity and storage capacity / but in
unsteady state only on conductivity.
If heat generation is nil Eg = 0 this eq. is Fouriers eq. in three dimension.
If system is in steady state but with heat generation this eq. is called poissons eq.
If no heat source and in steady state this is called laplace,s eq.
For one dimension / without generation / steady state the equation is
d2T
/dx2
=0

P a g e | 10
HEAT CONDUCTION EQUATION (RADIAL SYSTEMS)

When conduction occurs in shapes of radial geometries it is more convinent to work in cylindrical
systems.
Cylindrical Coordinates: T(r, , z)
Derivation:
Assumptions: same
Now consider single direction x and apply Fourier eq

Net Heat flow in r direction per unit time
dqr+dr dqr = -k (dr ddz) 2T/r2
Net Heat flow in direction per unit time
dq+d dq = -k (dr ddz) 2T/2
Net Heat flow in z direction per unit time
dqz+dz dqz = -k (dr ddz) 2T/z2
Net heat generated per unit time
Eg r(dr ddz)
Net heat generated per unit time
c r (dr ddz) dT/dt
Putting in energy balance eqn and solving we get

2T
/r2 + (1/r) T/r +(1/r2) 2T/2 + 2T/z2 + Eg/k
Net transfer of thermal energy into

the control volume (inflowoutflow)
Thermal energy
generation
(c/k) (T/t) =(1/) (T/t)
Change in thermal
energy storage
** Every other thing remains same as derivation before

control volume (inflow

2T
/r2+(1/r) T/r = 0
1
/r2 d/dr ( r dT/dr ) = 0
SPHERICAL COORDINATES: T(r, , )

P a g e | 11
Derivation:
Assumptions: same
Volume = (dr.rd.rsin.d)
Heat flow r- plan, direction per unit time
T
Inflow = dq = -k(dr . r.d)( r. sin .
Heat stored or change in heat energy

dq+d - dq =
( q ) r. sin .d .dt
r. sin .
dq+d - dq = k(dr.rd.rsin.d) [
Heat flow r- plan, direction
1
2T
.dt
r 2 . sin 2 . 2
Inflow = dq = -k(dr . sin.d)( r.

dq+d - dq =
solving for time dt
(q) . rd
r.
dq+d - dq = k(V)
( r 2 . sin ) ( sin ).dt
Heat flow - plan, r direction

Similarly
dqr+dr - dqr =
(q) . dr
r
solving for time dt
dqr+dr - dqr = k(V)
(r
T
r
) . dt
Putting in energy balance eqn and solving +

1
1
2T
.dt + ( 2
2
2
2
r . sin .
r . sin
) ( sin ) +
(r
T
r
) + Eg/k =(1/) (T/t)

1
/r2 d/dr ( r2 dT/dr )
=0
OVER ALL
Steady-state conduction, no internal generation of energy
For one-dimensional, steady-state transfer by conduction without heat generation

P a g e | 12
i = 0 rectangular coordinates
i = 1 cylindrical coordinates
i = 2 spherical coordinates
THERMOPHYSICAL PROPERTIES
Thermal Conductivity: A measure of a materials ability to transfer thermal energy by conduction.
Thermal Diffusivity: A measure of a materials ability to respond to changes in its thermal

environment.
INITIAL AND BOUNDARY CONDITIONS
heat equation is first order in time, requiring specification of an initial temperature distribution
for solution.
Since heat equation is second order in space, two boundary conditions must be specified.
Some common cases: T(x,t)

Constant Surface Temperature:
T(0,t) = Ts

P a g e | 13
Constant Heat Flux: Applied Flux
-k T at x=0 = qs
x
Constant Heat Flux: Insulated Surface

-k T at x=0 = qs
x
Convection
CONDUCTION THROUGH THE PLANE WALL

Consider a plane wall between two fluids of different temperature:
TEMPERATURE DISTRIBUTION

P a g e | 14
General heat equation:
For one-dimensional, steady-state transfer by
conduction without heat generation.
d dT
k 0
dx dx
Integrating
dT = C1 ....(i)
dx
T=C1 x + C2(ii)
Boundry conditions
T= Ts1 at x=0
T=Ts2 at x=L
Apply these conditions to (i) , (ii)
Ts1=0 + C2
C2= Ts1
Ts2=C1 L + C2 C1= Ts2 - Ts1
L
Temprature distribution eqn.
T = Ts1 + { Ts2 - Ts1}x
L
Points to remember
Temp distribution is linear across the wall.
Temp distribution is independent of material as it do not involves k.
HEAT FLOW
qx= - kA dT
dx
qx 0 L dx = - kA Ts1 Ts2 dT
= -kA Ts2 - Ts1
L
THERMAL RESISTANCE:
qx= Ts2 - Ts1 = Ts2 - Ts1
L/ kA
Rt
INSULATION FOR SPECIFIC THERMAL RESISTANCE

Weight of wall = A L
W = (k) Rt A2
(k) for given resistance is smallest so is the weight of wall and insulation.

P a g e | 15
THERMAL ANALOGY:
Conduction resistance in a plane wall:
L/ kA
Conduction resistance in a plane wall:
1/ hA
Thermal circuit for plane wall with adjoining fluids:
Rtot = 1/ h1A + L/ kA + 1/ h2A

qx = T1 - T1
Rtot
THERMAL RESISTANCE FOR UNIT SURFACE AREA:
Rt,cond
L
k
Rt,conv
1
h
CONTACT RESISTANCE:
Whenever two surfaces are in contact there is large resistance to the flow of
heat.
This is because of Materials, surface finishes, interstitial conditions, and contact
pressure.
Rtot = (RA+ Rb + Rcontact)
TC
o n ta c t
Gaps act as a resistance to heat flow.

The temperature drop depends on the contact
resistance.
Contact resistance is determined experimentally or
in numerical its value is given as such.
CONDUCTION THROUGH A COMPOSIT WALL (Negligible

Contact Resistance)
P a g e | 16
Series Composite Wall:
qx = T1 - T4
Rtot
Rtot = 1/ h1A + L/ kA + 1/ h2A =
Rtotal Rconv ,1 Rwall , A Rwall , B Rwall ,C Rconv , 4
Rtotal
Rtotal
L
L
L
1
1
A B C
h1 A k1 A k 2 A k 2 A h4 A
R ' 'total
A
Parallel Composite Wall:
Tips to solve numerical

1. Find qx as it is in dependent of temperatures of walls.
2. To find any temperature in between:
qx = -kA T2 - Ts1 =-kA T3 T2 = etc
LA
LB
3. To find temperature at any distance
Temprature distribution eqn.
T = Ts1 + { Ts2 - Ts1}x
L
CONDUCTION THROUGH A CYLINDRICAL WALL

P a g e | 17
Terms
Inside radius=r1, outside radius = r2
T inside = Ts1, T outside = Ts2
Length L
Assumptions
one dimension / without generation /
steady state
General Heat Equation
Cylindrical Coordinates: One
Dimension / Without Generation /
Steady State
d 2T 1 dT
0
dr 2 r dr
1 d dT
r
0
r dr dr
d dT
1
r
0 if 0
dr dr
r
Integrating
r
dT
= C1 .... (i)
dr
T=C1 log r + C2 (ii)

