1-Introduction

The role and significance of Translation throughout human

history and the development of civilization itself need no introduction.
What is fascinating to watch is the fact that as the world becomes
increasingly globalized, the role and significance of Translation also
become increasingly important as never before in human history. For
all its apparent equalizing effects on the worlds nations, globalization
seems to have been particularly ineffective in bridging the cultural
divides that still plague humanity.
This work presents a course in translation problems for final-year
English students and it is addressing to English learners in general
term. Bear in mind that knowing a foreign language is based on a good
level of reading and comprehension ability on the one hand, on the
other hand the way chosen by the translator is differ from one to
another depending on the meaning of the source language using many
types of translation that facilitate doing so.
A good translator can simply avoid making mistakes, but in fact
there is many problems in translation that prevent a learner from
making a good process of translation and these are the main issues in
translation that we are going to deal with in the following discussion.

01

2. Definition1
What is Translation
The term translation refers to the process of transferring or
rendering the meaning of a text framed in one language into another
language.
The word translation comes from the Latin word translatio,
originally derived from the perfect passive participle, translatus of the
Latin verb transferre. Transferre, meaning to transfer in English, is
formed by two parts, trans and ferre. In English, the prefix trans
means across, whereas ferre means to carry or to bring.
Transferre,
therefore, also means to carry across or to bring across in
English(qtd.in Bo Tso 1).
According to the dictionary we can find it defined as:
The process of translating words or texts from one language
into another;
The written or spoken rendering of the meaning of a word,

speech, book or other text, in another language [...].

Translation also can be defined as the operation of finding similarities
between languages from the source language (SL) to the target (TL).
(Paula&Rosman 11)
Translation is a specific oral or written activity aimed at the
recreation of an oral or written text (utterance) existing in one
language into a text in another language.

Translation is a process

(and its result) caused by social necessity of information (content)

transmitting, expressed in a written or oral text in one language by
means of an equivalent
(adequate) text in another language.
To translate means to precisely and completely express by means of
one language the things that had been expressed earlier by the means
of another language.

02
Translation is a Communication
Translation is a type of speech activity, aimed at
transmitting a message, doubling the components of communication in
those cases, when there is a discrepancy between codes used by the
sender and the receiver of the message. (qtd. in Sokolovsky 286).
Here are some examples to illustrate this process:

speak

()

satellite

()

aspirin

()

democracy

()

3. Types of Translation
The process of translation has many types and since the aim of
translation is to deliver the sense of the message in all cases, but translators
have suggested different methods based on the two major types: LITERAL &
FREE, each one
consists of other types that are going to be presented with more details.
3.1. Literal Translation
Literal translation is giving the simplest equivalent of the word from
source language (SL) grammatical structure into the target language (TL)
(Newmark 46) i.e. only the language is changed in this type of translation, the
following example will clarify more:
Jai trouv mon dictionnaire de poche __

I have found my pocket dictionary

Literal translation methods are understood and applied in three different ways,
which can be summarized and exemplified as follows. (Ghazala 4)
This method is commonly known as word-for-word translation. Ideally
the segmentation of the SL text into individual words and TL rendering of those
word-segments

03

one at a time. However, at the text level, the TT will become unreadable unless
compromises
are made thus, when translating, individual words and the word order of the ST
are kept only when it is possible.
3.2. Word-for-Word Translation
In this type we translate each word from the source text (ST) into an
equivalent word in the target text (TT)
This is often demonstrated as interlinear translation, with The TL
immediately below the SL words. The SL word-order is preserved and the words
translated singly by their most common meanings, out of context. Cultural words
are translated literally. The main use of word-for-word translation is either to
understand the mechanics of the source language or [o construe a difficult text
as a pre-t ran slat ion process. (Newmark 45-46).
This method of translation is considered to be a translation of individual
words, so all we must do is to find the equivalent of each word in the source
language to the target language. Some students find it an easy way to make any
translation faraway of differences in grammar or word order. The following
examples will help you to understand more:

-1-

can

stay

awake

all

night.

( )
.-2-

This

boy

is

very

intelligent.

04
-3-

we

spend

a lot

of

money

to

buy

new

clothes.

(
)

-4-

It

is

very

cold

outside

today.

2.1.2 One- To- One Literal Translation

In this method of translation, a word or phrase in SL is translated into an
Identical word or phrase in TL. that is; a noun is translated into a noun; two
nouns
Into two nouns; one adjective into one adjective; tow into two; etc. (Ghazala.8).
E.g.:
She uses English

Friend in need is a friend indeed

He speaks Arabic

The novel of Shakespeare

She plays tennis

In addition to this, a fixed expression such as a collocation, a proverb or

an idiom is
translated into a fixed expression, and also a metaphor is rendered into a
metaphor.
This type of translation is better than word for word translation because
it takes the context into consideration [and] it translates special and
metaphorical sources words and phrase into special and metaphorical target
equivalents (Ghazala.9)
This method also cannot be acceptable in some cases because it still
ignores the target language word and grammar when translating the source
language word and grammar,
05
also because it emphasize on keeping the number and the types in target
language when
we translate the source language words and phrase , in here two possible
mistakes are
going to be caused :
The first one is the emphasize on having an source language fixed expression
translated

into a target language fixed expression i.e. the insistence on having an source
language
Collocation, idiom, metaphor, etc. translated into a target language collocation,
idiom or
metaphor even though it may not exist (Ghazala.10).For example in the
translation of
the metaphor a can of worms into ( ) usually in Arabic it does not exist
such a
metaphor but the collocation it can be a good equivalent in Arabic.
2.1.3 Direct Translation
This type of translation takes the grammar and word order of the
target language into consideration. According to Ghazala it is the translation of
meaning

in context. It takes into consideration the grammar and word order of

the target language.

