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Experimental Aero(Gas) dynamics

Chapter-3

Prof. Job Kurian

Module 3

Lectures 13 - 18
Shock Tube

Keywords:

Moving

shocks,

shock

tube,

Rankine

Hugoniot

equations,

shock

velocity, gas particle velocity in shock tube, diaphragm pressure ratio, reflected shock,
shock tube boundary layer, observation time in shock tubes.

Topics
3.0

Introduction

3.1

The shock tube

3.2

Shock tube equations

3.3

Comparison between shock heating and isentropic heating

3.4

Particle velocity behind moving shock

3.5

Dependence of shock strength on diaphragm pressure ratio

3.6

Reflected shocks
Reflected shock parameters

3.7

Viscous effects and the shock tube boundary layer

3.8

Observation time in shock tube

3.9

Interaction of reflected shock and the contact surface

3.10 Shock tube diaphragm and bursting techniques


3.11 Measurement of shock speed

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Dept. of Aerospace Engg., Indian Institute of Technology, Madras

Experimental Aero(Gas) dynamics


Chapter-3

Prof. Job Kurian

3.0 Introduction
The shock tube is a device in which a plane propagating shock is produced in a long tube by
the abrupt rupturing of the diaphragm separating one section of the tube at higher pressure than
that in the other section. This device, developed after a series of studies and experiments in mid
1800s started with the realization that waves from explosions travel at a velocity faster than the
sound waves. In 1948 Sir George Stokes discussed the instability of finite amplitude sound
waves. Paul Vieille (1899) measured the speed of the pressure pulse generated in a glass tube
in which a thin diaphragm across a pressure ratio of 27atm was burst. This pioneering work on
bursting diaphragm shock tube led others to follow similar experiments with different aims.
Payman, Shepherd and other colleagues of Mines Research Board did a series of investigations
on the ignition of explosive gas mixtures by shock waves. The first research paper making use
of shock tube was published by the Royal Society and authored by Payman and Shepherd
(1946). During the post 2nd world war period, led by many Universities around the globe the
shock tube was developed as a tool for aeronautical research.

3.1 The shock tube


The shock tube (Fig 3.1a) is a long tube of uniform cross section and with uniform internal
dimensions. The diaphragm separates the high pressure driver section from the low pressure
driven or test section. The material of the diaphragm and its thickness are dictated by the
pressure ratio between the sections. On abrupt rupturing of the diaphragm, pressure waves
emanating from the diaphragm station coalesce to form the shock front which propagates in to
the low pressure section. As the shock front moves in to the low pressure section, a contact
surface which is an imaginary line of separation between the driven and driver gases follows
the shock front. The wave diagram of the shock tube after the diaphragm rupture is given in
Figure 3.1b

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Dept. of Aerospace Engg., Indian Institute of Technology, Madras

Experimental Aero(Gas) dynamics


Chapter-3

Prof. Job Kurian

Fig.3.1 (a) The shock tube (b) The shock tube wave diagram
(c) Temperature history in the shock tube at time t1
(d) Pressure history in the shock tube at time t1

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Dept. of Aerospace Engg., Indian Institute of Technology, Madras

Experimental Aero(Gas) dynamics


Chapter-3

Prof. Job Kurian

Simultaneously an expansion fan travels in to the driver section. The wave diagram in Fig 3.1b
shows these wave systems. The regions in the wave diagram are designated as 1, 2, 3 and 4.
Region 1 represents the initial conditions in the driven section. The conditions of gas in this
region are denoted by subscript 1.The Region 2 corresponds to the shocked gas conditions. The
region between the contact surface and the expansion fan is referred to as 3. Region 4
represents the conditions of the initial high pressure driver gas.
The shock tube is a versatile experimental facility for the study of gaseous phenomena at
elevated temperature and pressure. Along with the wave diagram, which is in the (x-t) plane,
the diagrams showing the temperature and pressure history in the shock tube along its length
are given in Fig.3.1c and 3.1d at time. The temperature and pressure history corresponds to a
particular time t1 on the wave diagram. As shown in the figures, the experimental gas is
brought almost instantly to a known and high temperature in region 2 and held at steady
temperature and pressure for a few hundred micro sec. Usually there is some mixing and inter
diffusion of gases at the contact surface so that the temperature fall is less sudden, than in the
ideal case.

