Sedimentofogy - Elsevier Publishing Company, Amsterdam - Printed in The Netherlands

LAMINA, LAMINASET, BED AND BEDSET

CHARLES V. CAMPBELL

Esso Production Research Company, Houston, Texas (U.S.A.)

(Received January 31, 1967)

SUMMARY

From smallest to largest, the component layers of a sedimentary body are

laminae, laminasets, beds and bedsets. Different arrangements of these layers characterize different types of sedimentary bodies and identify different depositional processes. Concepts of these layers are redescribed because previous definitions are not
adequate for modern quantitative descriptions of sedimentary bodies. The four
kinds of layers are genetically similar; when compared with each other, they differ
principally in areal extent and interval of time for formation. Because beds are
usually the most readily recognized layers, they are considered the basic building
blocks of sedimentary bodies.
Beds are bounded by depositional surfaces termed bedding surfaces; each
surface is practically synchronous, and a bed can be considered an informal timestratigraphic unit of limited areal extent and of relatively short time span. This
concept broadens the scope of intrabasinal correlations, permitting time correlations
more refined than possible using fossils or radioactive age dating. Also, a better understanding of the mode of genesis and recognition of distinguishing characteristics of
different types of sedimentary bodies follow from this concept.

INTRODUCTION

...No problem of geology compares in importance with the question of

the origin of bedding. The word bedding has played a big part in all geologic arguments from the battle of the Neptunists and Plutonists through the debate over
elevated craters to the modern problem of coral reefs and glacial moraine. What is
bedding? How does it originate? What does it prove? (Translation from WALTHER,
1894, p.623.)
Walthers words are as applicable today as they were then, primarily because
the fundamental principle of sedimentation-that most sediments are deposited layer
upon layer-often is overlooked. This layering or stratification varies with different
depositional processes. For example, beaches are built by a process distinct from
Sedimentology, 8 (1967) 7-26

C. V. CAMPBELL

the one that forms fluvial channel deposits, and, consequently, different arrangements
of the component layers characterize the sedimentary products of these different
processes. However, in the writers experience, previous definitions of sedimentary
layers do not allow satisfactory description and interpretation of the internal structure of sedimentary bodies.
The purpose of this paper is to describe four types of sedimentary layers or
strata-laminae, laminasets, beds and bedsets. These primary sedimentary structures
are described because, as POTTER
and PETTIJOHN
(1963, p.68) note, most sedimentary
structures cannot be satisfactorily defined in analytical terms; but their properties
may be specified and illustrated. A stratum is a layer of rock or sediment that is
visually or physically more or less distinctly separated from layers above and below
by surfaces termed stratal surfaces. A lamina is the smallest megascopic stratum; a
laminaset consists of a group of conformable laminae that form a distinctive structure within a bed; a bed is the stratum that reveals the principal rock layering, and a
bedset consists of a number of superposed, similar beds. Laminaset and bedset are
new terms suggested to the writer by C. W. Hoskins and G. T. MacCallum, respectively; these terms are names for specific sets of strata as described by MCKEEand
WEIR(1953, fig.1, p.383).
In formal stratigraphic nomenclature the sedimentary body referred to may be
a lentil, tongue, member or formation (AMERICAN
COMMISSION
ON STRATIGRAPHIC
NOMENCLATURE,
1961, pp.650-651). A bed is here considered the basic building
block of these larger stratigraphic units; and the concept of bed presented here
differs from that of other published discussions in at least one of the following four
respects: ( I ) beds have no limiting thicknesses; this contrasts with the widely accepted
definition of MCKEEand WEIR(1953, p.384), who define a bed as a stratum greater
than 1 cm thick; (2) adjacent beds need not differ in lithologic character; however, in
comparison, MCBRIDE(1962, p.47) and many others stress lithologic differences as
characteristic of adjacent beds; (3) a bed need not be composed of a single lithology;
in contrast, BOTVINKINA
(1962, pp.18-19) and many of her predecessors cite more
or less homogeneous composition as a feature of beds; and (4) beds have the properties of time-stratigraphic units of limited areal extent and relatively short time
value; many other authors seem to have overlooked this attribute of beds. ELLIOTT
(1965, pp. 197-199) recently redefined stratification terms in order to describe accurately and then classify sedimentary structures; but he applies his terminology only
to subaqueous deposits and does not consider genesis of different layers in the framework of time emphasized in this paper.
In this paper, problems in describing different types of layers are first illustrated
and discussed. Then kinds of layers are described and compared. Next, practical
application of layering concepts and description of layers is discussed. Finally, some
stratigraphic implications and uses of the bed concept are noted.