Metaphorical and special uses of language are

also accounted for in the target language [or a] full translation of meaning.(11) . It
is considered to be the best method of literal translation. It has a different view
to literal meaning. Literal meaning is not one single, unchanged direct meaning
for a word, but its different meanings in different contexts and combinations with
other words. (Ghazala.11).
For example, the English word run cannot be translated into in Arabic
in all situations and combinations .
E.g :
In the long run

To run wild

To run across

06

To run to fat

To run back
To run a company
To run short of money
To run through
To run its out

It is very clear that if the word run in the stated examples is rendered
into in the target language, that will be a wrong translation; because we
say in Arabic, but only .Another example is to run a
company it has only one meaning which is and we cannot say in
Arabic but only and if we translate it into it will be considered a
wrong translation not a literal translation .The same thing with the other
examples.
Metaphorical phrases like idioms translated in the same way ,for
example the only meaning of to beat about the bush is ( ) also the only
meaning of to get the sack is ( ),the same thing for the example monkey
business which means only and tall order which means
.
Direct translation is the one among the method of literal translation which
is acceptable and most widely spread and popular in practice among translators.

2.2. Free Translation

Unlike the previous ones, this type of translation takes into account the
meaning rather than the structure of the (SL) texts. The translator practices the
process of translation freely. He/she translates the text the way he/she wants and
understands under no limitations and without any instructions. As Ghazala (14)
maintains the translator is not confined by the
07
text or context, or the direct and available meaning of words and phrases .He
goes outside and
out of texts and contexts and behind and beyond words and phrases. No
limitations are put on his translation. It is alternatively referred to as sense-forsense translation in which the translator focuses on producing a natural readable
target text, i.e. it attempts to reproduce the meaning of the SL text. Free
translation reproduces the matter without the manner or the context without the
form of the original (Newmark: 46). In this case, the focus is on the message
proper. The translator tries to convey its intended meaning in a way that suits the
TL reader.
This method of translation is, likewise, known as dynamic translation
because the translator goes beyond words or phrases. It may be also called
communicative, pragmatic and creative translation.
It worthwhile to point out that free translation is used more abundantly in

literal texts and poetry. It is divided by Ghazala (1995) into two types:
1. Bound-free translation.
2. Loose-free translation.
2.2.1. Bound- Free Translation
Bound free translation focuses more on the context. It keeps the same
impact of the SL but it uses different words or phrases that serve similar effect in
the TL .In other words, the way sentences are used in the communicative
situations has to be taken into consideration in order to serve similar effects to
that of the original text. For instance, the form of expressivity, strong language
and so on. Ghazala provides the following examples:
08
He got nothing at the end

My friend goes to the top very soon

Come down to earth
She was sad deep down
You look quiet

She had a new baby

Are you lying to me?

The point that is noticeably common to these translated sentences is the

plain deployment of expressive, very formal Arabic.
This type of free translation is not loose, or without limitation, but is still
bound to the linguistic context in some way. Because of this reason, this type of
free translation is widely acceptable. However, when the translated does not go
hand in hand with the respective context, it is unacceptable.
2. Loose Free Translation
In this kind of translation the translator understands the pragmatic
meaning of ST and translates it that is to say this type of translation does not rely
on direct context .This translation is indirect ,pragmatic (.)rendering the
meaning intended by speakers behind what they say (Ghazala 16).
-It is half past nine

09

I am frightened

Literal translation is accepted in only some kinds of texts such as

technical and legal ones, but is not workable in other kinds like literally texts and
poetry (Shuttel worth,1997),because this type of translation ignores the culture of
the TL.
Also we can say that there are some free translations which are not

directly related to the original; they are resulted according to the understanding of
the translator.
Eg: No bacon in my breakfast
Books are very expensive

(Ghazala 16)
All this translations are also indirect and pragmatic .this type of
translation allows the translator to translate according to the way he understands,
and the aim also is to facilitate the task allowing the readers to infer the implied
meanings in the ST as in the TT.
3. The General Issues of Translation
3.1. Equivalence in Translation
As a principle of translation, the TT must be equivalent to ST. Equivalence is
divided into either word by word translation or meaning translation. Let us shed light
on this principle of translation.
Many writers use the term Equivalence to describe the nature and the
extent of the relationship that exist between the SL and TL text. Leonardi (2000)
states that for Nida(1964),defining and explaining the equivalence nature and
conditions is considered

Translation is a Communication

Translation is a type of speech activity, aimed at transmitting a

message, doubling the components of communication in those cases, when
there is a discrepancy between codes used by the sender and the receiver of the
message. (qtd. in Sokolovsky 286).
Here are some examples to illustrate this process:

speak

satellite

()

aspirin

()

democracy

()

()

3. Types of Translation
The process of translation has many types and since the aim of
translation is to deliver the sense of the message in all cases, but translators
have suggested different methods based on the two major types: LITERAL &
FREE, each one
consists of other types that are going to be presented with more details.
3.1. Literal Translation
Literal translation is giving the simplest equivalent of the word from
source language (SL) grammatical structure into the target language (TL)
(Newmark 46) i.e. only the language is changed in this type of translation, the
following example will clarify more:
Jai trouv mon dictionnaire de poche __

I have found my pocket dictionary

Literal translation methods are understood and applied in three different ways,
which can be summarized and exemplified as follows. (Ghazala 4)

This method is commonly known as word-for-word translation. Ideally

the segmentation of the SL text into individual words and TL rendering of those
word-segments

03
one at a time. However, at the text level, the TT will become unreadable unless
compromises
are made thus, when translating, individual words and the word order of the ST
are kept only when it is possible.
3.2. Word-for-Word Translation
In this type we translate each word from the source text (ST) into an
equivalent word in the target text (TT)
This is often demonstrated as interlinear translation, with The TL
immediately below the SL words. The SL word-order is preserved and the words
translated singly by their most common meanings, out of context. Cultural words
are translated literally. The main use of word-for-word translation is either to
understand the mechanics of the source language or [o construe a difficult text
as a pre-t ran slat ion process. (Newmark 45-46).
This method of translation is considered to be a translation of individual
words, so all we must do is to find the equivalent of each word in the source
language to the target language. Some students find it an easy way to make any
translation faraway of differences in grammar or word order. The following
examples will help you to understand more:

-1-

can

stay

awake

all

night.

