Whew...

Lots of questions.
Lets start with a few basics.
kw per square foot is not a good way to think about it, and therein lies the problem
with solar panels.
A typical 6"x6" cell puts about Volt, and about 7 Amps DC Power.
Watts = Volts x Amps
So one gets about 0.5 Volts * 7 Amps = about a maximum of 3.5 Watts from the
cell.
If you put 4 of the cells together, you get about 14 watts per square foot, or about
0.014 kw per square foot (with 1000 watts per kilowatt). This is more or less the
maximum power you might expect to get with noon-time sun during the summer.
You will get a lot less with morning or evening sun.
Solar panels are made up of multiple solar cells. If the cells are wired in parallel,
one increases the amps. If the cells are wired in series, one increases the volts.
The Open Circuit Voltage and Short Circuit Amps that the cell puts out are more or
less theoretical maximums. You find that the greater the power draw, the lower the
volts that the cell puts out. Thus, there is a tradeoff between Amps and Volts. Most
panels now have a "Peak Power" rating.
A typical 12V Car battery actually is about 12.6V when fully charged. But, it is
generally charged at about 14V.
So...
Older solar panels were often rated to put out 12V, but actually had a peak output
of about 18-20V.
More modern (consumer grade) panels usually have power ratings of about 30-50V.
Usually one uses a charge controller to isolate the system or batteries, and the
charge controller can automatically adjust to the "Peak Power" output of the panel.
I have some panels that are about 3' wide, 4.5' tall, with an output of about 200W,
maximum voltage of 68V, and Maximum Power Point (MPPT) of about 56V.
AC vs DC.
If you are just running lights and such from a solar panel, then it is easy enough to
set up a DC system, and use DC light bulbs. No inverter to turn on and off, and no

inverter loss.
However, as most of the appliances in the USA require 110V/220V AC current, one
can also attach an AC/DC inverter to provide the correct voltage. And, of course,
people typically choose 60 HZ for USA and 50 HZ for Europe.
You can run the system entirely "off grid" meaning that one has to generate 100%
of one's own power needs, and setup one's own batteries for backup power. Or, one
can run the system "on grid", essentially using the power company's system as a
super-battery. One sends the surplus power to the grid, and can take extra power
from the grid as needed. No batteries are required, although some systems use
them for backup power.
Traditionally the inverters have been centralized, but some companies such as
Enphase have an option of connecting mini-inverters directly to each panel, in effect
converting the DC panels to AC panels.
Here is a good picture of the construction of a solar cell/panel. The top most layers
listed are actually part of the panel, and outside of the cells.
http://www.specmat.com/Overview%20of%20Solar%20Cells.htm
Most cells are silicon cells with a layer of pure silicon covered by a layer of silicon
"doped" with Arsenic or Phosphorous, then with electrodes attached.
There are also variations such as cells sprayed onto ordinary glass, or flexible cells.
Boeing & Emcore make what they term as a "triple junction" cell that absorbs a
wider bandwidth of energy, and thus has higher efficiency ratings than the typical
household cells. These high efficiency triple junction cells are used in space
applications where space & weight is a premium, as well as in commercial
concentrated light solar panels.
Heat vs Electricity.
A typical solar panel is only about 10 to 20% efficient at converting sunlight to
electricity. An appliance such as a hot water heater will also have efficiency losses.
For hot water, it is much cheaper, and more efficient to heat the water directly (or
with an antifreeze heat exchange medium) than to generate electricity, then using
the electricity to heat the water. Likewise, solar panels can be devised to heat air
directly, again with efficiency gains over electric solar panels and electric heating.
However... at least in Oregon, peak power needs are also during the winter when
the sun is most scarce.

What is MPPT?
MPPT or Maximum Power Point Tracking is algorithm that included in charge controllers
used for extracting maximum available power from PV module under certain conditions. The

voltage at which PV module can produce maximum power is called maximum power point (or
peak power voltage). Maximum power varies with solar radiation, ambient temperature and solar
cell temperature.
Typical PV module produces power with maximum power voltage of around 17 V when
measured at a cell temperature of 25C, it can drop to around 15 V on a very hot day and it can
also rise to 18 V on a very cold day.

How MPPT works?