Sedimentology, 8 (1967) 1-26

LAMINA, LAMINASET, BED AND BEDSET

DEFINITION OF PROBLEM

Some similarities and differences between the four kinds of strata are illustrated
in Fig.1 and Plate 1-111, which are labeled according to the concepts presented in
this paper. Fig1 shows laminae forming laminasets within the principal layer or
bed in probable estuarine deposits. Plate IA and B illustrate layers in deposits interpreted as channel and beach, respectively. Each shows laminae forming beds and
beds repeated to form bedsets. Groups of similar laminae in Plate IIA are separated
into trough-shaped beds by sharp bounding surfaces, and then groups of these beds
form bedsets. These beds are believed to characterize aeolian deposits. All of these
examples show rocks commonly referred to as cross-bedded, or preferably crosslaminated in terms of this paper. Beds in Plate IIB are similar in texture and composition but lack internal laminae; this example appears typical of some offshore
deposits. Plate IIIA shows a graded bed or turbidite with laminae in the upper part
of the bed and with a vertical change in texture and composition. A sequence of
varves is shown in Plate IIIB. Each varve consists of two rhythmically varying laminae
that comprise a bed, and this rhythm is repeated many times to form a bedset. Adjacent beds differing in texture and composition are not illustrated because they are
easy to distinguish.

Fig.1. Layering in probable estuarine deposits. The smallest layers are laminae, which form distinctive structures or laminasets within the beds (B), and the beds form bedsets. This structure has been
1966); the laminasets are bounded by curved, nonnamed truncated wave-ripple laminae (CAMPBELL,
parallel surfaces and they consist of sets of curved and wavy, parallel to nonparallel laminae that are
oblique to laminaset surfaces. The laminasets compose wavy, parallel beds. This structure has been
described most commonly as small-scale cross-bedding. (Lower Cretaceous Fall River Sandstone,
Section 27, Township 56 north, Range 62 west, Crook County, Wyo., U.S.A.)
Sedimentology, 8 (1967) 7-26

10

C. V. CAMPBELL

Fig.1 and Plate 1-111 show that the component layers of a sedimentary body
in order of size are lamina, laminaset, bed and bedset, although one or more sizes
of layers may be missing in certain instances. Each kind of layer formed under
essentially constant physical conditions of deposition; and each can be considered a
sedimentation unit (OTTO,1938, p.575). The condition prevailing during formation of
a lamina operated in a small area for an instant of geologic time. This condition was
repeated or rhythmically altered to form a laminaset, and repetition of conditions
for accumulation of a laminaset result in a bed. Further repetition produces a sequence of similar beds or a bedset. Each of these strata is bounded by layering surfaces that are genetically the same. Thus, these four scales of layers are genetically
similar.
Similarities and differences among the four kinds of layers may be summarized
as follows: (1) adjacent layers of all sizes may be similar in texture and composition,
and the internal structure may be the same in superjacent layers (Fig.1, Plate I and
IIA); (2) the two smallest layers, laminae and laminasets, may not be recognizable
in some layered sequences (Plate IIB); (3) the next to the smallest layer or laminaset
is missing in many layered sequences (Plate I and HA); (4) composition, texture and
sedimentary structures may vary within the bed (Plate IIIA); (5) where all layers are
parallel to each other, distinction between these layers must be based arbitrarily on
repetitions or rhythmic variations of the smallest layer (Plate 11TB); (6) layers of any
given kind vary widely in thickness and areal extent (Plate IIA and IIIB); and (7)
each of the four sizes of layers can be considered as sedimentation units; compared
with each other they differ principally in lateral extent and length of time for formation.
Not all beds are laminated, others do not contain laminasets, and many beds
do not form bedsets. However, beds can usually be distinguished in any sedimentary
sequence; and, thus, beds are the practical basic component, or "building block",
of sedimentary bodies. Consequently, characteristics of a bed are first described and
then beds are contrasted with laminae, laminasets and bedsets.

PLATE I

Layering in deposits interpreted as channel and beach.