Boundary conditions
T= Ts1 at r=r1 AND T=Ts2 at
r=r2
TEMPERATURE DISTRIBUTION
Applying boundary conditions and solving
T Ts1
log e r / r1
Ts 2 Ts1 log e r 2 / r1
** Temperature distribution is logarithmic not

linear as in plane walls: but almost linear if
HEAT FLOW
qr= - kAmean
qr= - kA
q
2kL
dT
dT
= -k (2rL)
dr
dr
r2
r1
dr
=
r
Ts 2
dT
Ts1
r 2 / r1 1
Ts2 - Ts1
Ts2 - Ts1
= q = (2kL)
rmean
log e r 2 / r1
A2 A1
2 ( r 2 r1) L
Amean =
log e r 2 / r1
log e A2 / A1
rmean =
q
r2
loge
= Ts2 - Ts1
r1
2kL
(r 2 r1)
log e r 2 / r1
Ts2 - Ts1
Ts2 - Ts1
=
log e r 2 / r1
Rt
log e r 2 / r1
Rt =
(2kL)
Or q = (2kL)
Where
CONDUCTION THROUGH SPHERS

P a g e | 18
GENERAL HEAT EQ FOR SPHER:
1
1
2T
2 T
.dt + ( 2
)
( sin
)+
(r
) + Eg/k =(1/) (T/t)
2
2
2
r . sin .
r
r
r . sin
Terms
Inside radius=r1, outside radius = r2
T inside = Ts1, T outside = Ts2
Assumptions
For one dimension / without generation / steady
state the equation FOR SPHER is
1
/r2 d/dr ( r2 dT/dr ) = 0
1
d
/dr ( r2 dT/dr ) = 0 AS 2 0
r
First integration
r2
dT
= C1..(i)
dr
Second integration
T=-
C1
+C2..(ii)
r
Boundary conditions
T=TS1 at r=r1 and T=TS2 at r = r2
TEMPERATURE DISTRIBUTION EQN:
(temperature T at any distance r)
Applying boundary conditions and solving/
Putting then in (i) and (ii) and replacing C1 and
C2
T TS 1
r (r r1 )
2
TS 2 TS 1 r (r2 r1 )
q
2k
q
2k
r2
r1
qr= - kAmean
Ts2 - Ts1
Ts2 - Ts1
= (4k r1r2)
rmean
r1 r2
Amean = (4k r1r2) = 4rmean2

rmean =
HEAT FLOW
qr= - kA
** Temperature distribution is hyperbolic and not

logarithmic(cylinder), not linear (planner wall)
r1r2
dT
dT
= -k (4r2)
dr
dr
Ts 2
dr
dT
= r2
Ts 1
1 1
r1 r2
Ts2 - Ts1
THERMAL RESISTANCE
Where
Rt =
1 / r1 1 / r2
(4k )
SHAPE FECTOR
Regular textbook design and Design data book design.
Section
q
Shape fector

P a g e | 19
Plane
Cylinder
-kA Ts2 - Ts1

L
Ts2 - Ts1
(2kL)
log e r 2 / r1
sphere
(4k r1r2)
Ts2 - Ts1
r1 r2
A
L
(2L)
1
log e r 2 / r1
4 r1r2
r1 r2
These are regular shapes but in actual design any shape(eg. edges, corners of Furness walls) can be
there. For such situations the concept of shape factor is applied. Different shape factors are calculated
experimentally and interpolated then listed in design data books. The shape factor has unit of length.
Eg.
For edges, 0.54 times unit of length of edge.
For edges, 0.15 times unit of length.
(Page3.69 D.S
Kumar)
VARIATION IN CONDUCTIVITY with temperature

Up till now we have assumed, k is constant. But at higher temperature and greater temperature
difference this is not true. In most of cases Thermal conductivity linearly to the temperature.
k k o (1 T )
ko= conductivity at zero degree centigrade.

= constant whose depends on material.
q= - ko (1+T)A
dT
dr
Integrating in limits T=T1 at x=0 and T=T2 at x=
T2
T1
q dx = - ko A (1 T )dT
Solving:
(T T1 ) A(T2 T1 ) k m A(T2 T1 )
)
Q= k o (1 2
=
2
Significance of equation:
(i). when = 0, conductivity do not vary with temperature.
(ii). In steady state condition, rate of heat flow is constant so slop of temperature is constant,
temperature profile is linear.
(iii).
CRITICAL RADIUS OF INSULATION

P a g e | 20
The addition of insulation always increases the conductive thermal resistance.
But when the total thermal resistance is made of conductive thermal
resistance and convective thermal resistance.
The addition of insulation in some cases (cylinder, sphere) may reduce the
convective thermal resistance due to increase in surface area and the
total thermal resistance may actually decrease resulting in increased heat
flow.
It may be shown that the thermal resistance actually decreases and then
increases in some cases. The thickness up to which heat flow increases and
after which heat flow decreases is termed as critical thickness. In case of
cylinders and spheres it is called as Critical radius.
** Before insulation check for critical radius
DERIVATION: CRITICAL RADIUS OF INSULATION

Let the figure be a cross section of a CYLINDER of length l .

P a g e | 21
T1 T
T1 T
1
Rins Rconv ln(r2 / r1 )
2Lk
h(2r2 L)
ln(r2 / r1 )
1
Rt =
2Lk
h( 2r2 L)
For maxima or minima

d Rt
=0
dr2
To check for maxima or minima
d 2 Rt
ve for minimum resistance
dr 2 2
now
Let the figure be a cross section of a
CYLINDER of length l
Let the above figure be a cross section

of a SPHERE
d ln(r2 / r1 )
1
d Rt
= 0
=
dr2
2lk
h(2r2l )
dr2
d 1 1 1
1
d Rt

=
=0
dr2 4k r2 r1 4r 2 2 h
dr2
1 1
2
2
3 = 0
4r2 h
4k r2
2k
rc = h for sphere
1
1
2 = 0
2lr
2
lr
h
2
rc =
k
for cylinder
h
2.6 Summary of Electrical

Analogy System
Current
Resistance
Potential
Difference
Electrical
Cartesian Conduction
Cylindrical Conduction
I
q
q
R
kAL
kLrr2ln12
V
T
T
Conduction through sphere

Convection
q
q
krr4/1/121
1hAs
T
T
PROBLEM 3.11
KNOWN: Drying oven wall having material with known thermal conductivity sandwiched between thin
metal sheets. Radiation and convection conditions prescribed on inner surface; convection conditions on
outer surface.
FIND: (a) Thermal circuit representing wall and processes and (b) Insulation thickness required to

P a g e | 22
maintain outer wall surface at To = 40C.
SCHEMATIC:
ASSUMPTIONS: (1) Steady-state conditions, (2) One-dimensional conduction in wall, (3) Thermal
resistance of metal sheets negligible.
ANALYSIS: (a) The thermal circuit is shown above. Note labels for the temperatures, thermal
resistances and the relevant heat fluxes.
(b) Perform energy balances on the i- and o- nodes finding
where the thermal resistances are
Substituting numerical values, and solving Eqs. (1) and (2) simultaneously, find
L 86 mm
COMMENTS: (1) The temperature at the inner surface can be found from an energy balance on the
i-node using the value found for L.
It follows that Ti is close to T,i since the wall represents the dominant resistance of the system.
(2) Verify that 2
Q50 W/m2 and
Q150 W/m2 . Is the overall energy balance on the systems?
HEAT TRANSFER FROM EXTENDED SURFACE

Why it is needed?