3.2 Shock tube equations


The equations applicable in the case of shock tube which are the moving normal shock
equations may be derived considering the shock fixed coordinate system. In the figures, Ws
represents the wave speed which is the speed at which the shock front propagates in the shock
tube and v1 and v2 are the gas particle velocities

ahead and behind the moving shock

respectively. To convert the Laboratory fixed coordinates to shock fixed, wave speed Ws is
applied in the opposite direction of the propagating shock.

u1 = WS - v1
u2 = WS - v 2

3.1
3.2

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Experimental Aero(Gas) dynamics


Chapter-3

Prof. Job Kurian

u1 and u2 are the relative velocities in the shock fixed candidates

Fig.3.2 (a) Laboratory fixed coordinates (b) Shock fixed coordinates

Consider the conservation equations and the other thermodynamic equations as follows:
continuity

1 u1 = 2 u2

momentum

p1 + 1u12 = p2 +2u22

.3.4

energy

1
1
h1 + u12 = h2 + u22
2
2

.3.5

.3.3

h = c PT
=

R
p
T =
-1
-1

3.6

Substituting in energy equation

p1

-11

1 2
p2 1 2
u1 =
+ u
2
-12 2 2

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Experimental Aero(Gas) dynamics


Chapter-3

Using equations 3.3 to 3.6 u1 and u2 are eliminated from the equations

Prof. Job Kurian

1 p2 - 2 p1 -1
=
2 p2 - 1p1 +1

Rearranging this equation we get

-1 1
p2
+12
=
1 -1
p1
2 +1
1-

3.7

-1 p2
+
2
+1 p1
=
. 3.8
1 -1 p2

+1

+1

p1
The equations 3.7 and 3.8 are the Rankine - Hugoniot equations
From continuity and momentum equations
p2
1 u12 1
= 1+
1- 3.9
p1
p1 2

Define M1 =

u1 WS
=
c1
c1

. 3.10

Equation 3.10 is applicable when v1 the particle velocity ahead of the moving shock is zero, in
other words when shock is propagating in to still air
p1

c1 = RT1 =

M1 =

u1
c1

Using equation 3.6 and 3.10


1

M1

2
= u1 1
p1

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Dept. of Aerospace Engg., Indian Institute of Technology, Madras

Experimental Aero(Gas) dynamics


Chapter-3

Prof. Job Kurian

u12 1
M =
p1
2
1

M12 = u12

1
p1

.. 3.11

Substitute equation 3.11 in 3.9 to write


p2
= 1+ M12 1- 1
p1
2

.. 3.12

Combining equations 3.8 and 3.12 gives


2
p2 2 M1 - -1
=
p1
+1

2
+1 M1
=
1 -1 M12 +2
2

. 3.13
. 3.14

Combining the equations 3.13 and 3.14 with the perfect gas equation gives
2 -1 -1 2
M M1 +1
T2 1 2
2

=
2
T1
+1 2

M1
2

3.15

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Dept. of Aerospace Engg., Indian Institute of Technology, Madras

Experimental Aero(Gas) dynamics


Chapter-3

Prof. Job Kurian

Fig.3.3 Theoretical ratios of shocked gas properties

3.3 Comparison between shock heating and isentropic heating


For a given pressure change (or density change) in a gas, the temperature produced by a strong
shock wave is greatly in excess of those in the isentropic case. Shock wave is an irreversible
adiabatic compression
1
1
h1 + v12 = h2 + v 22
2
2

Conservation of energy derived for flow where a resistance to motion occurs. In the case of
shock wave, the abrupt pressure rise across the front presents a resistance to flow and as such
implies an irreversible conversion of kinetic energy (K.E) into heat.
1 2 1 2
v1 - v 2 is a measure of this change in K.E for unit mass of gas.
2
2

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Dept. of Aerospace Engg., Indian Institute of Technology, Madras

Experimental Aero(Gas) dynamics


Chapter-3

Prof. Job Kurian

Across the shock front there is an increase of entropy, for an adiabatic process.
T

2
dQ
dT 2 dv
S =
= cV
+p
T
T
T
T1
T1

From this, for a perfect gas

T2 / T1
S = Cp ln
-1
p / p
2 1

T2 p2
=
T1 p1

-1

s
exp

cP

3.16

From this it can be seen that (T2/T1) across a shock front S > 0 exceeds that for an isentropic

S
between the same limits. Compression by a
c
P

compression S 0 by a factor exp

piston across which differential pressure is kept small.