A. Channel deposit showing cross-laminated beds ( E ) forming a bedset (BS). Sets of even, parallel
and curved, nonparallel cross laminae are bounded by bedding surfaces that appear essentially
parallel in this photog-aph. However, in the dimension perpendicular to the photograph, these
same bedding surfaces are curved nonparallel; thus the beds are bounded by curved, nonparallel
surfaces, and they are the structure commonly described as trough cross-bedding. (Lower Cretaceous Muddy Sandstone, Section 13, Township 49 north, Range 91 west, Bighorn County, Wyo.,
U.S.A.)
B. Beach deposit showing cross-laminated beds ( E ) comprising a bedset (BS).
Sets of even to curved, parallel laminae comprise even parallel beds. (The bedding surfaces are
parallel in three dimensions.) This structure is commonly described as planar cross-bedding.
(Upper Cretaceous Lance Formation, Section 15, Township 21 north, Range 101 west, Sweetwater County, Wyo., U.S.A.)
Sedimentology, 8 (1967) 1-26

11

LAMINA, LAMINASET, BED AND BEDSET

PLATE I

A.

B.
Sedimentology, 8 (1967) 1-26

12

C. V. CAMPBELL

BED

A bed is a layer of sedimentary rocks or sediments bounded above and below

by bedding surfaces. An exception is where the bed is bounded either above or below
by an unconformity. The characteristics of a bed are listed in Table I.
Bedding surfaces are depositional surfaces that reveal the principal rock
layering or bedding. They are produced during periods of nondeposition or abrupt
change in depositional conditions, and erosion commonly accompanies nondeposition. A bedding surface thus formed is the depositional surface f o r the overlying bed.
These surfaces are synchronous; they form in an instant of geologic time because we
can observe their formation and the deposition of the overlying bed in presently
accumulating sediments, such as beaches, turbidites, varves, ash falls and fluvial
deposits. Comparisons of these modern deposits with ancient rocks show identical
bedding features. Therefore, if these surfaces form in hours, days, or even years,
they are practical synchronous surfaces representing an instant of geologic time.
Consequently, a bed, bounded by bedding surfaces, has the properties of a timestratigraphic unit of limited areal extent and small thickness that represents a moment
of geologic time; therefore it may be considered an informal time-stratigraphic unit.
Distinction of beds depends upon recognition of bedding surfaces, which are
surfaces of separation between adjacent beds. These surfaces have no thickness,
but they have areal extents equivalent to the beds they bound. Bedding surfaces thus
terminate where the bed in question ends, but the depositional surfaces continue as
bounding surfaces for adjacent beds or they loose their physical expression across
lateral lithologic changes and can no longer be recognized.
Bedding surfaces may be pronounced, or they may be recognized only with
difficulty. Where the lithology of adjacent beds differs, bedding surfaces are usually
distinct; and weathering of outcrop faces commonly brings these surfaces into relief.
Where the lithology and sedimentary structures do not change from bed to bed,
bedding surfaces may not be readily recognized and appear discontinuous; but careful study of such rock sequences usually will reveal some pattern of internal features
that will permit division into beds. For instance, termination of cross laminae (other
than those in ripple structures) at a surface suggests a bedding surface. Bounding surfaces between groups of repetitive or rhythmic laminae are bedding surfaces. ConcenPLATE I1

Layering in presumed aeolian and offshore deposits.

A. Aeolian deposit showing cross-laminated beds (B) comprising a bedset (BS). Sets of curved,
parallel laminae comprise beds bounded by curved, nonparallel bedding surfaces. In three dimensions these beds have trough shapes and this structure is commonly described as trough crossbedding. (Jurassic Navajo Sandstone, Head of Buckhorn Wash, Section 18, Township 19 south,
Range 11 east, Emery County, Utah, U.S.A.)
B. Nonlaminated beds (B) composing a bedset (BS)in an offshore sandstone. Burrowing organisms
have homogenized these beds and have partially obliterated the wavy, parallel bedding surfaces.
(Upper Cretaceous Gallup Formation, Section 27. Township 30 north, Range 19 west, San Juan
County, N. M., U.S.A.)
Sedimentology, 8 (1961) 1-26

13

LAMINA, LAMINASET, BED A N D BEDSET

PLATE I1

BS

A.