( )
.-2-

This

boy

is

very

intelligent.

04
-3-

we

spend

a lot

of

money

to

buy

new

clothes.

(
)

-4-

It

is

very

cold

outside

today.

2.1.2 One- To- One Literal Translation

In this method of translation, a word or phrase in SL is translated into an
Identical word or phrase in TL. that is; a noun is translated into a noun; two
nouns

Into two nouns; one adjective into one adjective; tow into two; etc. (Ghazala.8).
E.g.:
She uses English

Friend in need is a friend indeed

He speaks Arabic

The novel of Shakespeare

She plays tennis

In addition to this, a fixed expression such as a collocation, a proverb or

an idiom is
translated into a fixed expression, and also a metaphor is rendered into a
metaphor.
This type of translation is better than word for word translation because
it takes the context into consideration [and] it translates special and
metaphorical sources words and phrase into special and metaphorical target
equivalents (Ghazala.9)
This method also cannot be acceptable in some cases because it still
ignores the target language word and grammar when translating the source
language word and grammar,
05
also because it emphasize on keeping the number and the types in target
language when
we translate the source language words and phrase , in here two possible

mistakes are
going to be caused :
The first one is the emphasize on having an source language fixed expression
translated
into a target language fixed expression i.e. the insistence on having an source
language
Collocation, idiom, metaphor, etc. translated into a target language collocation,
idiom or
metaphor even though it may not exist (Ghazala.10).For example in the
translation of
the metaphor a can of worms into ( ) usually in Arabic it does not exist
such a
metaphor but the collocation it can be a good equivalent in Arabic.
2.1.3 Direct Translation
This type of translation takes the grammar and word order of the
target language into consideration. According to Ghazala it is the translation of
meaning

in context. It takes into consideration the grammar and word order of

the target language.

Metaphorical and special uses of language are

also accounted for in the target language [or a] full translation of meaning.(11) . It
is considered to be the best method of literal translation. It has a different view
to literal meaning. Literal meaning is not one single, unchanged direct meaning
for a word, but its different meanings in different contexts and combinations with
other words. (Ghazala.11).

For example, the English word run cannot be translated into in Arabic
in all situations and combinations .
E.g :
In the long run

To run wild

To run across

06

To run to fat

To run back
To run a company
To run short of money
To run through
To run its out

It is very clear that if the word run in the stated examples is rendered
into in the target language, that will be a wrong translation; because we
say in Arabic, but only .Another example is to run a
company it has only one meaning which is and we cannot say in
Arabic but only and if we translate it into it will be considered a
wrong translation not a literal translation .The same thing with the other
examples.
Metaphorical phrases like idioms translated in the same way ,for
example the only meaning of to beat about the bush is ( ) also the only
meaning of to get the sack is ( ),the same thing for the example monkey

business which means only and tall order which means

.
Direct translation is the one among the method of literal translation which
is acceptable and most widely spread and popular in practice among translators.
2.2. Free Translation
Unlike the previous ones, this type of translation takes into account the
meaning rather than the structure of the (SL) texts. The translator practices the
process of translation freely. He/she translates the text the way he/she wants and
understands under no limitations and without any instructions. As Ghazala (14)
maintains the translator is not confined by the
07
text or context, or the direct and available meaning of words and phrases .He
goes outside and
out of texts and contexts and behind and beyond words and phrases. No
limitations are put on his translation. It is alternatively referred to as sense-forsense translation in which the translator focuses on producing a natural readable
target text, i.e. it attempts to reproduce the meaning of the SL text. Free
translation reproduces the matter without the manner or the context without the
form of the original (Newmark: 46). In this case, the focus is on the message
proper. The translator tries to convey its intended meaning in a way that suits the
TL reader.
This method of translation is, likewise, known as dynamic translation

because the translator goes beyond words or phrases. It may be also called
communicative, pragmatic and creative translation.
It worthwhile to point out that free translation is used more abundantly in
literal texts and poetry. It is divided by Ghazala (1995) into two types:
1. Bound-free translation.
2. Loose-free translation.
2.2.1. Bound- Free Translation
Bound free translation focuses more on the context. It keeps the same
impact of the SL but it uses different words or phrases that serve similar effect in
the TL .In other words, the way sentences are used in the communicative
situations has to be taken into consideration in order to serve similar effects to
that of the original text. For instance, the form of expressivity, strong language
and so on. Ghazala provides the following examples:
08
He got nothing at the end

My friend goes to the top very soon

Come down to earth
She was sad deep down
You look quiet

She had a new baby

Are you lying to me?