The major principle of MPPT is to extract the maximum available power from PV module by
making them operate at the most efficient voltage (maximum power point). That is to say:
MPPT checks output of PV module, compares it to battery voltage then fixes what is the best
power that PV module can produce to charge the battery and converts it to the best voltage to
get maximum current into battery. It can also supply power to a DC load, which is connected
directly to the battery.
MPPT is most effective under these conditions:
Cold weather, cloudy or hazy days: Normally, PV module works better at cold
temperatures and MPPT is utilized to extract maximum power available from
them.
When battery is deeply discharged: MPPT can extract more current and charge
the battery if the state of charge in the battery is lowers.

MPPT solar charge controller

A MPPT solar charge controller is the charge controller
embedded with MPPT algorithm to maximize the amount
of current going into the battery from PV module.
MPPT is DC to DC converter which operates by taking DC
input from PV module, changing it to AC and converting it
back to a different DC voltage and current to exactly match
the PV module to the battery.
Examples of DC to DC converter are
Boost converter is power converter which DC input voltage is less than DC
output voltage. That means PV input voltage is less than the battery voltage in

system.
Buck converter is power converter which DC input voltage is greater than DC
output voltage. That means PV input voltage is greater than the battery voltage
in system.

MPPT algorithm can be applied to both of them depending on system design. Normally, for
battery system voltage is equal or less than 48 V, buck converter is useful. On the other hand, if
battery system voltage is greater than 48 V, boost converter should be chosen.
MPPT solar charge controllers are useful for off-grid solar power systems such as stand-alone
solar power system, solar home system and solar water pump system, etc.

Main features of MPPT solar charge controller

In any applications which PV module is energy source, MPPT solar charge
controller is used to correct for detecting the variations in the current-voltage
characteristics of solar cell and shown by I-V curve.
MPPT solar charge controller is necessary for any solar power systems need
to extract maximum power from PV module; it forces PV module to operate at
voltage close to maximum power point to draw maximum available power.
MPPT solar charge controller allows users to use PV module with a higher
voltage output than operating voltage of battery system.
For example, if PV module has to be placed far away from charge controller
and battery, its wire size must be very large to reduce voltage drop. With a
MPPT solar charge controller, users can wire PV module for 24 or 48 V
(depending on charge controller and PV modules) and bring power into 12 or 24
V battery system. This means it reduces the wire size needed while retaining
full output of PV module.
MPPT solar charge controller reduces complexity of system while output of
system is high efficiency. Additionally, it can be applied to use with more energy
sources. Since PV output power is used to control DC-DC converter directly.
MPPT solar charge controller can be applied to other renewable energy
sources such as small water turbines, wind-power turbines, etc.

How to choose MPPT solar charge controller for PV module

Table 1 Specifications of PV modules separated by manufacturers

PV Manufactures

Model

Wp

Vpm

Ipm

Isc

Voc

NE-78T1

78

17.1

4.57

5.08

21.4

ND-130T1

130

17.4

7.48

8.09

22

Kaneka
[View Specifications]

GPA

64

68

0.94

1.17

92

SANYO
[ View
Specifications]

HIP-180B2

190

54

3.33

3.15

66.4

Bangkok Solar
[View Specifications]

BS 40

40

44.8

0.9

1.16

62.2

SHARP
[View Specifications]

Standard Test Condition: Irradiance = 1000 W/m2, Cell temperature = 25C, Air
mass = 1.5

Standard Test Condition: Irradiance = 1000 W/m2, Cell temperature = 25C, Air
mass = 1.5

How to set system configuration of MPPT solar charge controller

Figure 3 General configuration of the MPPT solar charge controller

SOLAR CHARGE CONTROLLER

WITH MPPT AND
DC LOAD TIMER 10A

Advance microprocessor control

Buck regulator wide input range

Maximum Power Point Tracking (MPPT)

Solar charge controller with DC load

control

Reverse polarities protection of PV and

battery

Battery overcharge and overdischarge

protection

Temperature compensation (-3 to

-7mV/Cell/Celsius)

Lighting surge protection (TVSS)

3-step charging to provide quick and safe

charging for battery

Table 2 Specifications of the SOLARCON SPT-series MPPT solar charge controller

Automatic cooling fan (outside enclosure)

click to enlarge

How to choose MPPT solar charge controller for PV module and battery
Steps to consider for choosing MPPT solar charge controller
SPT-XXYY (XX is nominal battery voltage, YY is maximum charge current)
Find out what is nominal battery voltage that charge controller will charge and
select XX
Find out what is Wp of PV module and