BS

8.
Sedimentology, 8 (1967) 7-26

14

C . V. CAMPBELL

trations of trails of organisms may mark these surfaces. Other features, which may
indicate bedding surfaces as well as the other kinds of stratal surfaces, are: (1) subtle
textural, mineralogic, structural, or faunal differences between adjacent layers;
(2) scattered residual materials along a surface, such as shell fragments, heavy minerals,
carbonaceous flakes, mica flakes, and coarser grains than predominate in the layer; and
(3) color differences between layers, although some color differences have no relationship to bedding.
The geometry of a bed depends upon the relations between bedding surfaces,
which may be parallel or nonparallel (Fig.2). Bedding surfaces with these trends are
described as even, wavy, or curved. Beds then have a variety of shapes; most commonly they are tabular or lenticular, but may be wedge-shaped, irregular, or curvedtabular forms.
Beds range from a few millimeters to tens of meters in thickness but are usually
measured in centimeters or multiples of centimeters. Among the thinnest of beds are
varves measured in millimeters; and among the thickest, aeolian beds measured in tens
of meters. The terminology recommended for bed thickness is adapted from INGRAM
(1954) and shownin Fig.3.
Beds range widely in lateral extents. Those within some fluvial and aeolian
deposits can be delineated within a single outcrop; other within nearshore and
offshore deposits continue for kilometers, tens of kilometers, or sometimes hundreds
of kilometers. They terminate laterally by: (1) convergence and intersection of bedding surfaces; (2) lateral gradation of the material comprising the bed into another
in which the bedding surfaces become indistinguishable, although these depositional
surfaces continue within the new material; and (3)abutting against an unconformity.
The composition and texture within the bed may be: ( I ) uniform or heterogeneous; (2) rhythmically variable; or (3) systematically gradational. Uniform or
heterogeneous beds may have been deposited as such or may be the product of reworking by organisms. Rhythmic changes occur in beds composed of two or more laminae
of different compositions. Graded beds are an example of systematic gradation,
where all gradations from conglomerate to mudstone and limestone may be found.
Beds may be internally laminated. Laminae in repetitive arrangements are
similar in texture and composition, as in cross-laminated beds. Laminae in rhythmic
arrangements vary in composition and texture but form groups of two or more
laminae that show some pattern of change, as in varves. Laminae appear only at
certain levels in graded turbidite beds. Laminae in some types of beds compose lami-

PLATE 111

Layering in graded beds and varves.

A. Graded bed ( B ) showing vertical change in texture and composition and with even, parallel
laminae and current-ripple laminae in the upper part of beds. (Middle Pliocene, Santa Paula
Creek, Ventura Basin, Calif., U.S.A.)
B. Varved sequence showing beds (B) consisting of a pair of laminae. The beds form a bedset (8s).
(Puget Sound area, Wash., U.S.A.;Photograph courtesy of J. Hoover Mackin.)
Sedimentology, 8 (1967) 1-26

15

LAMINA, LAMINASET, BED AND BEDSET

PLATE 111

A.

8.
Sedimentology, 8 (1967) 7-26

Sharp contact-may not be

as sharp as bedding surface,
often surface along which
rocks part

Physical nature

( I ) Intersection of

( I ) Intersection of
laminar surfaces
(2) Gradation into another
material in which laminar
surfaces can no longer be
recognized
(3) Abutting against an
unconformity
( 4 ) Truncation by bedding
surface or abutting against
a bedding surface

Same as for bed

Lateral termination

Adjacent layers

Usually the same

laminaset surfaces
(2) Truncation by laminaset
or bedding surface or
abutting against these
surfaces
(3) Gradation to another
material in which laminaset
surfaces can no longer be
recognized

One inch in current ripples

to few miles in turbidites

Less than one inch in

current ripples to few
miles in abyssal deposits

Lateral extent

Same or different

( I ) Intersection of
bedding surfaces
(2) Gradation to another
material in which bedding
surfaces can no longer be
recognized
(3) Abutting against an
unconformi ty

Few feet in fluvial

festoons to few miles in
turbidites

Usually measured in centimeters or thicker units

Usually measured in
centimeters

.--.

Usually measured in
millimeters

Thickness

Yes

Even, wavy, or curved

Parallel or non-parallel

Sharp contact

Bedding surface

Bed

Tabular, lens, or sometimes wedge shapes, also

various forms bounded by
curved surfaces

Same as for bed

Geometry

Yes

Same as for bedding

surfaces

Laminaset surface

Laminaset

Same as for bed

Yes

Synchronous

Configuration of
bounding surface

Same as for bedding

surfaces

Laminar surface

Name

Relation between
bounding surfaces

Lamina

Characteristic

SUMMARY OF CHARACTERISTICS OF LAMINA, LAMINASET, BED A N D BEDSET

IABLE I

__

_.