Table 3.1 Comparison between isentropic and shock heating
Shock

Isentropic

p2
p1

Wave T2 K

Compression

T2 K

M1

420

357

1.32

10

895

566

2.95

25

1753

735

4.45

50

3177

897

6.55

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Dept. of Aerospace Engg., Indian Institute of Technology, Madras

Experimental Aero(Gas) dynamics


Chapter-3

Prof. Job Kurian

3.4 Particle velocity behind the moving shock wave


Refer to Fig.3.7 (b) of shock fixed coordinates
u1 = WS - v1
u2 = WS - v 2
u1 -u2 = - v1 - v 2
= v 2 - v1

2
+1 M1 = u1 = WS - v1
=
1 -1 M12 +2 u2 WS - v 2
2

2 +1 M12
=
1
2 1+ -1M2
1
2

u1 = M1 c1
-1 M12 +2
u2 = u1
2
+1 M1

-1 M12 +2
=
M
c
u2
1 1
2
+1 M1
-1 M12 +2

u2 -u1 = c1
-M1
+1 M1

M12 -M12 +2- M12 -M12 c1 2 1-M12


= c1
=

+1
M

+1M1
1

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Dept. of Aerospace Engg., Indian Institute of Technology, Madras

Experimental Aero(Gas) dynamics


Chapter-3

Prof. Job Kurian

2c1 M12 -1
u1 -u2 =

+1 M1
=

2c1
1
M1 -
+1
M1

v2 =

2c1
1
M1 - +v1 .3.17
+1
M1

Illustration of calculation of particle velocity (v2) and Mach number


behind the moving shock
Calculations are done assuming Air to be the test gas at 300K
For M1 = 8
T2/T1 = 13.387 (from Gas Tables)

T2 = 4016.1
v2 =

c 2 = 1270m/ s

2c1
1
M1 - = 2280m/s
+1
M1

M2 = 1.79
For M1 = 10
T2
20.388 (From Gas Tables)
T1

T2 = 6116.4

v2 =

c 2 = 1567m/ s

2347.5
10- 0.1 = 2866m/s = 1.829
2.4

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Dept. of Aerospace Engg., Indian Institute of Technology, Madras

Experimental Aero(Gas) dynamics


Chapter-3

Prof. Job Kurian

For M1 = 25

T2
=
T1

=
=

-1 -1

M12 +1

2 2

2
+1 2

M1
2

M12 -

1.4 625-0.2 0.2 625+1


1.44 625

874.8 126 = 122.47


900

T2 = 36741
T2 = 191.6820.04

C2 = 3842.21m/s
v2 =

2347.5
1
25 - 24.96
2.4
25

7228
= 1.88
3842

What is shown above is that increase of shock velocity (Ws) and consequently the shock Mach
number will not correspondingly raise the Mach number after the shock (M2) based on v2.
Understandably, the reason is the increase in the post shock temperature (T 2) and the value of
speed of sound (c2) after the shock to high values.

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Dept. of Aerospace Engg., Indian Institute of Technology, Madras

Experimental Aero(Gas) dynamics


Chapter-3

Prof. Job Kurian

3.5 Dependence of shock strength on diaphragm pressure ratio

Fig.3.4 Wave diagram and the gas properties along the shock tube at time t1
Driver gas at a high pressure p4 in region 4 is being expanded through the expansion fan to a
lower pressure p3 behind the contact surface. Limits of expansion fan are formed by the head
and tail of rarefaction wave.
[Ref: The production of High Temperature Gases in Shock Tube Rester, Lin, Kantowitz
Th. App. Phy. Vol 29 (Dec 1952) PP 1390-1399]
Expansion is an isentropic process.