 Select the suitable charge current (CC) = (Wp) / XX

Find out YY by multiply CC by safety factor (NEC requirement) = (CC) x 1.2
Select SOLARCON SPT-series model that covers YY
Check that Vpm(system) is in range that SPT-XXYY can handle (MPPT voltage
range)
If PV modules are in series, need to check that Vpm(system) = Vpm(module) x
Module in series
If PV modules are in parallel, need to check that Vpm(system) = Vpm(module)
Check that Voc(system) is not more than SPT-XXYY range (Maximum open circuit
voltage)

If PV modules are in series, need to check that Voc(system) = Voc(module) x

Module in series

If PV modules are in parallel, need to check that Voc(system) = Voc(module)

Examples of MPPT solar charge controller selection and calculation

How to Design Solar PV System

What is solar PV system?

Solar photovoltaic system or Solar power system is one of renewable energy system which
uses PV modules to convert sunlight into electricity. The electricity generated can be either
stored or used directly, fed back into grid line or combined with one or more other electricity
generators or more renewable energy source. Solar PV system is very reliable and clean source
of electricity that can suit a wide range of applications such as residence, industry, agriculture,
livestock, etc.
Major system components
Solar PV system includes different components that should be selected according to your
system type, site location and applications. The major components for solar PV system are
solar charge controller, inverter, battery bank, auxiliary energy sources and loads (appliances).

 PV module converts sunlight into DC electricity.

Solar charge controller regulates the voltage and current coming from the PV panels
going to
battery and prevents battery overcharging and prolongs the battery life.
Inverter converts DC output of PV panels or wind turbine into a clean AC current for
AC
appliances or fed back into grid line.
Battery stores energy for supplying to electrical appliances when there is a demand.
Load is electrical appliances that connected to solar PV system such as lights, radio, TV,
computer,
refrigerator, etc.
Auxiliary energy sources - is diesel generator or other renewable energy sources.
Solar PV system sizing
1. Determine power consumption demands
The first step in designing a solar PV system is to find out the total power and
energy consumption of all loads that need to be supplied by the solar PV system
as follows:

1.1 Calculate total Watt-hours per day for each appliance used.
Add the Watt-hours needed for all appliances together to get the total Watt-hours per day
which
must be delivered to the appliances.
1.2 Calculate total Watt-hours per day needed from the PV modules.
Multiply the total appliances Watt-hours per day times 1.3 (the energy lost in the
system) to get
the total Watt-hours per day which must be provided by the panels.
2. Size the PV modules
Different size of PV modules will produce different amount of power. To find out
the sizing of PV module, the total peak watt produced needs. The peak watt (Wp)
produced depends on size of the PV module and climate of site location. We have
to consider panel generation factor which is different in each site location. For
Thailand, the panel generation factor is 3.43. To determine the sizing of PV
modules, calculate as follows:

2.1 Calculate the total Watt-peak rating needed for PV modules

Divide the total Watt-hours per day needed from the PV modules (from item 1.2) by
3.43 to get

the total Watt-peak rating needed for the PV panels needed to operate the appliances.
2.2 Calculate the number of PV panels for the system
Divide the answer obtained in item 2.1 by the rated output Watt-peak of the PV modules
available
to you. Increase any fractional part of result to the next highest full number and that will
be the
number of PV modules required.
Result of the calculation is the minimum number of PV panels. If more PV modules
are installed, the system will perform better and battery life will be improved. If
fewer PV modules are used, the system may not work at all during cloudy periods
and battery life will be shortened.
3. Inverter sizing
An inverter is used in the system where AC power output is needed. The input
rating of the inverter should never be lower than the total watt of appliances. The
inverter must have the same nominal voltage as your battery.
For stand-alone systems, the inverter must be large enough to handle the total
amount of Watts you will be using at one time. The inverter size should be 25-30%
bigger than total Watts of appliances. In case of appliance type is motor or
compressor then inverter size should be minimum 3 times the capacity of those
appliances and must be added to the inverter capacity to handle surge current
during starting.
For grid tie systems or grid connected systems, the input rating of the inverter
should be same as PV array rating to allow for safe and efficient operation.
4. Battery sizing
The battery type recommended for using in solar PV system is deep cycle
battery. Deep cycle battery is specifically designed for to be discharged to low
energy level and rapid recharged or cycle charged and discharged day after day
for years. The battery should be large enough to store sufficient energy to operate
the appliances at night and cloudy days. To find out the size of battery, calculate
as follows:

4.1 Calculate total Watt-hours per day used by appliances.

4.2 Divide the total Watt-hours per day used by 0.85 for battery loss.
4.3 Divide the answer obtained in item 4.2 by 0.6 for depth of discharge.
4.4 Divide the answer obtained in item 4.3 by the nominal battery voltage.
4.5 Multiply the answer obtained in item 4.4 with days of autonomy (the number of days

that you
need the system to operate when there is no power produced by PV panels) to get the
required
Ampere-hour capacity of deep-cycle battery.
Battery Capacity (Ah) = Total Watt-hours per day used by appliances x Days of autonomy
(0.85 x 0.6 x nominal battery voltage)
5. Solar charge controller sizing
The solar charge controller is typically rated against Amperage and Voltage
capacities. Select the solar charge controller to match the voltage of PV array and
batteries and then identify which type of solar charge controller is right for your
application. Make sure that solar charge controller has enough capacity to handle
the current from PV array.
For the series charge controller type, the sizing of controller depends on the
total PV input current which is delivered to the controller and also depends on PV
panel configuration (series or parallel configuration).
According to standard practice, the sizing of solar charge controller is to take the
short circuit current (Isc) of the PV array, and multiply it by 1.3
Solar charge controller rating = Total short circuit current of PV array x 1.3

Remark: For MPPT charge controller sizing will be different. (See Basics of MPPT Charge
Controller)
Example: A house has the following electrical appliance usage:

One 18 Watt fluorescent lamp with electronic ballast used 4 hours per day.

One 60 Watt fan used for 2 hours per day.

One 75 Watt refrigerator that runs 24 hours per day with compressor run 12
hours and off 12 hours.

The system will be powered by 12 Vdc, 110 Wp PV module.

1. Determine power consumption demands
Total appliance use = (18 W x 4 hours) + (60 W x 2 hours) + (75 W x 24 x 0.5
hours)
= 1,092 Wh/day

Total PV panels energy

needed

= 1,092 x 1.3
= 1,419.6 Wh/day.

2. Size the PV panel

2.1 Total Wp of PV panel
capacity
needed

= 1,419.6 / 3.4

= 413.9 Wp
2.2 Number of PV panels
needed

= 413.9 / 110
= 3.76 modules

Actual requirement = 4 modules

So this system should be powered by at least 4 modules of 110 Wp PV module.
3. Inverter sizing
Total Watt of all appliances = 18 + 60 + 75 = 153 W
For safety, the inverter should be considered 25-30% bigger size.
The inverter size should be about 190 W or greater.
4. Battery sizing
Total appliances use = (18 W x 4 hours) + (60 W x 2 hours) + (75 W x 12 hours)
Nominal battery voltage = 12 V
Days of autonomy = 3 days
Battery capacity = [(18 W x 4 hours) + (60 W x 2 hours) + (75 W x 12 hours)] x 3
(0.85 x 0.6 x 12)
Total Ampere-hours required 535.29 Ah
So the battery should be rated 12 V 600 Ah for 3 day autonomy.
5. Solar charge controller sizing
PV module specification
Pm = 110 Wp
Vm = 16.7 Vdc
Im = 6.6 A
Voc = 20.7 A
Isc = 7.5 A

Solar charge controller rating = (4 strings x 7.5 A) x 1.3 = 39 A

So the solar charge controller should be rated 40 A at 12 V or greater.
Basics of Solar Cell
Solar energy is the ultimate source of energy, which is naturally replenished in a short period of
time, for this reason it is called "renewable energy" or "sustainable energy" source. To take
advantages of solar energy, the variety of technologies is used to covert solar energy to heat
and electricity. The use of solar energy involves 'energy conservation' because it is the way to
use energy source that comes from the nature and uses it more wisely and efficiently. That way
includes Solar Cell, which is described as follows:
What is Solar Cell?
Solar Cell or Photovoltaic (PV) cell is a device that is made
up of semiconductor materials such as silicon, gallium arsenide
and cadmium telluride, etc. that converts sunlight directly into
electricity. When solar cells absorb sunlight, free electrons and
holes are created at positive/negative junctions. If the positive
and negative junctions of solar cell are connected to DC
electrical equipment, current is delivered to operate the
electrical equipment.

Solar cell types

There are three major cell types that classified by its manufacturing technology and the
semiconductor.