The point that is noticeably common to these translated sentences is the

plain deployment of expressive, very formal Arabic.
This type of free translation is not loose, or without limitation, but is still
bound to the linguistic context in some way. Because of this reason, this type of
free translation is widely acceptable. However, when the translated does not go
hand in hand with the respective context, it is unacceptable.
2. Loose Free Translation
In this kind of translation the translator understands the pragmatic
meaning of ST and translates it that is to say this type of translation does not rely
on direct context .This translation is indirect ,pragmatic (.)rendering the
meaning intended by speakers behind what they say (Ghazala 16).
-It is half past nine

09

I am frightened

Literal translation is accepted in only some kinds of texts such as

technical and legal ones, but is not workable in other kinds like literally texts and
poetry (Shuttel worth,1997),because this type of translation ignores the culture of

the TL.
Also we can say that there are some free translations which are not
directly related to the original; they are resulted according to the understanding of
the translator.
Eg: No bacon in my breakfast
Books are very expensive

(Ghazala 16)
All this translations are also indirect and pragmatic .this type of
translation allows the translator to translate according to the way he understands,
and the aim also is to facilitate the task allowing the readers to infer the implied
meanings in the ST as in the TT.

3.2. Word-for-Word Translation

In this type we translate each word from the source text (ST) into an
equivalent word in the target text (TT)
This is often demonstrated as interlinear translation, with The TL
immediately below the SL words. The SL word-order is preserved and the words
translated singly by their most common meanings, out of context. Cultural words
are translated literally. The main use of word-for-word translation is either to
understand the mechanics of the source language or [o construe a difficult text
as a pre-t ran slat ion process. (Newmark 45-46).

This method of translation is considered to be a translation of individual

words, so all we must do is to find the equivalent of each word in the source
language to the target language. Some students find it an easy way to make any
translation faraway of differences in grammar or word order. The following
examples will help you to understand more:

-1-

can

stay

awake

all

night.

( )
.-2-

This

boy

is

very

intelligent.

04
-3-

we

spend

a lot

of

money

to

buy

new

clothes.

(
)

-4-

It

is

very

cold

outside

today.

2.1.2 One- To- One Literal Translation

In this method of translation, a word or phrase in SL is translated into an
Identical word or phrase in TL. that is; a noun is translated into a noun; two
nouns
Into two nouns; one adjective into one adjective; tow into two; etc. (Ghazala.8).
E.g.:
She uses English

Friend in need is a friend indeed

He speaks Arabic
The novel of Shakespeare
She plays tennis

In addition to this, a fixed expression such as a collocation, a proverb or

an idiom is
translated into a fixed expression, and also a metaphor is rendered into a
metaphor.
This type of translation is better than word for word translation because
it takes the context into consideration [and] it translates special and
metaphorical sources words and phrase into special and metaphorical target
equivalents (Ghazala.9)
This method also cannot be acceptable in some cases because it still

ignores the target language word and grammar when translating the source
language word and grammar,
05
also because it emphasize on keeping the number and the types in target
language when
we translate the source language words and phrase , in here two possible
mistakes are
going to be caused :
The first one is the emphasize on having an source language fixed expression
translated
into a target language fixed expression i.e. the insistence on having an source
language
Collocation, idiom, metaphor, etc. translated into a target language collocation,
idiom or
metaphor even though it may not exist (Ghazala.10).For example in the
translation of
the metaphor a can of worms into ( ) usually in Arabic it does not exist
such a
metaphor but the collocation it can be a good equivalent in Arabic.
2.1.3 Direct Translation
This type of translation takes the grammar and word order of the
target language into consideration. According to Ghazala it is the translation of
meaning

in context. It takes into consideration the grammar and word order of

the target language.

Metaphorical and special uses of language are

also accounted for in the target language [or a] full translation of meaning.(11) . It
is considered to be the best method of literal translation. It has a different view
to literal meaning. Literal meaning is not one single, unchanged direct meaning
for a word, but its different meanings in different contexts and combinations with
other words. (Ghazala.11).
For example, the English word run cannot be translated into in Arabic
in all situations and combinations .
E.g :
In the long run

To run wild

To run across

06

To run to fat

To run back
To run a company
To run short of money
To run through
To run its out

It is very clear that if the word run in the stated examples is rendered
into in the target language, that will be a wrong translation; because we
say in Arabic, but only .Another example is to run a
company it has only one meaning which is and we cannot say in

Arabic but only and if we translate it into it will be considered a

wrong translation not a literal translation .The same thing with the other
examples.
Metaphorical phrases like idioms translated in the same way ,for
example the only meaning of to beat about the bush is ( ) also the only
meaning of to get the sack is ( ),the same thing for the example monkey
business which means only and tall order which means
.
Direct translation is the one among the method of literal translation which
is acceptable and most widely spread and popular in practice among translators.
2.2. Free Translation
Unlike the previous ones, this type of translation takes into account the
meaning rather than the structure of the (SL) texts. The translator practices the
process of translation freely. He/she translates the text the way he/she wants and
understands under no limitations and without any instructions. As Ghazala (14)
maintains the translator is not confined by the
07
text or context, or the direct and available meaning of words and phrases .He
goes outside and
out of texts and contexts and behind and beyond words and phrases. No
limitations are put on his translation. It is alternatively referred to as sense-forsense translation in which the translator focuses on producing a natural readable

target text, i.e. it attempts to reproduce the meaning of the SL text. Free
translation reproduces the matter without the manner or the context without the
form of the original (Newmark: 46). In this case, the focus is on the message
proper. The translator tries to convey its intended meaning in a way that suits the
TL reader.
This method of translation is, likewise, known as dynamic translation
because the translator goes beyond words or phrases. It may be also called
communicative, pragmatic and creative translation.
It worthwhile to point out that free translation is used more abundantly in
literal texts and poetry. It is divided by Ghazala (1995) into two types:
1. Bound-free translation.
2. Loose-free translation.
2.2.1. Bound- Free Translation
Bound free translation focuses more on the context. It keeps the same
impact of the SL but it uses different words or phrases that serve similar effect in
the TL .In other words, the way sentences are used in the communicative
situations has to be taken into consideration in order to serve similar effects to
that of the original text. For instance, the form of expressivity, strong language
and so on. Ghazala provides the following examples:
08
He got nothing at the end

My friend goes to the top very soon

Come down to earth
She was sad deep down
You look quiet

She had a new baby

Are you lying to me?