P a g e | 23
It is needed to increase heat transfer from surface to surroundings in some
engineering situations.
How it is done?
It is possible to increase the heat transfer rate by increasing the surface of heat
transfer. The surfaces used for increasing heat transfer are called extended
surfaces or sometimes known as fins.
Define fin.
A fin is an extended surface attached to the wall. Fin (also known as a combined
conduction-convection system ) is a solid within which heat transfer by
conduction is assumed to be one dimensional, while heat is also transferred by
convection (and/or radiation) from the surface in a direction transverse to that of
conduction.
Application of fin.
The main applications of fins are
1. Cooling of electronic components
2. Cooling of motor cycle engines.
3. Cooling of transformers.
4. Cooling of small capacity compressors.
Typical Fin Configurations
STEADY STATE HEAT FLOW VIA FINS OF UNIFORM CROSSSECTIONAL AREA

P a g e | 24
dt
dx
Qx = -KAc
-T )
Base temperature = Tb
Ambient temperature = T
dt
dx
Heat conducted at plane x+dx
(T b
Qx+dx = -KAc
x dx
x dx
dt
dt
t x
Qx+x = -KAc
dx
dx
Heat convected out of element between

plane x and (x+dx)
Qconv = h(Px)(T-T)
Heat balance
Qx = Qx+x + Qconv
dt
dx
-KAc
dt
x
L
Q
dt
x
t
= -KAc
dx
x
dx
dx
x+dx
+ h(Px)(Tx dx
T)
Simplifying
d 2T
hP
(T T ) 0
dx 2 kAc
NOW
Assuming one-dimensional, steady-state conduction in an extended surface of
constant conductivity and uniform cross-sectional area with negligible generation
and radiation, the fin equation is of the form:

P a g e | 25
d 2T hP
d 2T
2
(
T
T
)
m (T T ) 0 (i)
dx 2 kAc
dx 2
Where p is the fin
perimeter
Next we notice that the equation is non-homogeneous (due to the T term).
Recall that non-homogeneous differential equations require both a general and a
particular solution. We can make this equation homogeneous by introducing the
temperature relative to the surroundings:
T ( x ) T
or
b Tb T ;
d b
dT
;
dx
dx
d 2 b d 2T
dx 2
dx 2
Substitute into the Fin Equation:

hP
d 2
.(ii)
where m=
m 2 ( ) 0
2
dx
kAc
This equation is a Second Order, Homogeneous Differential Equation.
Significance of equations
Eq (i) & (ii) provide a general form of energy equation for one dimensional heat dissipation from
the extended surface.
For a given fin the fin parameter m is constant.
The general solution for this eqn. is
C1e mx C2e mx
C1 and C2 are determined by the boundary conditions. Note that it is a 2nd order
differential equation, and hence we need two boundary conditions to determine
the two constants of integration.
ALTERNATIVE SOLUTION can be obtained as follows: Note that the hyperbolic sin, sinh, the
hyperbolic cosine, cosh, are defined as:
sinh(m.x) =
e mx e mx
2
sinh(0) = 0
d sinh( m.x )
= m.cosh(m.x)
dx
cosh(m.x) =
e mx e mx
2
cosh(0) = 1
d cosh( m.x )
= m.sinh(m.x)
dx
A B m. x A B m. x
e mx e mx
e mx e mx
.e +
.e
+B.
=
2
2
2
2
A B
A B
We replace
by C1 and
by C2
2
2
A. cosh(m.x) + B. sinh(m.x) = A .
** Generally the exponential solution is used for very long fins, the
hyperbolic solutions for other cases.
BOUNDARY CONDITIONS:
P a g e | 26
Since the solution results in 2 constants of integration we require 2 boundary
conditions.
First condition
First one is obvious, as one end of the fin will be attached to a hot surface and
will come into thermal equilibrium with that surface. Hence, at the fin base,
(at base) = Tb T = b ;
The second boundary condition: depends on the condition imposed at
the other end of the fin. There are various possibilities, as described below.
(i) Very long fins:

For very long fins, the end located a long distance from the heat source will approach the temperature of
the surroundings. Hence,
() = 0;
Substitute the second condition into the exponential solution of the fin equation:
To
to 0
m .
m.
() = 0= C1e C2e
The first exponential term is infinite and the second is equal to zero. The only way
that this equation can be valid is if C 1 = 0. Now apply the second boundary
condition.
The general temperature profile for a very long fin is then:
C 2 = b
(b) = b =0= 0 C 2 e m.
So we have C1 = 0 and C2 = b putting them in eq C1e mx C 2 e mx

b e mx (T-T) = (Tb - T) e mx
This is the temperature distribution equation of a very long fin
Heat flow via fin:

dT
dx
Q fin kAc
at base x 0
but T = T +(Tb - T) e mx
dT
dx
= [ -m (Tb-T)e-mx]x=0 = -m(Tb-T)
at base x 0
Q fin kAc m(Tb - T
= PhkAc (Tb-T)
This is the total heat flow through the fin, i.e. the heat flow entering at the base
(x=0).
(ii) The insulated tip fin:

P a g e | 27
at x=0
First condition
Assume that the tip is insulated and hence there is no heat transfer:
dT
dx
at x=L The second condition
=0
at end x L
Apply the first boundary condition at the base in eq. C1e mx C2e mx :
b = C1 + C2 (i)
Apply the second boundary condition at the tip
= T T C1e mx C2 e mx
dT
dx
= mC1emL- mC2e-mL = 0(ii)
at end x L
Solving (i) & (ii)

e mL
and C2 =
mL
mL
e e
Putting them in eq. C1e mx C2e mx :
C1 =
e mL
mL
mL
e e
T T
e m L x e m L x
cosh m( L x)
mL
mL
b
Tb T
e e
cosh mL
This is the temperature distribution equation of
The insulated tip
fin
Heat flow via fin:
dT
dx
Q fin kAc
dT
dx
at base x 0
at base x 0
= Tb T
but
T T
= Tb T
cosh m(l x)
cosh mL
sinh m(l x)
(-m)
cosh mL
=-m(Tb-T) tanh(mL)
Q fin =kAcm(Tb-T) tanh(mL) =
PhkAc
(Tb-T) tanh(mL)
**If we compare this result with that for the very long fin, we see that the primary difference in
form is in the hyperbolic tangent term. That term, which always results in a number equal to or
less than one, represents the reduced heat loss due to the shortening of the fin.
(ii) Tip subjected to convective heat transfer fin

condition
at x=0
First

P a g e | 28
The fin is loosing heat at the tip via convection :
dT
dx
Q fin kAc
at base x L
= hAs(T-T)
at x=L
The second condition
As = Ac
At the tip as area of convection = area of cross section

dT
h
So
== at x=L
dx
Further solving
Temperature distribution equation
T T
cosh m( L x) h/km sinh m(L - x)
b
Tb T
cosh mL h/km sinh mL
Heat flow via fin:

Q fin
==
PhkAc
(Tb-T)
tanh mL h/km
1 h/km(tanh mL)
HEAT TRANSFER FROM A BAR CONNECTED TO TWO HEAT