All different

Termination of component
beds in any of the three
ways noted for bed

Tens of feet in fluvial

deposits to hundred miles in
some evaporite deposits

Multiples of thickness of
component beds

Same as for component

bzds

Yes

Same as for bedding

surfaces

Bedset surface

Bedset

k
F

c)

.$

Moment of geologic time (a

minute for some currentripple laminasets to a year
for laminasets in aeolian
festoons)

~~

Multiple of many moments

(a few days for some fluvial
bedsets to thousands of years
for beach bedsets)

v1

Many moments of geologic

time (a few minutes for
some fluvial beds to years
for some carbonate and
evaporite beds)

_ _ ~ _ _

Esqentially constant overall but with repetition of

the particular conditions
prevailing during formation
of a bed

Different

Same as for component beds

Repetitive

1
.

Instant of geologic time (a

second for lamina in current
ripples to years for lamina
in abyssal oozes)

Constant

Conditions during
formation

Time tor formation

Same or different

Same in repetitive laminae

or different in rhythmic
laminae

Adjacent layers

Essentially constant overall but may fluctuate

rhythmically, repetitively,
or gradationally

Parallel to or at an
angle to

Rhythmic or repetitive

20

h)

Same as for bed

Usually laminated (may not Same as for component

be laminated due to
beds
original depositional
conditions or activity of
organisms)

None

None

None (other than

parallelism of component
grains)

Uniform, heterogeneous,
rhythmic variation, or
systematic gradation

Relation of internal
layers to bounding
surfaces

Arrangement of internal
layers

Internal structure

Uniform (sometimes
heterogeneous or
gradational)

Texture

Uniform, rhythmic variation,

or systematic gradation

QI

-4

v
Q\
-4

P
e

00

a g

Fa
i?:
3

s
C

-2

*
B

.-*
8
.-

Uniform (sometimes
gradational)

Composition

C. V.

18
PARALLEL
I

CAMPBELL

NON PARALLEL

w
>
w

Even, parallel

Discontinuous, even,

Even, nonparallel

Discontinuous, even,
nonparallel

parallel

>

Wavy, parallel

Discontinuous. wavy,

Wavy, nonparallel

Discontinuous, wavy,
nonparallel

Curved, nonparallel

Discontinuous, curved,

porollel

n
w

>
a

3
V

Curved, parallel

Discontinuous, curved,
parallel

nonparallel

Fig.2. Descriptive terms for beds, laminae and laminasets. Common names for different configurations of laminae (cross laminae, current-ripple laminae, etc.) are widely used and are preferred for
brevity over the proposed terminology. However, the proposed terminology is still needed to describe
the particular configuration that is given a specificname.

nasets and a complex of laminasets composes the bed, as in beds consisting of currentripple laminae. Thus, laminae within a bed may be parallel or at angles to the bedding
surfaces; or the laminae may form laminasets that in turn make up a bed.
Some beds show no recognizable internal structure in outcrop, hand specimens,
or cores. Such beds may have been: ( I ) deposited without internal layering;
(2) homogenized by burrowing organisms or roots; or (3) be so homogeneous in
texture and composition that thoir original internal structure cannot be seen. The
last two of these circumstances are probably most common as HAMBL~N
(1965) demonstrated in his study of homogeneous sandstones by X-ray techniques.
The composition, texture and sedimentary structures in superjacent beds may
be the same or different.

LAMINA

A lamina is the smallest megascopic layer in a sedimentary sequence. L. L.

Sedirnentology, 8 (1967) 1-26

19

LAMINA, LAMINASET, BED AND BEDSET

BEDS

Very thick bed

100

36

LAMINAE
Thick bed

fn

v)

W
iW

I
12

30

z
W

Very thick lamina

4.0

(0

Medium bed

Thick lamina

z
10

L
0

1.0

z
z

0.39

Medium lamina

fn

z
Y

-I

Thin bed

uL

Thin lamina

I-

fn
fn

0.12

3
I

Very thin lamina

Very thin bed

(Adopfed from tngram. t9541

Fig.3. Terminology for thickness of beds and laminae. The terms for bed thicknesses may also be
used for laminasets.

Sloss (personal communication, 1962) suggested using megascopic in this definition

to exclude differences within those layers that can only be distinguished by use of
petrographic and electron microscopes, X-ray diffraction and fluorescence, and traceelement and isotopic analyses. A lamina is bounded above and below by surfaces
termed laminar surfaces; they are the same as bedding surfaces, except for their
smaller areal extent and shorter time for formation because they are contained within
beds.
Genetically a lamina is a small bed; consequently, it is characterized by the
same features previously described for a bed with the following significant exceptions
(Table I): a lamina (1) is relatively uniform in composition and texture; (2) is never
internally layered (at least megascopically); (3) has a smaller areal extent than the
enclosing bed, except in some instances where laminae parallel bedding surfaces;
and (4) forms in a shorter period of time than the encompassing bed. In addition,
the thickness of a lamina is usually measured in millimeters; although laminae in
some cross-laminated, coarse-grained beds may be as thick as 25 cm.
According to this concept of lamina, a bed without recognizable internal lamiSedimentology, 8 (1961) 1-26

20

C. V. CAMPBELL

nations might be considered a lamina. Study of such a bed in relation to adjacent

recognizable beds and in terms of thickness usually will decide the useful ranking
for the layer under consideration.