The point that is noticeably common to these translated sentences is the

plain deployment of expressive, very formal Arabic.
This type of free translation is not loose, or without limitation, but is still
bound to the linguistic context in some way. Because of this reason, this type of
free translation is widely acceptable. However, when the translated does not go
hand in hand with the respective context, it is unacceptable.
2. Loose Free Translation
In this kind of translation the translator understands the pragmatic
meaning of ST and translates it that is to say this type of translation does not rely
on direct context .This translation is indirect ,pragmatic (.)rendering the
meaning intended by speakers behind what they say (Ghazala 16).
-It is half past nine

09

I am frightened

Literal translation is accepted in only some kinds of texts such as

technical and legal ones, but is not workable in other kinds like literally texts and
poetry (Shuttel worth,1997),because this type of translation ignores the culture of
the TL.
Also we can say that there are some free translations which are not
directly related to the original; they are resulted according to the understanding of
the translator.
Eg: No bacon in my breakfast
Books are very expensive

(Ghazala 16)
All this translations are also indirect and pragmatic .this type of
translation allows the translator to translate according to the way he understands,
and the aim also is to facilitate the task allowing the readers to infer the implied
meanings in the ST as in the TT.
3. The General Issues of Translation
3.1. Equivalence in Translation
As a principle of translation, the TT must be equivalent to ST. Equivalence is
divided into either word by word translation or meaning translation. Let us shed light

on this principle of translation.

Many writers use the term Equivalence to describe the nature and the
extent of the relationship that exist between the SL and TL text. Leonardi (2000)
states that for Nida(1964),defining and explaining the equivalence nature and
conditions is considered as the
10

main objective of translation studies (Nida 10)made a distinction between formal

correspondence
and dynamic equivalence. Formal correspondence focuses attention on the
message itself in both form and content (Ibid.).The purpose from this is to be as
faithful as possible to the source culture and to make the reader knows the customs ,
manner of thought and means of expression (Ibid.).dynamic equivalence , on the
other hand ,seeks an equivalent effect on the target reader .It states that the features
of the SC are of a secondary importance .Nida and Taber (1982)favour Dynamic
equivalence because it is

based on the principle of equivalent effect (qtd.in

Leonardi 9) and it aims at complete unnatural of expressions .

(Armstrong 45) on his term admits that full equivalence is rare, but the
translator should follow the task of looking for the closets possible equivalent.
According to Jackobson (qtd.in bassnet 39),translation is always carried out
regardless of the grammatical or cultural differences between the source text and the

target text .He states wherever there is a deficiency when the translator cannot find
a direct equivalent to a particular SL word or text, terminology may be qualified and
amplified by loan words or loan translation,
Neologisms or semantic shift(Ibid.).
3.2. Non-equivalence in translation
Because of the differences at cultural , grammatical ,lexical or stylistic levels;
translators may face the problem of non-equivalence while translating from one
language to another .
(Baker ) argues that non-equivalence may be at word level or above it.
According to (Bassnett 39), non-equivalence at word level can occur because of the
absence in the target culture
11

of relevant situational feature for the source language text .This because the concept
may be lexicalized in the SL and not in the TL. Sapir and Whorf discuss this point,
and gave the notion of snow as an example. In Northern countries where snow falls
almost the year .people refer to it differently according to the kind of snow, whereas
in countries where snowfalls rarely; people lexicalize only one type of it. This
phenomenon is strongly related to culture.
Non-equivalence can appear above word level, since words do not occur

on their own, but they almost occur on the company of other word (Baker
46).Sometimes the comprehension of a word meaning is possible until it is
combined with other words to form stretches of language.
The great pest of speech is frequently of translation .No book was ever
turned one language into another, without imparting something of its nature
idiom; this is the most mischievous and comprehensive innovation, single words
may enter by thousands and fabric of the tongue continue the same, but new
phraseology changes much once; it alters not the single stories of building , but
the order of the columns (qtd.in baker 46).
Non-equivalence above word level characterizes notions like idioms,
metaphors and collocations. Collocations will be discussed in details in the
second part of this chapter.
3. Problems of Translation
Translators while translating may be confronted with some difficulties and
problems. Several issues occur when we translate two different and distant
language families. These issues oblige the translator to stop and think, rewrite, or
use dictionary to solve the problem.

12

In general we can divide these difficulties into two main issues:

1. Linguistics Problems; in it we have Grammatical Problems, Lexical

Problems, Stylistic Problems, and Pragmatic Problems.

2. Cultural Problems: It includes different situational features.
3.1 Grammatical Problems
The first problem that faces the translators is this one of grammatical
differences between the SL and the TL. We may have two complicated grammar
languages which differ in rules, structures, or

non-direct equivalent in the TL.

And according to the state of Mr. Ghazala the most problems are:
1. (the grammatical problems can be caused by :
A. complicated SL grammar
Eg: of the three books you have recommended to me I have chosen only one
( )
The start of the sentence with of and the delay of the main clause of the
sentence (I have chosen) until the end of it, make for its complexity. The students
of translation find it difficult to understand easily and directly. The point becomes
clearer, comparing it to the following normal, direct structure: I have chosen only
one of the three books you have recommended to me.
, where the main clause is at the beginning. )(18-19).
B Different TL grammar
The majority of English tenses do not exist in the Arabic grammar. Also,
all English sentences are verbal while in Arabic sentences are either verbal
or nominal.
we have as example :
13

1. The translation of the verbs to be, to do , to have

To be
I am a student.

The boys were dismissed."

I am leaving now.

"They had been released .