SOURCES AT DIFFERENT TEMPERATURES
.
Fin Performance
P a g e | 29
Fin efficiency
The fin efficiency is defined as the ratio of the energy transferred through a real fin
to that transferred through an ideal fin.
Ideal fin: - one made of a perfect or infinite conductor material. In short whole fin is
at base temperature Tb.
qf
q max
qf
hA f b
PhkAc (Tb T )
tanh ml
tanh(mL) =
ml
h( Pl )(Tb T )
Significance
(i). For a very long fin:
tanh ml
=
ml
= to zero ( 0 ) **fin efficiency drop with increase in
length.
(ii). For a very short fin:
tanh ml
= 1 **fin efficiency increase with decrease in length.
ml
HEAT FLOW EQUATION can be rewritten as:

Q = f .h.Af (T-T) .. Modified equation if fin efficiency is given.
FIN THERMAL RESISTANCE if fin efficiency is given :
t.f
= .h. A
f
f
Fin Effectiveness
Ratio of the fin heat transfer rate q f to the heat transfer rate that would exist
without the fin.
f
qf
hAc ,b b
PhkAc (Tb T )
=
hAcb (Tb T )
Ph
kAc
So considering the case of very long fin
Where b=Tb-T, and Ac,b is the fin cross-sectional area at the base
* here Acb=Ac
Significance
(i). f =
Ph
>1 at least otherwise no use to use fin. (at least >5)
kAc
(ii). It is advantageous to use higher conductivity materials for fins then to use
cheap and lower conductivity materials (cupper, aluminum)
(iii).Though high quantity of fin should always be useful, but very closely packed
fins reduces heat transfer due to boundary layer.
UNIT 1 ASSIGNMENT
P a g e | 30
Batch 1 every even question

Batch 2 every odd question
1. Define heat transfer.
2. What are the modes of heat transfer?
3. What is conduction?
4. Define Convection.
5. Define Radiation.
6. State Fourier's law of conduction.
7. Define Thermal conductivity.
8. Write down the three dimensional heat conduction equations in
Cartesian co-ordinate system.
9. Write down the three dimensional heat conduction equations in
cylindrical co-ordinate system.
10. List down the three types of boundary conditions. Refer ds kumar or
my notes
1.
2.
3.
Sol.
Prescribed temperature
Prescribed heat flux
Convection boundary conditions.
11. Derive general heat conduction equation in Cartesian coordinates or

spherical any one?
12. General heat conduction equation in Cylindrical coordinates:
13. Write down the equation for conduction of heat through a slab or
plane wall.
14. Explain about Fourier equation.
15. Explain about Poissons equation.
Ans. When the temperature is not varying with respect to time, then the
conduction is called as steady state conduction.
T
/t =o
16. Explain about Laplace equation.
Ans. When the conduction is steady state conduction, and there is no heat
T
generation, the general equation becomes, 2 /x2 + 2 /y2 + 2 /z2

17. What is critical radius of insulation?
18. Explain variation in thermal conductivity with temperature.
19. What are the factors affect thermal conductivity?
20. Give some examples of heat generation application in heat
conduction.
=0
1. Fuel rod nuclear reactor. 2. Electrical conductor. 3. Chemical and combustion process.
4. Drying and setting of concrete.
21. State Newtons law of cooling or convection law.
Every batch should attained any one of 21/22/23 question

22. Write down the equation for heat transfer through a composite
plane wall.
or
23. Write down the equation for heat transfer through composite pipes.
or

P a g e | 31
24. The inner surface at r = a and the outer surface at r = b of a hollow
cylinder are maintained at uniform temperatures T1 and T2
respectively. The thermal conductivity of the solid is constant.
Develop an expression for the one dimensional steady state
temperature distribution in the cylinder and for the radial heat flow
rate through the cylinder over a length H.
25. Write down the general equation for one dimensional steady state
heat transfer in slab or plane wall without heat generation. And what
it is called.
26. Define overall heat transfer co-efficient.
The overall heat transfer is defined as amount of transmitted per unit area per unit time
per degree temperature difference between the bulk fluids on each side of the metal. It is
denoted by 'U'.
27. Explain the different modes of heat transfer with appropriate
examples?
28. What do you understand by critical radius of insulation, obtain the
expression for the same?
29. Define fins or extended surfaces give DIAGRAM of heat loss by fin Q
Vs L.(ref my notes or ds kumar)
30. State the applications of fins.
The main applications of fins are
1. Cooling of electronic components
2. Cooling of motor cycle engines.
3. Cooling of transformers.
4. Cooling of small capacity compressors.
31. Define Fin efficiency.
The efficiency of a fin is defined as the ratio of actual heat transferred to

the maximum possible heat transferred by the fin
32. Define Fin effectiveness.
Fin effectiveness is the ratio of heat transfer with fin to that without fin.
33. What is meant by steady stale heat conduction?

34. What is meant by Transient heat conduction or unsteady state
conduction?
35. What is Periodic heat flow? Give examples.
In periodic heat flow, the temperature varies on a regular basis.

Example:
1. Cylinder of an IC engine.
2. Surface of earth during a period of 24 hours.
35. What is non periodic heat flow?
In non periodic heat flow, the temperature at any point within the system
varies non linearly with time.
Examples:
1. Heating of an ingot in a furnace.
2. Cooling of bars.
36. What are the factors affecting the thermal conductivity?

1. Moisture. 2. Density of material. 3. Pressure. 4. Temperature.
5. Structure of material.
37. Explain the significance of thermal diffusivity.

The physical significance of thermal diffusivity is that it tells us how fast heat is
propagated or it diffuses through a material during changes of temperature with time.
(***Not enough see my notes for more)

P a g e | 32
ARYA COLLEGE OF ENGINEERING & I.T.

Kukas, Jaipur
I Mid Term Exam.-2011
Branch: - Automobile Engineering (V Sem)
Subject: - HMT
Time: 2:00 Hours
Total Marks: 20
[Attempt all Questions. All questions carry equal marks.]
Unit 1
Q1
Write and Explain about Fourier equation.
Write and Explain about Poissons equation.
Write and Explain about Laplace equation.
OR
Write down the equation for heat transfer through composite pipes.
Q2.
What are the modes of heat transfer?
What are the factors affecting the thermal conductivity?
What is Periodic heat flow? Give examples.
OR
What do you understand by critical radius of insulation, obtain the expression for the
same.
Unit 2
Q3.
Explain planks law? Why it is significant over Stefans law.
Explain Wien,s displacement law.
What are Features of Radiation heat transfer
Q4.
What do you understand by Spectral Distribution of energy And Spatial Distribution of
energy?
Explain Kirchhoff's law of thermal radiation

P a g e | 33

P a g e | 34
RADIATION
Energy emitted by matter in the form of electromagnetic waves(or photons) as a result of the
changes in the electronic configurations of the atoms or molecules
All bodies at a temperature above absolute zero emit thermal radiation
That is All molecules with a temperature above zero Kelvin (-273.15C) emit radiant energy.
Quantum theory predicts that energy transmitted as electromagnetic radiation exists in discrete
units called photons.
Energy of a Photon
The energy, Ep, associated with a photon of radiation is specified by
Ep = h
where
h is Plancks constant (h=6.626x10-34 J s)
is the frequency of radiation
So radiation
Does not require an intervening medium
Fastest (at the speed of light)
Possible also in vacuum
Example: energy of sun reaching the earth
Thermal radiation: form of radiation emitted by bodies because of their temperature
different from other forms of electromagnetic radiation; X-rays, gamma rays, microwaves, and
television waves that are not related with temperature
Although there are three mechanisms of heat transfer, a medium may involve combination of
modes of heat transfer simultaneously.
Solids: conduction and radiation
Fluids:
conduction and radiation (no motion)
convection and radiation (in motion)
conduction and convection (no radiation)
Heat transfer through a vacuum is by radiation
only
Q. What is the energy of a photon of radiant

energy emitted at a frequency of
P a g e | 35
4.28x1014 s-1?
Ep = (6.626x10-34 J s)x(4.28x1014 s-1)
Ep = 2.84x10-19 J
Radiant Flux
The radiant flux is the rate of radiant energy transfer.
Radiant flux has units of J s-1.
Note: 1 J s-1 = 1 Watt (W)
The radiant flux of the sun is 3.9x1026 W.
Irradiance
The irradiance is the radiant flux divided by the area through which it passes.
The irradiance has units of W m-2
Features of Radiation heat transfer
Thermal radiation is emission of energy as electromagnetic waves by movement of molecule.