LAMINASET

A laminaset consists of a group or set of conformable laminae that compose

distinctive structures within a bed, and beds containing laminasets consist of a
complex of this structure. Set is used here in the sense of MCKEEand WEIR(1953,
pp.382-383), who state: A set is a group of essentially conformable strata or crossstrata, separated from other sedimentary units by surfaces of erosion, nondeposition,
or abrupt changes in character. . . . Surfaces bounding laminasets are termed laminaset surfaces.
Because laminasets are small beds, they are similar to beds in all respects (Table
I), except that they are thinner, less extensive laterally, and form in a shorter time
than the beds they compose.
In the writers experience, the most common laminasets are both current- and
wave-generated ripple structures; each set of laminae representing a ripple is a
laminaset. STOKES
(1964) describes another type of laminaset in aeolian deposits,
where cross-strata composing trough-shaped beds consist of alternating sets of
coarser- and finer-grained laminae. (Stokes describes the sets of coarse and of fine
laminae as separate beds, and he does not recognize that his two types of beds
comprise trough-shaped units, or beds in the terms of this paper.) Also, each structure
in the vertical sequence that characterizes a graded turbidite bed (BOUMA,1962,
pp.48-54) is a laminaset. In Boumas sequence a current ripple-laminated laminaset
is sandwiched between upper and lower parallel-laminated laminasets.

BEDSET

A bedset consists of two or more superposed beds characterized by the same

composition, texture, and sedimentary structures. This unit is bounded above and
below by bedset surfaces; these surfaces are the upper bedding surface of the highest
bed in the bedset and the bottom surface of the lowest bed.
As a multiple of beds, a bedset has most of the characteristics of a bed but
differs in the following aspects (Table I): (I) the thickness of a hedset is the total
thickness of component beds; (2) beds above and below the bedset always differ in
composition, texture, and sedimentary structures from those composing the bedset;
(3) the beds within a bedset are repetitive and never rhythmic in the sense of adjacent
beds varying in physical characteristics according to some pattern of change.
A group of alternating beds of different composition forms a common type of
Sedimentology, 8 (1967) 7-26

LAMINA, LAMINASET, BED AND BEDSET

21

depositional sequence in the geologic record. Such depositional sequences may be

called composite bedsets.
The bedset of this paper in some examples corresponds to MCKEEand WEIRS
(1953, p.384) coset, which they define as . . . a sedimentary unit made up of two or
more sets, either of strata or of cross-strata, separated from other strata or crossstrata by original flat surfaces of erosion, nondeposition, or abrupt change in character. . .. However, this definition of coset applied equally as well to beds composed
of laminasets and such beds commonly form bedsets. Distinction between laminasets
and bedsets is recommended in order to more precisely describe the internal structure
of sedimentary bodies.

PRACTICAL APPLICATION OF CONCEPTS

The concepts of lamina, laminaset, bed and bedset presented here pose problems
in their application, as have all previous terminologies of stratification. Such difficulties are expected because these four types of layers differ principally in scale-areal
extent and time for formation.
Application of these concepts will vary, depending upon ease of distinction
of the four scales of layers, time available and objectives. Beds may be difficult to
recognize in some rock sequences, especially in well cores; and time to satisfactorily
distinguish these layers may not be available. In field and subsurface mapping and
in measuring sections for many stratigraphic purposes, distinction of bedsets, if
present, may be more practical than identifying beds, laminasets, and laminae. An
example is in thick shale sequences where beds can be distinguished only by detailed
and time consuming study. However, if ones objective is to understand depositional
processes and differentiate environmental types, all scales of sedimentary layers
should be studied.
Another problem in recognizing these four types of layers is the size of the rock
samples studied. All four kinds of layers, if present, can be identified in most outcrops
and continuously-cored sections. If the samples are hand specimens or small sections
of a well core, only laminae or laminasets are usually seen; although bedding surfaces
may be distinguished in some specimens.
Patterns shown by the different scales of layers and their bounding surfaces
should be studied in three dimensions. In iiregularly-shaped layers bounded by curved,
nonparallel surfaces, the patterns expressed by both the laminae and the bounding
surfaces depend upon the orientation of the face studied relative to the direction of
movement of the depositing medium; an example familiar to most geologists is a
cross-laminated trough bed.
Scale is the distinguishing feature between beds composed of laminasets that are
sets of ripple laminae and bedsets consisting of trough beds composed of sets of
cross laminae. The ripple laminae are small scale (less than 1 ft. long), and cross
laminae in the trough beds are mostly medium scale (1-20 ft. long) or in many places
Sedimentology, 8 (1967) 7- 26

