Coherence in Writing

Coherence is product of many different factors, which combine to make every paragraph, every
sentence, and every phrase contribute to the meaning of the whole piece. Coherence in writing is
much more difficult to sustain than coherent speech simply because writers have no nonverbal
clues to inform them if their message is clear or not. Therefore, writers must make their patterns
of coherence much more explicit and much more carefully planned. Coherence itself is the
product of two factors, paragraph unity and sentence cohesion.

Paragraph Unity
To achieve paragraph unity, a writer must ensure two things only. First, the paragraph must have
a single generalization that serves as the focus of attention, that is, a topic sentence. Secondly, a
writer must control the content of every other sentence in the paragraph's body such that (a) it
contains more specific information than the topic sentence and (b) it maintains the same focus of
attention as the topic sentence.
This generalization about paragraph structure holds true for the essay in particular. The two
major exceptions to this formula for paragraph unity are found in fiction (where paragraph
boundaries serve other functions, such as indicating when a new speaker is talking in a story)
and in journalism (where paragraphs are especially short to promote 'visual' ease by creating
white space).

Sentence Cohesion
To achieve cohesion, the link of one sentence to the next, consider the following techniques:
 Repetition. In sentence B (the second of any two sentences), repeat a word from sentence
A.

 Synonymy. If direct repetition is too obvious, use a synonym of the word you wish to
repeat. This strategy is call 'elegant variation.'

 Antonymy. Using the 'opposite' word, an antonym, can also create sentence cohesion,
since in language antonyms actually share more elements of meaning than you might
imagine.

 Pro-forms. Use a pronoun, pro-verb, or another pro-form to make explicit reference back
to a form mentioned earlier.

 Collocation. Use a commonly paired or expected or highly probable word to connect one
sentence to another.

 Enumeration. Use overt markers of sequence to highlight the connection between ideas.
This system has many advantages: (a) it can link ideas that are otherwise completely
 unconnected, (b) it looks formal and distinctive, and (c) it promotes a second method of
sentence cohesion, discussed in (7) below.

 Parallelism. Repeat a sentence structure. This technique is the oldest, most overlooked,
but probably the most elegant method of creating cohesion.

 Transitions. Use a conjunction or conjunctive adverb to link sentences with particular

logical relationships.
 Identity. Indicates sameness. that is, that is to say, in other words, ...
 Opposition. Indicates a contrast. but, yet, however, nevertheless, still, though, although,
whereas, in contrast, rather, ...
 Addition. Indicates continuation. and, too, also, furthermore, moreover, in addition,
besides, in the same way, again, another, similarly, a similar, the same, ...
 Cause and effect. Therefore, so, consequently, as a consequence, thus, as a result, hence,
it follows that, because, since, for
 Indefinites. Indicates a logical connection of an unspecified type. in fact, indeed, now, ...
 Concession. Indicates a willingness to consider the other side. admittedly, I admit, true, I
grant, of course, naturally, some believe, some people believe, it has been claimed that,
once it was believed, there are those who would say, ...
 Exemplification. Indicates a shift from a more general or abstract idea to a more specific
or concrete idea. For example, for instance, after all, an illustration of, even, indeed, in fact, it is
true, of course, specifically, to be specific, that is, to illustrate, truly, .
1. Instead
Retirement should be the reward for a lifetime of work.
It is widely viewed as a sort of punishment.
It is a punishment for growing old.

2. Therefore
In recent years viruses have been shown to cause cancer in chickens.
Viruses have also been shown to cause cancer in mice, cats, and even in some primates.
Viruses might cause cancer in humans.
This is a reasonable hypothesis.

3. In fact
We do not seek solitude.
If we find ourselves alone for once, we flick a switch.
We invite the whole world in.
The world comes in through the television screen.
4. On the contrary
we were not irresponsible.
Each of us should do something.
This thing would be of genuine usefulness to the world.
We were trained to think that.

5. However
little girls, of course, don't take toy guns out of their hip pockets.
They do not say "Pow, pow" to all their neighbors and friends.
The average well-adjusted little boy does this.
If we gave little girls the six-shooters, we would soon have double the pretend body
count.

6. Next
We drove the wagon close to a corner post.
We twisted the end of the wire around it.
We twisted the wire one foot above the ground.
We stapled it fast.
We drove along the line of posts.
We drove for about 200 yards.
We unreeled the wire on the ground behind us.

7. Indeed
we know very little about pain.
What we don't know makes it hurt all the more.
There is ignorance about pain.
No form of illiteracy in the United States is so widespread.
No form of illiteracy in the United States is so costly.

8. Moreover
many of our street girls can be as vicious as any corporation president.
Many of our street girls can be as money mad as any corporation president.
They can be less emotional than men.
They can be less emotional in conducting acts of personal violence.

9. For this reason

The historical sciences have made us very conscious of our past.
 They have made us conscious of the world as a machine.
The machine generates successive events out of foregoing ones.
Some scholars tend to look totally backward.
They look backward in their interpretation of the human future.

10. However
Rewriting is something that most writers find they have to do.
They rewrite to discover what they have to say.
They rewrite to discover how to say it.
There are a few writers who do little formal rewriting.
They have capacity and experience.
They create and review a large number of invisible drafts.
They create and review in their minds.
They do this before they approach the page.

Answering To The Above Exercise

11. Retirement should be the reward for a lifetime of work. Instead, it is widely viewed as a
sort of punishment for growing old.
(Carll Tucker)

12. In recent years viruses have been shown to cause cancer not only in chickens but also in
mice, cats, and even in some primates. Therefore, it is a reasonable hypothesis that
viruses might cause cancer in humans.

13. We do not seek solitude. In fact, if we find ourselves alone for once, we flick a switch
and invite the whole world in through the television screen.
(Eugene Raskin, "Walls and Barriers")

14. We were not irresponsible. On the contrary, we were trained to think that each of us
should do something that would be of genuine usefulness to the world.
(Lillian Smith, Killers of the Dream)

15. Little girls, of course, don't take toy guns out of their hip pockets and say "Pow, pow" to
all their neighbors and friends like average well-adjusted little boys. However, if we gave
little girls the six-shooters, we would soon have double the pretend body count.
(Anne Roiphe, "Confessions of a Female Chauvinist Sow")
16. We drove the wagon close to a corner post, twisted the end of the wire around it one foot
above the ground, and stapled it fast. Next, we drove along the line of posts for about 200
yards, unreeling the wire on the ground behind us.
(John Fischer, "Barbed Wire")

17. We know very little about pain and what we don't know makes it hurt all the more.
Indeed, no form of illiteracy in the United States is so widespread or costly as ignorance
about pain.
(Norman Cousins, "Pain Is Not the Ultimate Enemy")

18. Many of our street girls can be as vicious and money mad as any corporation president.
Moreover, they can be less emotional than men in conducting acts of personal violence.
(Gail Sheehy, "$70,000 a Year, Tax Free")

19. The historical sciences have made us very conscious of our past, and of the world as a
machine generating successive events out of foregoing ones. For this reason, some
scholars tend to look totally backward in their interpretation of the human future.
(Loren Eiseley, The Unexpected Universe)

20. Rewriting is something that most writers find they have to do to discover what they have
to say and how to say it. There are, however, a few writers who do little formal rewriting
because they have the capacity and experience to create and review a large number of
invisible drafts in their minds before they approach the page.
(Donald M. Murray, "The Maker's Eye: Revising Your Own Manuscripts"