C(speed of light) = (wavelength) X f (frequency)
e= mc2
Intensity depends on body temperature and surface characteristics.
Thermal radiation: different from other forms of electromagnetic radiation; X-rays, gamma
rays, microwaves, and television waves that are not related with temperature.
Mostly visible sprecturam with some portion of infrared and ultravoilet spectrum.
All bodies at a temperature above absolute zero emit thermal radiation
Does not require an intervening medium
Fastest (at the speed of light)
Possible also in vacuum
Important mode of heat transfer at high temperatures, e.g. combustion.
Can also be important in natural convection problems.
Radiation properties can be strong functions of chemical composition, especially CO2, H2O.
Radiation heat exchange is difficult solve (except for simple configurations). We must rely on
computational methods.

P a g e | 36
Mechanism of radiation - radiation propertys:

Surface characteristics
, , value depands on material, surface, and wavelength of radiation.

When radiation falls on surface it is partly transmitted partly reflected and partly absorved
++=1
Most solid are opeque (does not transmit thermal radiation) except glass, crystel, rock solt etc for them
+ =1
Gases
+=1
Black body absorb all radiation
=1
Q total = Q transmitted + Q reflected + Q absorved

1 = Q reflected+ Q absorved + Q transmitted = + +
Q total
Q total
Q total
STEFAN-BOLTZMANN LAW
The maximum rate of radiation that can be emitted from a surface at an absolute temperature is;
Q emit ,max AS TS4
= Stefan-Boltzman constant =5.6710-8 W/m2.K4

Gives the total energy being emitted at all wavelengths by the blackbody (which is the area under the
Planck Law curve).
Black body: an idealized surface that emits radiation at this maximum rate
Black body radiation: radiation emitted by blackbodies

P a g e | 37
Real surfaces emit less radiation
Q emit AS TS4
= Emissivity of the surface

=1
For black bodies
0 1
For real bodies
Radiation heat transfer between a surface and the surfaces around it
Combined heat transfer coefficient includes effects of both convection and radiation in such an
example and conduction heat transfer may be neglected.
4
Q rad AS (TS4 Tsurr
)
Q total hcombined AS (TS T )

P a g e | 38
PLANK LAW
LIMITATION OF STEFAN-BOLTZMANN LAW
STEFAN-BOLTZMANN LAW gives total emmisive power. But id doesnt tell us
distibution of energy as per wave length.
Max Plank gave relation which give total emmisive power as a function of wave
length.
The Planck Law gives a distribution that peaks at a certain wavelength, the peak
shifts to shorter wavelengths for higher temperatures, and the area under the
curve grows rapidly with increasing temperature.
Eb
c1-5
C2
T
exp
Eb monochromatic emissive power of black

body
c1 = 3.74x10-16 W m2
is the wavelength
c2 = 1.44x10-2 m K
T is the temperature in Kelvins
exp is the base of the natural logarithms (e)
(c2/T) is the exponent to which e is raised
As the temperature increases, the peak

wavelength emitted by the black body
decreases.
As temperature increases, the total energy
emitted increases, because the total area under
the curve increases.
The curve gets infinitely close to the x-axis
but never touches it.
SIGNIFICANCE OF PLANKS LAW AND ABOVE GRAPH

P a g e | 39
Now Eb is a function of temp. And wavelength

1. Emission is 0 at zero ,
2. increases emission reaches to maxima
3. Then it start reducing and goes zero at wavelength
At any emission increases with increase in temp.
so
Hot objects emit energy at shorter wavelengths.
Colder objects emit energy at longer wavelengths
The at which emissive power is maximum shift to shorter as temp.
Increases.
The surface temperature of the sun is approximately 5780 K, and thus the
sun emits radiant energy with relatively short wavelengths.
The Earth is much colder than the sun and the Earth emits radiant energy
with much longer wavelengths.
At shorter factor CT2 becomes large and graph disagreement occurs.
BRIGHTNESS TEMPERATURE
Is determined by inverting Planck function
Spectral Distribution of Energy Radiated

from Blackbodies at Various Temperatures
Spectral Distribution: The radiation emitted by a surface consists of
various electromagnetic waves. The term spectral refers to variation in thermal

radiation with wave length. Below is the graph of magnitude of radiation at
specific wavelength (monochromatic)
This distribution depends on nature and temperature of emitting surfaces.
Spatial Distribution: surface emit radiation in all direction; but the intensity
can vary in any direction and need not be same in all direction.
Wavelengths of Certain Types of Radiation

AM radio waves
Television waves
Doppler Weather Radar
Microwaves
Infrared radiation
Red light
Visible Light
100 m
1m
0.1 m
10-3 m
10-6 m
7x10-7 m
4x10-7 to 7x10-7 m

P a g e | 40
WEIN DISPLACEMENT LAW

It is possible to use Plancks Law to find the wavelength at which the maximum
amount of radiant energy is emitted.
The equation that results from such an analysis is called Wiens Displacement
Law.
As maxima happens at very high temperature, so shorter, CT2 becomes large

So
Eb
c1-5
exp
C2
T
c1-5
exp
C2
T
This is called WEIN DISPLACEMENT LAW

We differentiate this eqn. for maxima and gets
max T = 2897 x10-6 mK = 3 x10-7 mK
Where

P a g e | 41
max is the wavelength at which the maximum radiant energy is emitted,
and
T is the temperature in Kelvins
Wein Displacement Law
- It tells us as we heat an object up, its color changes from red to orange to white
hot.
- You can use this to calculate the temperature of stars.
THE RAYLEIGH-JEANS LAW

exp
C2
T
C2
1 C2
=1+
+ 2! T
T
C2
=1+
T
Planks eq becomes
C1-5
C1T
Eb
=
C2
4
1
1 C2
T
This is only useful for long wavelength

for up to 99% accuracy short wavelength
make this formula useless.
This formula also had a problem.
The problem was the
term in
the denominator.
For large wavelengths it fitted the
experimental data but it had major
problems at shorter wavelengths.
* It predicts an energy output that
diverges towards infinity as wavelengths
grow smaller.
* The failure has become known as the
ultraviolet catastrophe.
Application for Black Body

P a g e | 42
- The area of Earth's disk as
viewed from space is, Area =
r2.
- The total energy incident on
Earth is, Incident energy =
(r2)So.
- The energy absorbed by the
Earth/atmosphere system, as
viewed from space is
Absorbed energy = (r2)So(1 A). As we know that bodies
must be in radiative
equilibrium. The solar energy
striking Earth's disk as viewed
from space is re-emitted as
thermal radiation by the
surface of the entire globe, as
described by the StefanBoltzmann Law, Emitted energy
= (4r2)T4.
- Set the absorbed energy equal
to the emitted energy:
(r2)So(1 - A) = (4r2)TE4,
Solving for T yields:
TE = [So(1 - A)/(4)](1/4)
= [1370(1-0.3)/(45.67x108)](1/4) = 255 K.
Comparison of Rayleigh-Jeans law with Wien's law and Planck's law,

for a body of 8 mK temperature.