22

C. V.

CAMPBELL

large scale (greater than 20 ft). These limits for scale of cross laminae were suggested
by MCKEEand WEIR(1953, p.388).
Distinguishing laminae from beds is difficult and arbitrary where laminasets
are absent and laminae parallel bedding surfaces. The rocks must be carefully examined to determine the particular repetitive or rhythmic sequences of laminae that
compose the beds. If these smallest layers are not arranged in either repetitive or
rhythmic sequences, each small layer is a bed. A varve is one of the clearest examples
of a bed with laminae parallel to bedding surfaces. Other rocks with this orientation
of laminae, as shale units, commonly can be divided into groups of laminae which
are beds. However, such minute subdivision is seldom performed, nor is it practical,
except in detailed studies of depositional processes and environments.
Another bedding surface that is difficult to identify separates the shale at the
top of graded turbidite beds from the overlying pelagic shale. Sometimes this
bedding surface is marked by a color change or a recognizable change in composition
of the shale, but more often this bedding surface is obscure. Usually, distinction of
this bedding surface is neither practical nor necessary, except where the pelagic
shale is to be sampled for its benthonic fauna.
Activity of burrowing organisms and roots both obscures and assists in defining
beds. Some burrows and roots cross bedding as well as smaller scale stratal surfaces;
if abundant, they may destroy these surfaces and merge a number of beds or smallerscale layers into a homogenized unit recognizable as a bed. Other burrows and roots
penetrate underlying beds from bedding or smaller-scale surfaces and assist in their
identifications. Also, trails or burrows may be concentrated on bedding surfaces and
mark them.
Beds and bedsets commonly are separated by very thin units consisting of a
lithology different from that of the bed. This material composes a bed according to
the concept here proposed. In practical application, however, this kind of bed may
be termed a parting; it is generally discontinuous and ordinarily too thin to readily
measure.

DESCRIPTION OF LAYERS

Combinations of terms used to describe beds, laminasets and laminae are shown
in Fig.2. First, the parallelism or nonparallelism of the bounding surface is determined; then the configuration of the bounding surfaces-even, wavy, or curved- is
observed. In addition, these bounding surfaces may be continuous or discontinuous
across the outcrop or smaller samples.
Descriptions are recorded in the reverse of the order noted above; for example,
discontinuous, curved, nonparallel beds. Where the layering surfaces are continuous, the word continuous is omitted; it is inferred as in the phrase, even, parallel
beds.
Where laminae aIranged in certain configurations have well known names, the
Sedimentology, 8 (1967) 7-26

LAMINA, LAMINASET, BED AND BEDSET

23

names are preferred for brevity over the proposed terminology, but the proposed
terminology is still required for precise description of the configuration. Principal
configurations are: ( I ) cross laminae (laminae oblique to bedding surfaces); (2) ripple
laminae (laminae oblique to laminaset surfaces); (3) parallel laminae (commonly
laminae parallel with bedding surfaces but phrase may also be used to describe
patterns of laminae in any structure); and (4) contorted laminae (laminae deformed
relative to original stratal surfaces). These names, which have genetic implications,
are both descriptive and meaningful to most geologists.
The system proposed here for describing the different scales of strata can be
considered a morphologic classification of these layers. Such, however, is not the
intent; this system is presented only as a means of describing these layers in common
terms. Description of objects to be classified precedes their classification. In the
writers opinion, the most meaningful classification of sedimentary structures should
have genesis as the unifying principle.