Applying Newtons 2nd law, F = m

dv
to a one
dt

dimensional fluid element of thickness dx. Under the action of a sound wave travelling at a
velocity c, we get

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Experimental Aero(Gas) dynamics


Chapter-3

- dp = dx

dv
= c dv
1
dx
c

Prof. Job Kurian

(3.18)

dx m
1
dx dt
c

Fig.3.5 Elemental fluid volume subjected to forces


If an ideal gas with constant specific heats undergoes a change of state the entropy change S
of the gas is
S = cP ln

Tf
p
- Rln f
Ti
pi

In differential form dS = cP

dT
dp
-R
T
p

For an isentropic process ds = 0


Hence,

dp cP dT
=
p
R T

c 2 = RT ie T =

(3.19)

c2
R

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Dept. of Aerospace Engg., Indian Institute of Technology, Madras

Experimental Aero(Gas) dynamics


Chapter-3

dT =

Prof. Job Kurian

2c dc
R

dT 2c dc 2dc
=
=
c2
T
c
R
R

...(3.20)

Combining (3.19) and (3.20)


dp 2c P dc
=
p
Rc

.. (3.21)

From Equation (3.18) - dp =

From (4) -

c dv

2cP dc =

2cP dc = 2
cP =

c dV

2cPdc
Rc

c 2 Rdv
p

p Rdv

R
dc = - R dv
-1

R
2
ie
dc +dv = 0
-1
-1

Thus, for an isentropic process


2

c +v = constant
-1

For the shock tube problem

2
2
c3 + v 3

c4 + v4 =

-1

-1
4
3
On each side of the contact surface, the particle velocities and pressures must be continuous,
since there is no gas flow across the interface.

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Dept. of Aerospace Engg., Indian Institute of Technology, Madras

Experimental Aero(Gas) dynamics


Chapter-3

Prof. Job Kurian

v3 = v2 and p3 = p2
As v4 = 0 and 4 = 3
2
2
c4 =
c +v
4 -1
4 -1 3 2

c3 = c 4 -

4-1
2

v2

From adiabatic gas law


2 4

p4 c 4 4-1 p4
= =
p3 c 3
p2

p 3 = p2
2 4

4 -1

p
c4
4 =

4-1
p2
v2
c4
2

. (3.22)

2c1
1
M1 -
1+1
M1

. (3.23)

v2 =

Combining these equations with equation for

p2 2 M12 - -1
leads to
=
p1
+1

2
- 4

p4 2 1 M - 1 -1
1
4-1 c1
4-1
(3.24)
=
M1
p1
1 +1 1+1 c 4 1 M1
2
1

Strongest shocks are obtained when


p4

p1

and then

1
4-1 c1

M
1 1
0
M1

1+1 c 4

M1

( 1 1) c 4
( 4 1) c1

Strongest shocks are obtained for driver with


1) High speed of sound
2) Low specific heat ratio
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Dept. of Aerospace Engg., Indian Institute of Technology, Madras

Experimental Aero(Gas) dynamics


Chapter-3

Prof. Job Kurian

3.6 Reflected shocks


When the primary shock wave reaches the end of the shock tube it gets reflected back in to the
medium which is already heated by the incident shock. Higher temperature and pressure are
obtained behind the reflected shock. Additionally the gas behind the reflected wave is at rest
relative to the shock tube.
Summarizing:
a) Much higher temperatures are obtained that too at high pressures. Dissociation is
prevented because of increased pressures.
b) Study on a fixed group of molecules can be conducted. Behind the incident shock, the
gas particles are moving with a velocity v2 and it is impossible to follow a fixed volume
of gas.