P a g e | 43

P a g e | 44
Wavelength and Frequency

The frequency, , of radiation is the number or waves passing a point in one
second.
Since radiant energy travels at the speed of light, c, frequency and wavelength
are related by
= c/
U s in g w a v e n u m b e r s
U s in g w a v e le n g th s
c 2/T
B ( ,T ) = c 1 3 / [ e
-1 ]
2
1
(m W /m /s te r/c m )
B ( ,T ) = c 1 /{ 5 [ e
(m W /m 2/s te r/ m )
(m a x in c m -1 ) = 1 .9 5 T
(m a x in c m )T = 0 .2 8 9 7
B ( m ax,T ) ~ T * * 3 .
B (
E = B ( ,T ) d = T 4 ,
o
c 13
T = c 2/[ln (______ + 1 )]
B
E = B ( ,T ) d = T 4 ,
o
c1
T = c 2/[ ln (______ + 1 )]
5 B
m ax,T
c 2 /T
-1 ] }
) ~ T**5.
Q. What is the frequency of radiation with a wavelength of 7x10-7 m?

= 3x108 m s-1/7x10-7 m
= 4.28x1014 s-1
Temperature sensitivity, or the percentage change in radiance corresponding
to a percentage change in temperature, , is defined as
dB/B = dT/T.
The temperature sensivity indicates the power to which the Planck radiance
depends on temperature, since B proportional to T satisfies the equation. For
infrared wavelengths,
= c2/T = c2/T.
__________________________________________________________________
Wavenumber
700
Typical Scene
Temperature
220
Temperature
Sensitivity
4.58

P a g e | 45
900
1200
1600
2300
2500
300
300
240
220
300
4.32
5.76
9.59
15.04
11.99
KIRCHHOFF'S LAW OF THERMAL RADIATION

Features of black body
The energy emitted by a black body is the theoretical maximum:

This is Stefan-Boltzmann law; s is the Stefan-Boltzmann constant (5.6697E-8
W/m2K4).
The wavelength at which the maximum amount of radiation occurs is given by Wiens
law:
Typical wavelengths are max = 10 m (far infrared) at room temperature and max =
0.5 m (green) at 6000K.
A
o
o
o
black body:
Is a model of a perfect radiator.
Absorbs all energy that reaches it; reflects nothing.
Therefore = 1
REAL BODIES
Real bodies will emit less radiation than a black body:

Here is the emissivity, which is a number between 0 and 1. Such a body would be called
gray because the emissivity is the average over the spectrum.
Example: radiation from a small body to its surroundings.
Both the body and its surroundings emit thermal radiation.
The net heat transfer will be from the hotter to the colder.
The net heat transfer is then:
3
For small T the term (Tw4-T4) can be Approximated as 4T (Tw T ) and
Qnet A hr T With hr as an effective Radiation heat transfer coefficient.
In thermodynamics, Kirchhoff's law of thermal radiation, or

Kirchhoff's law for short, is a general statement equating emission
and absorption in real bodies.
P a g e | 46
An object at some non-zero temperature radiates electromagnetic energy. If it is a perfect black
body, absorbing all light that strikes it, it radiates energy according to the black-body radiation
formula. More generally, it is a "grey body" that radiates with some emissivity multiplied by the
black-body formula. Kirchhoff's law states that:
At thermal equilibrium, the emissivity of a body (or

surface) equals its absorptive.
Consder large hollow sphere wth small openng and constant temperature. nner surface is coted
black.
When beam of thermal radiation enter hole it is mostly absorved. For experiment we use this setup.
Now
A = surface area of body
= absorvity of body
E = emissive power of body / unit area
Q= radient flux arriving
E.A = Qa
Now if the body is black body
Eb.A = Qa X 1
E
==
Eb
So what is absorbity?
Absorbity is the ratio of emmisive power of a given body to a black body at same temperature.
This is also called emmisitivity
Gray body and selective emmiters
GRAY BODY radiates less

radiation then black
body.
When emissive is
constant at all
temperature at entire
range of wavelength it is
called gray body.
The curve is similar to
black body. But real
material differs like
shown in graph
BLAC K BO D Y
G R AY BO D Y
E M IS IV E P O W E R
R EAL BO DY
W AVELEN G TH

P a g e | 47
LAMBERT COSINE LAW

Lambert's law states that the total radiant power from a small surface area in a
particular direction is proportional to cosine of the angle between that direction
and the surface normal.
An important consequence of Lambert's cosine law is the reflected intensity is
independent of the viewing direction. The intensity does however depend on the light
source's orientation relative to the surface, and it is this property that is governed by Lambert's
law.
The Concept of Solid Angle

First let us consider an ordinary angle and a reference circle. The angle may be defined in terms of
the arc shown below. Let s be the length of that arc and r the radius of the circle.
The angle in radians is given by
= (s/r)
or, in degrees
= (360/2)(s/r)
Now consider a cone which intersects the sphere of radius R. Let S be
the area of surface subtended by the intersection of the cone and the
sphere.
As shown here in figure, for a observer standing at
An
sphere center O will see a curve ( here it is a circle
r
of center O1) being formed on the surface of the
sphere.
The ratio of this surface area observed to square of
radius of sphere will give the solid angle.
= An / r2
This is the solid angle in steradians

P a g e | 48
dA at point under consideration emitting

radiations in all directions. A collector is situated as shown at an angle in
normal direction to black body. The collector makes a solid angle when viewed
Now consider a small black surface
from emitter. The relationship between a, An, is explained in above figure.
INTENSITY OF RADIATION:
The RADIATION ENERGY emitted per unit area and per unit of solid angle in a certain
specified direction, emanating from a point source.
d A = r s in d d
2
r d
r s in d
COMPLETE SOLID ANGLE (FOR SPHERE) IN RADIANS

P a g e | 49
Circle has 2 radians

Sphere has 4 steradians
AREA DEFIND BY A REGION, BY THE RAY OF SPHERE:
dA = r2 sin d d
SOLID ANGLE DEFIND BY A REGION, BY THE RAY OF SPHERE:
dA = r2 sin d d
= A / r2
= sin d d
LAMBERT COSINE LAW

Lambert's law states that the total radiant power from a small surface area in a
particular direction is proportional to cosine of the angle between that direction
and the surface normal.
An important consequence of Lambert's cosine law is the reflected intensity is
independent of the viewing direction. The intensity does however depend on
the light source's orientation relative to the surface, and it is this property that is
governed by Lambert's law.
LET
In = normal intensity
I = intensity at an angle
I = In cos
** Energy radiated out decreases with increase in angle and 0 at 90o
RELATION BETWEEN NORMAL INTENCITY AND EMMISSIVE