BED CONCEPT IN STRATIGRAPHIC NOMENCLATURE

The concept of bed presented here differs from that in the Code of Stratigraphic
Nomenclature (AMERICAN
COMMISSION
ON STRATIGRAPHIC
NOMENCLATURE,
196 1,
p.650). The Code defines a bed as the smallest rock-stratigraphic unit recognized
in classification. As described here, a bed has the properties of a time-stratigraphic
unit of generally limited areal extent and short time span. Even though not recognized
as such in the Code, a bed may be considered an informal time-stratigraphic unit
useful in intrabasinal correlation.
Key or marker beds may be a single bed or a group of beds according to the
concept of bed proposed here. Examples of a single bed composing a key bed
are bentonite and coal beds. An example of a marker consisting of a group of beds
is a bedset composed of thin limestone beds containing a characteristic fauna; this
type of marker is also a biostratigraphic unit (AMERICAN
COMMISSION
ON STRATIGRAPHIC NOMENCLATURE, 1961, p.655).
Bounding surfaces of beds are depositional surfaces, and they may or may
not continue beyond the limits of the recognizable bed. Where a bed terminates due
to lateral lithologic changes, the depositional surfaces continue beyond the limits of
the particular bed, even though the surfaces lose their physical expression. Where
a bed ends by intersection of its bounding depositional surfaces, these surfaces merge
and become the depositional surface for the overlying bed. Where depositional surfaces abut against a larger scale surface, they terminate.
The facies change within a time-stratigraphic unit and the lateral change of
one rock-stratigraphic unit into another is a complex bed-by-bed change as shown
in Fig.4. The thin resistant beds in the upper left of the photograph are clean sandstone and the sheer face of the cliff on the right is muddy sandstone. Observe how the
sharply defined bedding surfaces on the left continue into the muddy sandstone on
Sedimentology, 8 (1967) 7-26

24

C. V. CAMPBELL

Fig.4. Facies change. Resistant beds of clean sandstone on the upper left grade into muddy sandstone
forming the sheer face on the right. Observe ( I ) how sharply defined bedding surfaces on the left
continue into muddy sandstone on the right and become obscure, and (2) how each bed changes
lithology at a different position, independently of adjacent beds.

the right and then become obscure. Also, observe how each bed changes lithology
at a different position, independently of adjacent beds. Time equivalency of the two
lithologies across the facies change between selected bedding surfaces is thus demonstrated according to the law of superposition. This small time-stratigraphic unit is
bounded by bedding or depositional surfaces that are synchronous surfaces. A
rock-stratigraphic unit transgressing time will show this type of gradational relation
in any small interval along its boundary. Bedding surfaces parallel the boundaries
of the thin time intervals. Such thin time-stratigraphic intervals may be recognized
and correlated even in non-fossiliferous sections. When one bed can no longer be
traced, correlations can be continued by moving to stratigraphically higher or lower
traceable beds. Tn this way a basinwide time-correlation pattern may be developed.
This technique of correlation is standard with surface geologists mapping structure;
it can be applied equally well in correlating mechanical well logs; and it is similar to
the one used by geophysicists, except that the reflections they record probably come
from bedset surfaces or are composited from groups of essentially parallel beds.
Such correlation patterns show precisely the internal structure, external geometry,
and relationships between different stratigraphic units within a depositional basin.
Sedimentology, 8 (1 967) 1-26

LAMINA, LAMINASET, BED AND BEDSET

25

CONCLUSIONS

The descriptions of lamina, laminaset, bed and bedset presented here overlap
because these layers differ principally in areal extent and interval of time required
for formation. Conclusive criteria for their distinction are not always present. Using
the described differences between these types of layers, a geologist usually should be
able to make a practical and workable distinction between them. The final classification, however, will depend upon the intent and objective of the geologist.
The concept of a bed bounded by bedding surfaces that are synchronous
depositional surfaces broadens the scope of intrabasinal stratigraphic correlation. Patterns of time-correlation lines within a basin can be developed from surface outcrops,
subsurface geological data, and seismic reflection records. Such correlation patterns
enable better understanding of the relations of one rock body to another. Also, the
development of larger stratigraphic units may be traced by study of their layered
structure, thereby increasing our understanding of their formative processes and
characteristics.

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

The writer thanks those colleagues with whom he has discussed layering in
sedimentary rocks during the last 15 years. None of these geologists, however, is
responsible for errors in logic or observation that may be recorded here. The writer
especially appreciates the suggestions and encouragement offered by J. B. Sangree,
P. R. Vail, G. T. MacCallum and C . W. Hoskins. Professor L. L. Sloss kindly read
and suggested important changes in an early version of this manuscript. Esso Production Research Company granted permission to publish this paper.

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COMMISSION
ON STRATIGRAPHIC
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L. N., 1962. Sloistost osadochnykh porod (Bedding of sedimentary rocks). Tr. Geol. Znsr.,
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BOUMA,
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