3.6.1 Reflected shock parameters

(a)

(b)

(c)

(d)

Fig.3.6 Incident and reflected shocks: (a&c) Laboratory fixed coordinates,


(b&d) Shock fixed coordinates

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Dept. of Aerospace Engg., Indian Institute of Technology, Madras

Experimental Aero(Gas) dynamics


Chapter-3

Prof. Job Kurian

The subscript 5 refers to the reflected gas properties. The gas flows into the shock front with a
relative velocity u2 where

u2 = WR +v 2
In the reflected shock region v5 = 0. This means that the gas gives all its kinetic energy (K.E)
on passing through the front thus increasing the properties of the state of the gas. This can be
seen as an ever extending column which advances out from the end wall of the tube and
contains a gas at high temperature; density and pressure. The particle velocities relative to the
reflected shock at different sections can be written.

u5 = WR - v 5 WR
u12 = WR +v 2

If Mach no. of the reflected shock is defined as


MR =

u2
c2

Equations relating to reflected shock may be written analogy with those with incident shock.
For incident shock
u1 -u2 = v 2 - v1 =

2c1
1
M1 -
+1
M1

u1 = WS

u2 = WS - v 2

u2 -u5 = v 2 + v 50
=

v2 =

2c 2
1
MR
+1
MR

2c1
1 2c 2
1
M1 - =
MR .. (3.25)
+1
M1 +1
MR

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Dept. of Aerospace Engg., Indian Institute of Technology, Madras

Experimental Aero(Gas) dynamics


Chapter-3

Prof. Job Kurian

From perfect gas equation and equation of the speed of sound


2

c2
p2 1
=
p1 2
c1

(3.26)

From Rankine -Hugoniot equations


-1 p2
+
2
+2 p1
=
1 -1 p2

+1
+1 p1

pT
= R T1
1
p2
= RT2
2

-1

c2
p2 -1 p2 -1 p2
+ (3.27)
= 1+

c
p

+1
p

+1
p1
1
1
1

Substitute in the incident shock equations


2
p2 2 M1 - -1
=
p1
+1

By analogy, we may write for reflected shock


2
p5 2 MR - -1
=
p2
+1

.. (3.28)

Solving equations (3.25) to (3.28)


+1
p
+2- 1
p5 -1
p2
=
p2 1+ +1 p1
-1 p2

. (3.29)

5
can be written by analogy
2

-1 p5
+
5
+1 p2
=
2 -1 p5 +1

+1 p2

.(3.30)

Similarly,
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Experimental Aero(Gas) dynamics


Chapter-3

+1 p5
+

T5 p5 -1 p2
=

T2 p2 +1 p5
1+
-1 p2

Prof. Job Kurian

(3.31)

These ratios can also be written as:


2 M12 - -1 3 -1 M12 -2 -1
=

2
p1
+1
-1 M1 +2

p5

2
2
T5 2 -1 M1 + 3- 3 -1 M1 -2 -1
=
T1
+1 M12

The ratio of speeds can be written as


2 p1
WR
-1p2
=
+1 p1
WS
-1 p2
2+

Table 3.2 Reflected shock parameters in terms of incident parameters


p5
p2

T2
T1

T5
T2

WR
WS

M1

p2
p1

1.4

2.95

10

4.95

2.62

1.76

0.423

6.56

50

7.12

9.31

2.28

0.351

2.87

10

4.22

3.42

1.94

0.589

6.34

50

5.54

13.4

2.34

0.517

1.66

3.7 Viscous effects and the shock tube boundary layer


Due to the viscous nature of the flow in the shock tube, boundary layer is formed. Its thickness
will be zero at the shock front and increases back through the shock heated region and the

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Dept. of Aerospace Engg., Indian Institute of Technology, Madras

Experimental Aero(Gas) dynamics


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Prof. Job Kurian

contact surface in to the expanding driver gas and becomes zero again at the head of the
rarefaction fan. Schematic of the boundary layer formed is shown in Figure 3.13. Important
effects of formation of the boundary layer are the following.
1. Kinetic energy is dissipated as heat in the retarding layer of the boundary layer and this
is conveyed to walls as by heat transfer.
2. Deceleration of the shock front.
3. Acceleration of contact surface.
One of the important effects of the formation of boundary layer is its reducing effects of the
useful observation time in shock tube experiments.