POWER:
Radiation energy E
E = I X A = intensity X area
Now consider a small surface of area dA is oriented at an angle and make solid
angle d at emitter surface
Energy is
Eb
= I d dA
= In cos d dA

P a g e | 50
But
dA = r2 sin d d
= sin d d
So
dEb = In cos sin d d . dA
Now solid angle in term of venith and azimuthal angle = 0 to /2 and
= 0 to 2
dEb
sphere
dEb
= In dA
2
0
= In dA [ 2 cos
0
2
0
= 2 In dA [
Eb
= 2 In dA
In
sin d
d .
sin d] 2
2. cos . sin .d
dEb
Eb
cos
cos 2
2
0
= In . dA . = .T4.dA
=
.T 4
Prove that intensity of radiation is always constant at any

angle of emission for a diffused surface.
When collector is oriented at an angle 1 from emitter then radiation can be
expresses as
(dEb ) 1
= In cos1 d1 dA
When collector is oriented at an angle 2 from emitter then radiation can be
expresses as
(dEb ) 1
= In cos1 d2 dA
In = (dEb ) 1 /( cos1 d1 dA) = = (dEb ) 2/( cos2 d2 dA)
Energy radiated out decreases with increase in angle and 0 at 90o
But In
Mechanical
UNIT 5:-Thermal Radiation: Plank distribution law, Krichoff's law; radiation
properties, diffuse radiations; Lambert's law. Radiation intensity, heat exchange

between two black bodies heat exchanger between gray bodies. Shape factor;
electrical analogy; reradiating surfaces heat transfer in presence of reradiating
surfaces.
Automobile
Unit 3.
Radiation: Salient features and characteristics of radiations, absorptive, reflectivity
and transmissivity, spectral and spatial energy distribution, wavelength

P a g e | 51
distribution of black body radiation, plancks law. Total emission power. Stefan
Boltzman law, Wiens displacement law,kirchoffs law , intensity of radiation &
Lamberts cosine law.
HEAT TRANSFER REVIEW QUESTIONS

1. What is the difference between diffusion and radiation heat transfer ?
Diffusion heat transfer is due to random molecular motion. Neighboring molecules move
randomly and transfer energy between one another - however there is no bulk motion. Radiation
heat transfer, on the other hand, is the transport of heat energy by electromagnetic waves. All
bodies emit thermal radiation. In particular, notice that unlike diffusion, radiation heat transfer
does not require a medium and is thus the only mode of heat transfer in space. The time scale
for radiative heat transfer is much smaller than diffusive heat transfer.
2. How is natural convection different from forced convection ?

In natural convection, the movement of the fluid is due entirely to density gradients within the
fluid (e.g. hot air rises over cold air). There is no external device or phenomenon which causes
fluid motion. In forced convection, the fluid is forced to flow by an external factor - e.g. wind in
the atmosphere, a fan blowing air, water being pumped through a pipe. Typically heat transfer
under forced convection conditions is higher than natural convection for the same fluid.
3. Define a black surface

A black surface is defined by three criteria:
it absorbs all radiation that is incident on it
it emits the maximum energy possible for a given
temperature and wavelength of radiation

(according to Planck's law)
the radiation emitted by a blackbody is not directional (it is a diffuse emitter)

P a g e | 52
A black surface is the perfect emitter and absorber of radiation. It is an idealized concept (no
surface is exactly a black surface), and the characteristics of real surfaces are compared to that
of an ideal black surface.
4. What is the range of values for the emissivity of a surface ?

The emissivity ranges between 0 and 1.
5. What are the conditions to be satisfied for the application of a thermal circuit ?
The problem must be a steady state, one-dimensional heat transfer problem.
6. Will the thermal resistance of a rectangular slab be increased or decreased if:

a. the thermal conductivity is increased ?
b. the cross sectional area is increased ?
c. the thickness of the slab is increased ?
a. resistance will decrease
b. resistance will decrease
c. resistance will increase
7. State the condition which must be satisfied to treat the temperature distribution in a fin as onedimensional.
When ht/k <<1 where h is the convective heat transfer coefficient, t is the thickness of the fin
and k is the thermal conductivity of the fin, one can consider that the temperature gradient in the
thickness direction is very small and the analysis can be considered as one-dimensional.
8. Define and state the physical interpretation of the Biot number.

The Biot number is given by:
Bi = hL/k
where
h = convective heat transfer coefficient,
k = thermal conductivity
L = characteristic length.
It is a ratio of the temperature drop in the solid material and the temperature dropthe solid and
the fluid. So when the Bi <<1 , most of the temperature drop is in the fluid and the solid may be
considered isothermal
9. What is a lumped system ?

A lumped system is one in which the dependence of temperature on position (spatial
dependence) is disregarded. That is, temperature is modeled as a function of time only .
10. When can the unsteady temperature in a spatial body be considered uniform ?
When the Biot number is small (Bi << 0.1).
11. What is the Fourier number ?

The Fourier number is defined as:
Fo = t/L2
where

P a g e | 53
thermal diffusivity,
t = time
L = characterisitic length
The Fourier number is a dimensionless measure of time used in transient conduction
problems.
12. What is internal energy generation ? Give examples where internal energy generation occurs.
Internal energy generation is the generation of heat within a body by a chemical, electrical
or nuclear process. Examples are the heating of a nuclear fuel rod (due to fission within
the rod), the heating of electrical wires (due to the conversion of electrical to heat
energy), microwave heating and the generation of heat within the Earth. The heat
generated in each case is being converted from some other form of energy.
13. What do you understand by stability criterion for the solution of transient problems ?
When solving transient problems using finite-difference methods, it is possible that the
solution undergoes numerically induced oscillations and becomes unstable i.e. the
temperature values diverge. The stability criterion is a restriction on the values of t and
x which ensures that the solution remains stable and converges. The criterion is usually
expressed as a function of Fourier's number. For example, for an interior node in a two
dimensional system the stability criterion is :
Fo < 1/4 or
t/(x)2 < 1/4
13. Both the Nusselt number and the Biot number have the same form. What are the differences
between them in terms of the variables employed and their physical significance ?
Both the Biot number and the Nusselt number are of the form (hL/k). However, for the
Biot number, the thermal conductivity k used is that for the solid; for calculating Nusselt
number the k value as that of the fluid. The Biot number is a measure of the ratio of the
temnperature drop in the solid material and the temperature drop between the solid and
the fluid. The Nusselt number is a dimensionless version of the temperature gradient at
the surface between the fluid and the solid, and it thus provides a measure of the
convection occurring from the surface.
14. What is the effect of the Prandtl number of a fluid on the relative thicknesses of velocity and
temperature boundary layers when the fluid flow is parallel to a flat plate ?
For laminar flow, the ratio of the boundary layer thickness to that of the thermal boundary
layer, t, is given by:
t Prn
The higher the Prandtl number, the larger is the ratio.
16. Two fluids, with different properties, flow with equal free stream velocities parallel to a flat
plate. What property of the fluid determines whether the velocity boundary layer of one is thicker
than the other ?
The thickness of the boundary layer depends on the Reynolds number:
17. What do you understand by the terms fully developed velocity and temperature profile
regions in internal flow ?