Single Crystalline Silicon

PV Module

Polycrystalline Silicon
PV Module

Amorphous Silicon
PV Module

1. Crystalline Silicon PV Module: Two types of crystalline silicon (c-Si) are used
to produce PV module; single crystalline silicon or known as monocrystalline
silicon and multi-crystalline silicon, also called polycrystalline silicon. The

polycrystalline silicon PV module has lower conversion efficiency than single

crystalline silicon PV module but both of them have high conversion efficiencies
that average about 10-12%.
2. Amorphous Silicon PV Module: Amorphous silicon (a-Si) PV module or thinfilm silicon PV module absorbs light more effectively than crystalline silicon PV
module, so it can be made thinner. It suits for any applications that high
efficiency is not required and low cost is important. The typical efficiency of
amorphous silicon PV module is around 6%.
3. Hybrid Silicon PV Module: A combination of single crystalline silicon
surrounded by thin layers of amorphous silicon provides excellent sensitivity to
lower light levels or indirect light. The Hybrid silicon PV module has highest
level of conversion efficiency about 17%.

Solar cell structure

The most semiconductor material currently use for solar cell production is silicon, which has
some advantages as; it can be easily found in nature, does not pollute, does not harm the
environment and it can be easily melted, handled and formed into monocrystalline silicon
form, etc. The commonly solar cell is configured as a large-area p-n junction made from
silicon.
How solar cell works?

When sunlight strikes solar cell surface, the cell creates charge carrier as electrons and holes.
The internal field produced by junction separates some of positive charges (holes) from

negative charges (electrons). Holes are swept into positive or p-layer and electrons are swept
into negative or n-layer. When a circuit is made, free electrons have to pass through the load to
recombine with positive holes; current can be produced from the cells under illumination.
The individual solar cells are connected together to make a module (called 'solar module' or
'PV module') to increase current and the modules are connected in an array (called 'solar array'
or 'PV array'). Depending on current or voltage requirement, solar arrays are connected in a
variety of ways:
If the solar arrays are connected in parallel, the output current will increase.
If the solar arrays are connected in series, the output voltage will increase.

Solar PV system
Solar cells produce direct current (DC), therefore they are only used for DC equipments. If
alternating current (AC) is needed for AC equipments or backup energy is needed, solar
photovoltaic systems require other components in addition to solar modules. These components
are specially designed to integrate into solar PV system, that is to say they are renewable
energy products or energy conservation products and one or more of components may be
included depending on type of application. The components of solar photovoltaic system are

1. Solar Module is the essential component of any solar PV system that converts
sunlight directly into DC electricity.
2. Solar Charge Controller regulates voltage and current from solar arrays,
charges the battery, prevents battery from overcharging and also performs

controlled over discharges.

3. Battery stores current electricity that produces from solar arrays for using
when sunlight is not visible, nighttime or other purposes.
4. Inverter is a critical component of any solar PV system that converts DC power
output of solar arrays into AC for AC appliances.
5. Lightning protection prevents electrical equipments from damages caused by
lightning or induction of high voltage surge. It is required for the large size and
critical solar PV systems, which include the efficient grounding.

Solar cell advantages

Solar cell or PV cell produces clean with non-polluting energy source of electricity that is
environmental-friendly. Since it uses no fuel other than sunlight, gives off no waste, no
burning, and no moving part when it operates. It reduces collection of gases such as carbon
monoxide, sulfur dioxide, hydrocarbon and nitrogen, etc., which generated from fuel, coal and
fossil fuel burning power plants. All decrease the impacts of energy on the environment like
greenhouse effect, global warming, acid rain and air pollution, etc. It is easy to install and
transportable. With the modular characteristic, it can be constructed any sizes as required.
Moreover, it requires minimal maintenance and has long life span (more than 30 years) and
stable efficiency.
Solar cell applications
Home

Indoor and outdoor lighting system, electrical

equipment, electric gate opener, security system,
ventilator, water pump, water filter and emergency light,
etc.

Lighting system

Bus stop lighting, telephone booth lighting, billboard

lighting, parking lot lighting, indoor and outdoor lighting
and street lighting, etc.

Water pumping

Consumption, public utility, livestock watering,

agriculture, gardening and farming, mining and
irrigation, etc.

Battery charging Emergency power system, battery charging center for

system
rural village and power supply for household use and
lighting in remote area, etc.
Agriculture

Water pumping, agricultural products fumigator,

thrashing machines and water sprayer, etc.