Fig.3.7 Schematic of the growth of boundary layer in a shock tube

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Dept. of Aerospace Engg., Indian Institute of Technology, Madras

Experimental Aero(Gas) dynamics


Chapter-3

Prof. Job Kurian

3.8 Observation time in shock tube


Observation time is decided by
a) length of observation station from diaphragm
b) length of driver section [due to the influence reflected rarefaction fan]
c) length of end plate from diaphragm [ influence of the reflected shock]
d) growth of the boundary layer

Fig.3.8 (x,t) diagram of the shock tube indicating the different waves

3.9 Interaction of reflected shock and contact surface


The reflected shock, after going through the shocked gas in the region 2 encounters the contact
surface and the reaction will be dependent on the speed.

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Dept. of Aerospace Engg., Indian Institute of Technology, Madras

Experimental Aero(Gas) dynamics


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Prof. Job Kurian

Fig. 3.9 (a)

Fig.3.9 (b)

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Experimental Aero(Gas) dynamics


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Prof. Job Kurian

Time available for measurements in the reflected shock region can be improved.

Fig.3.9 (c)
Fig.3.9 Interaction of reflected shock with the contact surface
(a) c2 > c3 (b) c2<c3 (c) c2= c3
Speed of sound in regions 2 and 3. The schematic of the wave systems generated based on the
values of c2 and c3 is shown in Figures 3.9 (a) and (b). As shown in Fig.3.9a when c2 > c3, the
reflected shock after passing through the contact surface enters a region of higher Mach
number. The resultant properties in the region 3 would be greater than those in regions 2.This
is physically not feasible and in order to make the pressures on either side of the contact
surface an additional shock system is generated in region 5. The opposite effect is there
corresponding to the situation in Fig.3.9b where c2<c3.The resultant wave system in the
reflected shock region is an expansion wave. In both the cases, flow in the reflected shock
region is disturbed by the additional waves generated. In order to have larger observation times
behind the reflected shock c2 is designed to be same as c3.This is called tailoring of the shock

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Experimental Aero(Gas) dynamics


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Prof. Job Kurian

tube contact surface. The wave system when c2=c3 is shown in Fig.3.9c.Tailoring enhances the
observation time behind the reflected shock.

3.10 Shock tube diaphragm and bursting techniques


Diaphragms vary from 0.025mm cellophane sheet to 6mm thick steel plate. For the same
material the diaphragm rupturing pressure increases directly as the pressure and inversely as
the exposed area.
1) pressure driving
2) Mechanical piston drive
3) Combustion driving
4) Heating of driver gas

3.11 Measurement of shock speed


Conventionally, the time distance method is used for the measurement of shock speed. Sensors
of pressure or temperature are mounted flush with the interior of the low pressure section of the
shock tube at known distance between them. Time taken by the propagating shock to
transverse the known distance is used to calculate the shock speed. Though this is a simple
method to implement, the speed obtained is an average value between the two stations. Other
methods such as that making use of Doppler principle could give higher spatial resolution.

************************************

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Dept. of Aerospace Engg., Indian Institute of Technology, Madras

Experimental Aero(Gas) dynamics


Chapter-3

Prof. Job Kurian

Exercises
Answer the following
1. With the help of the wave diagram explain the waves in the shock tube on rupture of its
diaphragm.
2. Graphically show the variation of the ratios of temperature, pressure and density across
the moving shock against the shock Mach number.
3. Derive an equation for the gas particle velocity behind the moving shock.
4. The gas particle velocity behind the moving shock increases with increasing shock
speed, but the corresponding Mach number does not. Why?
5. What is the equation for the diaphragm pressure ratio in terms of the shock Mach
number
6. For the given pressure ratio across the diaphragm of a shock tube, how can shocks of
different strengths be generated?
7. What the feature of gas behind the reflected shock?
8. Sketch the boundary layer developed in the shock tube on diaphragm rupture.
9. What factors decide the observation time in a shock tube?
10. What is the effect of boundary layer on the observation time?
11. Unless special care is taken, the reflected shock does not pass through the contact
surface without additional waves. Elucidate.
12. Why is shock velocity measurement very important in shock tube experiments? How is
the velocity measured conventionally?
Work out the following numerical problem
1. In a shock tube experiment using air at 1 105 N/m2 and 310K as the test gas, a pressure
ratio of 29 across the wave was observed. Find the stagnation temperature and pressure
behind the propagating shock wave.

26
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