P a g e | 54
In the fully developed region, the cross-sectional velocity/temperature profile is of a constant
shape at any axial location. Thus the profile has ceased to change. Also there is no radial
component of velocity i.e. every particle of fluid is flowing purely in the axial direction.
18. Do you expect the convective heat transfer coefficient in the thermally developing region to
be higher or lower than the convective heat transfer coefficient in the fully developed
temperature profile region ? Support your answer with qualitative logic.
We should expect that the convective heat transfer coefficient is higher in the thermally
developing region. Near the tube entrance, the thickness of the boundary layer is very small, and
the temperature gradients at the surface will be high, implying high rates of convective heat
transfer. As the flow develops, the thickness of the boundary layer increases and the temperature
gradients decreases, decreasing h. In the fully developed region, the temperature gradients are
constant and h is also a constant.
19. Explain why the temperature boundary layer grows much more rapidly than the velocity
boundary layer in liquid metals.
Liquid metals are characterised by very low Prandtl numbers since their thermal conductivity is
high, hence the heat diffusion is much faster than momentum diffusion.
20. You are told that in a particulat case of fluid flow over a flat plate the temperature boundary
layer thickness is much smaller than the velocity boundary layer thickness. What can you
conclude about the nature of the fluid ?
You can conclude that the fluid is a high Prandtl number fluid e.g.oil.
21. What is a gray surface ?
A gray surface is defined as one for which the emissivity ( and the absorptivity ( are
independent of wavelength (.
22. What is a diffuse surface ?
A diffuse surface is defined as one for which the emissivity ( and the absorptivity ( are
independent of direction ().
23. Define a view factor.
A view factor is defined in the context of two surfaces A and B. It is defined as the fraction of
radiation leaving A which is incident directly on surface B. A view factor must be defined in terms
of surface A to surface B (FAB).
24. If a surface emits 200 W at a temperature of T, how much energy will it emit at a
temperature of 2T ?
Since E T4, a 2-fold increase of temperature brings a (24) = 16-fold increase in energy. Thus
the surface will emit (16)(200) = 3200 W.
25. You might have observed early morning frost on a clear day even when the minimum air
temperature during the night was above 0 C. On a clear day, the effective sky temperature can
be as low as -45 C. Explain how such frost formulation takes place.
The frost is created because of radiative losses to the sky

P a g e | 55
26. A greenhouse has an enclosure that has a high transmissivity at short wavelengths and a
very low transmissivity (almost opaque) for high wavelengths. Why does a greenhouse get
warmer than the surrounding air during clear days ? Will it have a similar effect during clear
nights ?
Solar radiation is skewed towards shorter wavelengths. On a clear day the glass of the
greenhouse admits a large proportion of the incident radiation. Inside the greenhouse, the
various surfaces (plants etc.) reflect the radiation; but the reflected radiation is spectrally
different, having more of a high wavelength contribution. Thus the reflected radiation is not
transmitted well by the glass, and is reflected back into the greenhouse. The interior heats up
due to this 'trapped' radiation. The same effect will not be seen on a clear night, since there is no
solar radiation.
27. Define overall heat transfer coefficient.
The overall heat transfer coefficient is defined in terms of the total thermal resistance between
two fluids. If there are a number of thermal resistances between the two fluids, the overall heat
transfer coefficient is given by:
U = 1/R
28. Your friend asserts that, in a heat exchanger, it is impossible for the exit temperature of the
cold fluid to be greater than the exit temperature of the hot fluid when both fluids are single
phase fluids. What is your response ?
The statement is true for a parallel flow heat exchanger. However, in a counterflow heat exchanger the
outlet temperature of the cold fluid can in fact exceed the outlet temperature of the hot fluid

P a g e | 56


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DIFFERENCE BETWEEN HEAT AND TEMPERATURE

ARYA COLLAGE OF ENGINEERING AND INFORMATION TECHNOLOGY

A = Cross sectional area in direction of heat flow. (m )

Convection: heat transfer is by mixing of fluid

Convection rate equation is described by the Newtons Law of Cooling:

ARYA COLLAGE OF ENGINEERING AND INFORMATION TECHNOLOGY

= emissivity, which depand on surface, finish and material ( = 1 is black body)

ARYA COLLAGE OF ENGINEERING AND INFORMATION TECHNOLOGY

OVERALL HEAT TRANSFER COFF.:

ARYA COLLAGE OF ENGINEERING AND INFORMATION TECHNOLOGY

Q. in furnace, combustion is at 1000oC and

Heat from furnace to wall

USE OF HEAT TRANSFER CALCULATIONS IN DESIGN:

ARYA COLLAGE OF ENGINEERING AND INFORMATION TECHNOLOGY

UNIT 1 Lesson 2 CONDUCTANCE

K (conductivity), c (pecific heat) and (denisity) do not vary with

Heat generation is uniform.

ENERGY BALANCE EQ.

(dqx+dx + dqy+dy +dqz+dz)dt

ARYA COLLAGE OF ENGINEERING AND INFORMATION TECHNOLOGY

where dy.dz is area

Heat outflow in x direction per unit time: it is increased by dx

/x (dqs ).dx = - /x (-k(dydz) T/x ) + /x { (-k(dydz) T/x) dx}

=qx= -k (dx dydz) /x { (T/x ) }

Heat outflow in y direction

Heat outflow in z direction

/x2 + 2T/y2 + 2T/z2 + Eg/k

/kt = (c/k) (T/t)

Net transfer of thermal energy into Thermal energy

control volume (inflowSIGNIFICANCE OF GENERAL HEAT CONDUCTION EQ

ARYA COLLAGE OF ENGINEERING AND INFORMATION TECHNOLOGY

HEAT CONDUCTION EQUATION (RADIAL SYSTEMS)

Now consider single direction x and apply Fourier eq

Putting in energy balance eqn and solving we get

/r2 + (1/r) T/r +(1/r2) 2T/2 + 2T/z2 + Eg/k

Net transfer of thermal energy into

(c/k) (T/t) =(1/) (T/t)

** Every other thing remains same as derivation before

For one dimension / without generation / steady state the equation is

SPHERICAL COORDINATES: T(r, , )

Inflow = dq = -k(dr . r.d)( r. sin .

Heat stored or change in heat energy

Inflow = dq = -k(dr . sin.d)( r.

( r 2 . sin ) ( sin ).dt

Heat flow - plan, r direction

solving for time dt

dqr+dr - dqr = k(V)

Putting in energy balance eqn and solving +

) + Eg/k =(1/) (T/t)

For one dimension / without generation / steady state the equation is

/r2 d/dr ( r2 dT/dr )

ARYA COLLAGE OF ENGINEERING AND INFORMATION TECHNOLOGY

Thermal Diffusivity: A measure of a materials ability to respond to changes in its thermal

INITIAL AND BOUNDARY CONDITIONS

Some common cases: T(x,t)

ARYA COLLAGE OF ENGINEERING AND INFORMATION TECHNOLOGY

Constant Heat Flux: Insulated Surface

CONDUCTION THROUGH THE PLANE WALL

ARYA COLLAGE OF ENGINEERING AND INFORMATION TECHNOLOGY

INSULATION FOR SPECIFIC THERMAL RESISTANCE

ARYA COLLAGE OF ENGINEERING AND INFORMATION TECHNOLOGY

Rtot = 1/ h1A + L/ kA + 1/ h2A