Cattle

Water pumping, oxygen filling system for fish-farming

and insect trapped lighting, etc.

Health center

Refrigerator and cool box for keeping medicines and

vaccines and medical equipment, etc.

Communication

Air navigational aid, air warning light, lighthouse, beacon

navigation aid, illuminated road sign, railway crossing
sign, street lighting and emergency telephone, etc.

Telecommunicatio Microwave repeater station, telecommunication

n
equipment, portable communication equipment (e.g.
communication radio for service and military exercise)
and weather monitoring station, etc.
Remote area

Hill, island, forest and remote area that the utility grids
are not available, etc.

Space

Satellite, international space station and spacecraft, etc.

f Solar Power

g demand of electricity, the high price of oil and the growing concerns for our environment are
al factors that forcing us to enhance the uses of alternative energy sources. Among a variety of
ergy sources, solar energy is a sustainable alternative option that can be utilized in various ways and
or many applications.

s produced by collecting sunlight and converting into electricity, heat and lighting. This is done by
nels to convert sunlight into electricity, and using solar thermal collectors to absorb solar energy for
.

of solar power

y and heat from the sun is free and unlimited.

er is non-polluting. Solar power usage does not emit any greenhouse gases or harmful waste.
er is perfect and saving for power generation in remote areas or where the cost of expansion utility
h.
er is versatile. It can be used for low-power purpose as well as larger ones - from hand-held
s, watches, and solar powered garden lights to water heaters, cars, buildings and satellites.
er system requires very little maintenance and last for many years.

of solar energy

ng
t solar application is daylighting. Daylighting system collects and distributes sunlight to provide
nternal illumination inside buildings. Daylighting design implies careful selection of window types,
orientation may be considered as well. There are also other architectural features such as light
d even active sun tracking system which combine with fiber optics or mirrors to provide light to
large buildings.

rmal
rmal technologies can be used for water heating in homes or commercial and space heating or
ling for buildings. Solar water heating systems use different type of collectors to gather and store
energy for heating water used in residential, commercial and industrial applications. For space
d cooling in warm temperature region, the thermal mass materials is needed to keep building cool
ing solar energy during a day and radiate stored heat to cooler atmosphere at night. However they

d in cold temperature areas to maintain warmth as well.

ctric Power Generation

rgy can be directly converted to electricity by photovoltaic cells. Solar photovoltaic (PV) systems
ectricity to home or business for lighting, TV, fan, computer, stereo, refrigerator, water pump or
eeders, without connection to utility grid. They are also used to power watches, calculators and sign

y?

that we use in our

as household
e equipments and
ments, almost all of
e electricity.
hould understand

n that we will find

s "where does
me from?"

Ne
ws

01
/0
5/
20
14

Le
on
ics
made up of atoms. Then ask the next question, "What are
is
mallest part of an element. They are composed of nucleus and no
ons surround nucleus. Elements are identified by the number of w
on
t around nucleus of atoms and by the number of protons in
e

up of protons and neutrons, and the number of protons and

anced. Neutrons have no electric charge, protons have positive
electrons have negative charges (-). A positive charge of proton
ve charge of electron.

of HOMER prefer
partner program

20/12/2013
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Decathlon Europe
2014 competition

20/11/2013

und in their orbit by attraction of protons, but electrons in the

become free of their orbit by some external forces. These are
ee electrons, which move from one atom to the next, electron
ced. These are the basis of electricity. Materials that allow many
ve freely are called conductors and materials that allow few free
ve are called insulators.

Seminar on "Solar PV
Rooftop in Thailand"
The Big Change for
all and Sustainability
Energy

made up of atoms that have electric charges. Therefore, they have

10-12/10/2013
. For the matter that has a balanced the number of protons and
Leonics participated
ve charge force and negative charge force are balanced. It is
in "Bangkok Electric
ate of an atom. (The number of protons and electrons remains
& Electronics 2013"

07/09/2013
Practical seminars on
the rooftop solar
power system

city" represents a situation that all things are made up of electric

ample, the rubbing of material against another can cause the static
electrons of one material move forcefully till they are freed of their
ucleus and move to another. Electrons of one material decrease, it
e charges. At the same time, electrons of another increase, it has
s.

producing of the matter means the matter has electric charges. It has positive
es, which is expressed in coulomb.

ge and Resistance

omenon is caused by
ons from one atom to
cteristics of current
osite to those of static

of conductors such as
m. Atoms of metal are
ectrons, which freely
om to the next. If an
n wire, a free electron
oton to be neutral.
out of their orbits can
ctrons. Electrons,
y move in wire, are
rrent.