"

to do
"Do you admit that? Yes, I do."

"Some students do their work quickly."

To have
"She has money ."

Plus that we have among this grammatical problems the issue of modals
for example will, would , shall are not verbs in Arabic .they mean the future
particale , ghazala 42

.the problems do not stop here translators face

problems in the translation of questions , negation , word order , personal

pronouns , the verbal and

nominal sentences , , and tenses( there are

fourteen tenses in English , whereas in Arabic there are only two tenses)
( ghazala . 69 ).
Eg :
They will forgive us .
She has not money .

She has headache.

"The diplomat left for London."

14
3.2 Lexical Problems
One of the most known problems that faces translators and causes them
constant bewilderment is lexical or textual problems. These problems usually
come up when a given word unknown to them. Here are the main lexical
problems which subtract.

2.1.2 One- To- One Literal Translation

In this method of translation, a word or phrase in SL is translated into an
Identical word or phrase in TL. that is; a noun is translated into a noun; two
nouns
Into two nouns; one adjective into one adjective; tow into two; etc. (Ghazala.8).
E.g.:
She uses English

Friend in need is a friend indeed

He speaks Arabic

The novel of Shakespeare

She plays tennis

In addition to this, a fixed expression such as a collocation, a proverb or

an idiom is
translated into a fixed expression, and also a metaphor is rendered into a
metaphor.
This type of translation is better than word for word translation because
it takes the context into consideration [and] it translates special and
metaphorical sources words and phrase into special and metaphorical target
equivalents (Ghazala.9)
This method also cannot be acceptable in some cases because it still
ignores the target language word and grammar when translating the source
language word and grammar,
05
also because it emphasize on keeping the number and the types in target
language when
we translate the source language words and phrase , in here two possible
mistakes are
going to be caused :
The first one is the emphasize on having an source language fixed expression
translated
into a target language fixed expression i.e. the insistence on having an source
language

Collocation, idiom, metaphor, etc. translated into a target language collocation,

idiom or
metaphor even though it may not exist (Ghazala.10).For example in the
translation of
the metaphor a can of worms into ( ) usually in Arabic it does not exist
such a
metaphor but the collocation it can be a good equivalent in Arabic.
2.1.3 Direct Translation
This type of translation takes the grammar and word order of the
target language into consideration. According to Ghazala it is the translation of
meaning

in context. It takes into consideration the grammar and word order of

the target language.

Metaphorical and special uses of language are

also accounted for in the target language [or a] full translation of meaning.(11) . It
is considered to be the best method of literal translation. It has a different view
to literal meaning. Literal meaning is not one single, unchanged direct meaning
for a word, but its different meanings in different contexts and combinations with
other words. (Ghazala.11).
For example, the English word run cannot be translated into in Arabic
in all situations and combinations .
E.g :
In the long run

To run wild
To run across

06
To run to fat

To run back
To run a company
To run short of money
To run through
To run its out

It is very clear that if the word run in the stated examples is rendered
into in the target language, that will be a wrong translation; because we
say in Arabic, but only .Another example is to run a
company it has only one meaning which is and we cannot say in
Arabic but only and if we translate it into it will be considered a
wrong translation not a literal translation .The same thing with the other
examples.
Metaphorical phrases like idioms translated in the same way ,for
example the only meaning of to beat about the bush is ( ) also the only
meaning of to get the sack is ( ),the same thing for the example monkey
business which means only and tall order which means
.
Direct translation is the one among the method of literal translation which
is acceptable and most widely spread and popular in practice among translators.

2.2. Free Translation

Unlike the previous ones, this type of translation takes into account the
meaning rather than the structure of the (SL) texts. The translator practices the
process of translation freely. He/she translates the text the way he/she wants and
understands under no limitations and without any instructions. As Ghazala (14)
maintains the translator is not confined by the
07
text or context, or the direct and available meaning of words and phrases .He
goes outside and
out of texts and contexts and behind and beyond words and phrases. No
limitations are put on his translation. It is alternatively referred to as sense-forsense translation in which the translator focuses on producing a natural readable
target text, i.e. it attempts to reproduce the meaning of the SL text. Free
translation reproduces the matter without the manner or the context without the
form of the original (Newmark: 46). In this case, the focus is on the message
proper. The translator tries to convey its intended meaning in a way that suits the
TL reader.
This method of translation is, likewise, known as dynamic translation
because the translator goes beyond words or phrases. It may be also called
communicative, pragmatic and creative translation.
It worthwhile to point out that free translation is used more abundantly in
literal texts and poetry. It is divided by Ghazala (1995) into two types:

1. Bound-free translation.
2. Loose-free translation.
2.2.1. Bound- Free Translation
Bound free translation focuses more on the context. It keeps the same
impact of the SL but it uses different words or phrases that serve similar effect in
the TL .In other words, the way sentences are used in the communicative
situations has to be taken into consideration in order to serve similar effects to
that of the original text. For instance, the form of expressivity, strong language
and so on. Ghazala provides the following examples:
08
He got nothing at the end

My friend goes to the top very soon

Come down to earth
She was sad deep down
You look quiet

She had a new baby

Are you lying to me?

The point that is noticeably common to these translated sentences is the

plain deployment of expressive, very formal Arabic.

This type of free translation is not loose, or without limitation, but is still
bound to the linguistic context in some way. Because of this reason, this type of
free translation is widely acceptable. However, when the translated does not go
hand in hand with the respective context, it is unacceptable.
2. Loose Free Translation
In this kind of translation the translator understands the pragmatic
meaning of ST and translates it that is to say this type of translation does not rely
on direct context .This translation is indirect ,pragmatic (.)rendering the
meaning intended by speakers behind what they say (Ghazala 16).
-It is half past nine

09

I am frightened

Literal translation is accepted in only some kinds of texts such as

technical and legal ones, but is not workable in other kinds like literally texts and
poetry (Shuttel worth,1997),because this type of translation ignores the culture of
the TL.
Also we can say that there are some free translations which are not
directly related to the original; they are resulted according to the understanding of
the translator.

Eg: No bacon in my breakfast

Books are very expensive

(Ghazala 16)
All this translations are also indirect and pragmatic .this type of
translation allows the translator to translate according to the way he understands,
and the aim also is to facilitate the task allowing the readers to infer the implied
meanings in the ST as in the TT.
3. The General Issues of Translation
3.1. Equivalence in Translation
As a principle of translation, the TT must be equivalent to ST. Equivalence is
divided into either word by word translation or meaning translation. Let us shed light
on this principle of translation.
Many writers use the term Equivalence to describe the nature and the
extent of the relationship that exist between the SL and TL text. Leonardi (2000)
states that for Nida(1964),defining and explaining the equivalence nature and
conditions is considered as the
10

main objective of translation studies (Nida 10)made a distinction between formal

correspondence

and dynamic equivalence. Formal correspondence focuses attention on the

message itself in both form and content (Ibid.).The purpose from this is to be as
faithful as possible to the source culture and to make the reader knows the customs ,
manner of thought and means of expression (Ibid.).dynamic equivalence , on the
other hand ,seeks an equivalent effect on the target reader .It states that the features
of the SC are of a secondary importance .Nida and Taber (1982)favour Dynamic
equivalence because it is

based on the principle of equivalent effect (qtd.in

Leonardi 9) and it aims at complete unnatural of expressions .

(Armstrong 45) on his term admits that full equivalence is rare, but the
translator should follow the task of looking for the closets possible equivalent.
According to Jackobson (qtd.in bassnet 39),translation is always carried out
regardless of the grammatical or cultural differences between the source text and the
target text .He states wherever there is a deficiency when the translator cannot find
a direct equivalent to a particular SL word or text, terminology may be qualified and
amplified by loan words or loan translation,
Neologisms or semantic shift(Ibid.).
3.2. Non-equivalence in translation
Because of the differences at cultural , grammatical ,lexical or stylistic levels;
translators may face the problem of non-equivalence while translating from one
language to another .
(Baker ) argues that non-equivalence may be at word level or above it.

According to (Bassnett 39), non-equivalence at word level can occur because of the
absence in the target culture
11

of relevant situational feature for the source language text .This because the concept
may be lexicalized in the SL and not in the TL. Sapir and Whorf discuss this point,
and gave the notion of snow as an example. In Northern countries where snow falls
almost the year .people refer to it differently according to the kind of snow, whereas
in countries where snowfalls rarely; people lexicalize only one type of it. This
phenomenon is strongly related to culture.
Non-equivalence can appear above word level, since words do not occur
on their own, but they almost occur on the company of other word (Baker
46).Sometimes the comprehension of a word meaning is possible until it is
combined with other words to form stretches of language.
The great pest of speech is frequently of translation .No book was ever
turned one language into another, without imparting something of its nature
idiom; this is the most mischievous and comprehensive innovation, single words
may enter by thousands and fabric of the tongue continue the same, but new
phraseology changes much once; it alters not the single stories of building , but
the order of the columns (qtd.in baker 46).
Non-equivalence above word level characterizes notions like idioms,

metaphors and collocations. Collocations will be discussed in details in the

second part of this chapter.
3. Problems of Translation
Translators while translating may be confronted with some difficulties and
problems. Several issues occur when we translate two different and distant
language families. These issues oblige the translator to stop and think, rewrite, or
use dictionary to solve the problem.

12

In general we can divide these difficulties into two main issues:

1. Linguistics Problems; in it we have Grammatical Problems, Lexical
Problems, Stylistic Problems, and Pragmatic Problems.
2. Cultural Problems: It includes different situational features.
3.1 Grammatical Problems
The first problem that faces the translators is this one of grammatical
differences between the SL and the TL. We may have two complicated grammar
languages which differ in rules, structures, or

non-direct equivalent in the TL.

And according to the state of Mr. Ghazala the most problems are:
1. (the grammatical problems can be caused by :
A. complicated SL grammar
Eg: of the three books you have recommended to me I have chosen only one
( )

The start of the sentence with of and the delay of the main clause of the
sentence (I have chosen) until the end of it, make for its complexity. The students
of translation find it difficult to understand easily and directly. The point becomes
clearer, comparing it to the following normal, direct structure: I have chosen only
one of the three books you have recommended to me.
, where the main clause is at the beginning. )(18-19).
B Different TL grammar
The majority of English tenses do not exist in the Arabic grammar. Also,
all English sentences are verbal while in Arabic sentences are either verbal
or nominal.
we have as example :
13
1. The translation of the verbs to be, to do , to have
To be
I am a student.

The boys were dismissed."

I am leaving now.

"They had been released .

"

to do
"Do you admit that? Yes, I do."
"Some students do their work quickly."

To have

"She has money ."

Plus that we have among this grammatical problems the issue of modals
for example will, would , shall are not verbs in Arabic .they mean the future
particale , ghazala 42

.the problems do not stop here translators face

problems in the translation of questions , negation , word order , personal

pronouns , the verbal and

nominal sentences , , and tenses( there are

fourteen tenses in English , whereas in Arabic there are only two tenses)
( ghazala . 69 ).
Eg :
They will forgive us .

She has not money .

She has headache.

"The diplomat left for London."

14
3.2 Lexical Problems
One of the most known problems that faces translators and causes them
constant bewilderment is lexical or textual problems. These problems usually
come up when a given word unknown to them. Here are the main lexical
problems which subtract.