For solid conductors, electric current refers to

directional negative-to-positive electrons from one
atom to the next. Liquid conductors and gas
conductors, electric current refers to electrons and
protons flow in the opposite direction.
Current is flow of electrons, but current and
electron flow in the opposite direction.
Current flows from positive to negative and

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Basics of Current
Current is classified into two types:
Direct Current (DC): DC is unidirectional flow of
electric charge that means its direction remains
constant.
Examples of DC power source are battery and solar
cell, etc.
Direct Current or DC is suitable for using with DC
appliances not to reverse polarity.

Alternative Current (AC): AC is an electric current

which direction reverses cyclically. The usual
waveform of AC power is sine wave with frequency
50 or 60 Hz.
Examples of AC power sources are utility power
supplies to residences and businesses, audio and radio
signals, etc.
Electrical power consumption
Electrical power consumed by DC electrical appliances can be determined by voltage that they
work on and current that they consumed.
DC power consumption = Voltage (Volts) X Load Current (Amps) = Watts
Electrical power consumed by AC electrical appliances is more complicated than DC electrical
appliances because the direction of current is changed periodically then the value of voltage
and current should be measured in term of RMS (Root Mean Square) to eliminate changing of
current direction.
AC electrical appliances or AC loads are classified into two types as the followings;

 Linear load is electrical load consuming AC power both real power and apparent power
with a power factor of 1. Example of linear load is incandescent lamp.
Non-linear load generates harmonic currents in addition to the original AC current and its
power factor is less than 1. Examples of non-linear load are fluorescent lamp, electronic
ballast of fluorescent lamp, PC and TV, etc.
Each type of AC load has different consuming current characteristic and the figures below
show the current characteristic of linear load and non-linear load with same input voltage at
same power rating of load.

Current characteristic of
incandescent lamp,
which power factor = 1

Current characteristic of
a set of PC,
which power factor = 0.52

What are Watt and VA?

Watt is unit of power. Its measures a rate of energy use or production and its symbol is W.
VA or volt-ampere is unit of electrical power consumed by non-linear load. It measures
apparent power.
Example
A Computer is consumed power as a non-linear load then VA should be the measuring unit
that indicates power consumed by PC.
A UPS is used to supply power to PC once the utility power is failed then a UPS should be
declared its power in VA as well.
AC power (Watt) measuring
To measure real AC power of electrical appliances, the measuring equipment called "Power
meter" is requested. This equipment will measure voltage and current at the same time and
make calculation to get power in "Watt".
The following figures show measuring of a PC with 17" monitor power consumption by
using power meter.

 AC apparent power (VA) calculating

We can measure the power of the same set of a PC with 17" monitor by measuring voltage
(RMS) and current (RMS) after calculation power by multiply working voltage with
consumed current.

AC apparent power = Voltage (RMS) X Load Current (RMS) = VA

= 229.3 X 1.10 = 252.23 VA
The relation of AC power and AC apparent power
AC power = AC apparent power X Power factor
(Watts) = (VA) X Power factor
Power factor (pf) of an AC electrical power system is defined as ratio of real power to the
apparent power and is a number between 0 and 1.
Power factor of linear load equals one (=1) and power factor of non-linear load is less than one
(<1).
From a sample of a PC with 17" monitor, we can calculate power factor by
Watts = VA X pf
132 = 252.23 X pf
pf = 132 / 252.23 = 0.523

Maximum Power Point Tracking (MPPT)

Enable the solar panel always work at the Maximum Power Point of the V-A curve. Increase
efficiency of solar panel modules by 10% to 30%.
MPPT Principle
The maximum power point is mainly affected by the ambient temperature and the intensity of
sunshine. The intensity of sunshine being constant, the maximum power decreases with the rise
of temperature. The temperature being constant, when the sunshine intensify, the voltage of PV
module keep unchanged but the current increase substantially thus the maximum output power
increase.
This MPPT solar charge controller can intelligently regulate the working voltage of solar panels,
letting the solar panels always work at Maximum Power Point of V-A curve. Compared with
ordinary solar controller, this MPPT controller can increase the efficiency of PV modules by
about 30%. However, due to many factors, such as the different in solar panel making, the
change of sun illuminance, temperature, etc, the actual available increase rate is 10% - 30%