1 .Literal translation:
The central lexical problem that faces translators is direct translation.
When we use this method, we take words in isolation, while in any language
words are used together in special combinations. And when students use direct
translation that results many silly mistakes e.g.:
If you were in my shoes

Fat salary

Bit the dust

2. Synonymy
When the translators start their work, they attach a great deal of t importance
to words, and they try to find the equivalent or the synonymy in the TL; using a
TL equivalent to a SL word in a context, a precise equivalent may not exist.
(Newmark : 84 )
In some cases the translator may have many synonyms for just one meaning.
Settling for the most appropriate synonymous word could prove laborious. e.g:
He is angry

He is discomforted

15

He is annoyed
He is disturbed
He is inconvenient

He is agita

He is furious

He is enrage

He is worried

He is nervous

He is impatient

He is discontented

He is displeased

He is wrathful

(Ghazala .92)
3. Polysemy
Polysemy problems occur when we have one word but it can serve many
meanings or has more than one meaning but just one meaning is popular

In general break is in Arabic

but in fact we may translate it into:

16

The runner tried to break the world record

Why did you break his face

That man is broken down

The managers policy broke the bank

4. Collocations
It designates two or more words which occur usually together in
language. There are several types of collocations, and the problem in the
translation thereof arises when we have no equivalent or different grammatical
structures e.g :
Honey moon

not

Poet laureate

not

We had bread and butter together

no t

5. Idioms
Phrases and sentences that have special meaning but is not a literal
meaning; we cannot get it from the direct words meaning e.g.:
To

walk

on

water

She is a dog in the manger
6

. Proverbs
In any society we have some popular, fixed sayings which are a part of

culture. They may do occur in the TL e.g. :

17

Like a bull in a china shop

Do

not

cross

the

bridge

before

you

come

to

it

7. Metaphors
Sentences or phrases that are indirect i.e. used to say something and
mean another thing e.g :

Hands

of

the

clock

To

kill

time

She is busy up to her ears

8. Technical translation
The Arabization of scientific terms pose some problems specially up-todate technical terms E.g:
Bank

, video

, virus

Stylistic problems
First in the past translators were not interested in the style and it was not
considered as a part of the meaning. But translators were stop translating
because of the stylistic obstacle which affect on the meaning of the sentence or
what the writer want to say. The style of the SL text may pose problems that are
important and can affect on the meaning and may change it sometimes among
these problems we have for example:

18

1. The formal and informal texts

In both languages Arabic and English we have two styles of language the
formal and informal and translator when they translate may do not distinguish
between the two. Also translators may find the equivalent for the formal language
but for the informal one it seems to be very difficult especially because of the
cultural, ethnic, background, and religion aspects.
2. Fronting
The translator may find a word or a clause at the beginning of the
sentence in an unusual way. This is called fronting. It is done on purpose by the
SL writer to achieve a stylistic function. Here the translators should pay attention
to the fronting and its special importance to the meaning of the sentence and the
hole text and context.
3. Parallelism
In some texts writers may use two clause or sentences that have the
same structure i.e. parallel what make the sentences or clauses difficult to be
translated because this style of parallelism is not randomly the writers use it on
purpose and when the translators came to translate this sentences or clause they
should be careful because it may change the meaning completely.
4. Ambiguity
Another difficult problem that face translators is ambiguity .some words
or sentences may be ambiguous i.e. have more than one possible meaning or
can be understood in more than one way. That will cause misunderstanding;
confusing, losing or dispersing meaning for the translators and their work will be

absolutely a wrong version. For example:

19
5 .short and long sentences
In some cases we may have a text which is one single sentence that
have one
subject ,one main verb and one object. Or a text that is composed of short
sentences This may propose a grammatical complication because the SL and the
TL may follow different aspects and rules. Translators are not allowed to change
for example the short sentence into a long one or to cut a long sentence into two
parts, because that change will effect on the meaning especially when they are
translating novels or poems.
Plus that we have among stylistic problems others which are stated by Ghazala:
the problem language without problem but in Arabic it may be boring , the
problem of active and passive version , the style of redundancy and the use of
some unnecessary words by some writers for example: if all of us cooperate
together we will succeed. Cooperate and together have the same meaning, and
that can make a big problem for translators because they are obliged to translate
the SL as it is whether the style is bad or good. The problem of showing muscles
and the use of expressive or strong words by writers for example the classical
Arabic writers and the language that they were use in the past is very difficult for
translators. And finally we have the nominalization and the verbalization problem.

An example of nominalization: discover discovery, react- reaction.

Phonological problems
Phonological problems are one of the fairly complicated problems that
face translators .These problems pertain mostly to sounds and their relation to
each other .Phonological problems crop up

predominantly in the advertising

texts and literary ones specially poems and even prose.. These problems may
not harm the translation in its entirety i.e. the effect of these problems is limited
and has no devastating effects on the meaning but it
20

may harm the shape and the sound of the piece and may make a beautiful poem
in the SL boring in the TL just because of the lack of the rhythm or the absence of
the sound. These phonological problems are seem to be hard to get over
specially for students and this may even in very dire cases compel them to stop
translating altogether.
Cultural problems
Translation problems are often ascribable to cultural differences between
the two linguistic systems involved in translation. The main source of cultural
problems is related to differences between SL and TL cultures. For example,
certain linguistic expressions and lexical items available in a given language may
not be available in another one. This fact may cause serious difficulties for

translators because translation is not always about translating from one language
to another, but also from one culture to another. For example, we may face some
sentences or expressions that occur in the source culture without any problems
but we are not able to come up with their equivalent in the TL just because it may
be a forbidden sentence or expression. Thus, translators besides translating from
one language to another, they should take the cultural differences into account
because it is also a part of the translation process.