Cyclic and Dynamic Mechanical Behaviour of Soils

Cyclic and dynamic mechanical behaviour
of granular soils: experimental evidence

and constitutive modelling
Claudio di Prisco* - Clara Zambelli*
*Milan University of Technology (Politecnico di Milano)
Department of Structural Engineering
P.za L. da Vinci, 32
20133, Milan, Italy
claudio.diprisco@polimi.it
zambelli@stru.polimi.it
The mechanical behaviour of granular soils under transient loading conditions is

quite complex because of the number of factors influencing it. In this presentation, to make
order in the large number of experimental observations and theoretical approaches
introduced in the last decades, a systematic approach has been chosen.
ABSTRACT:
A basic description of standard laboratory experimental devices conceived to describe the

cyclic and dynamic mechanical behaviour of soils will be firstly reported. The main features
of the mechanical response, in drained and undrained conditions, of granular soils are
described and critically compared. Finally, within the framework of elasticity and elastoplasticity theories, a brief discussion about some constitutive modelling aspects is introduced.
KEY WORDS: cyclic and dynamic mechanical behaviour, constitutive modelling,
experimental tests, sand, densification, liquefaction
RFGC. 7/2003. Geodynamics and Cycling Modelling, pages 881 to 910
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RFGC. 7/2003. Geodynamics and Cycling Modelling
1. Introduction
The analysis and the understanding of the mechanical behaviour of soils
cyclically and/or dynamically loaded can be considered up till now among the most
stimulating subjects of soil mechanics, in particular, when large strains as well as a
large spectrum of frequencies are taken into consideration and the problem of the
coupling between volumetric and shear irreversible strains is analysed.
Usually, this subject is studied by starting from two opposite points of view. The
cyclic mechanical behaviour is highlighted by means of sophisticated constitutive
models capable of reproducing the volumetric-deviatoric coupling and the
irreversibility of the constitutive relationship, and by disregarding at all the time
factor. On the contrary, the dynamic mechanical response is tackled by means of
elasto-viscous approaches that are linear and allow us to solve boundary value
problems in the frequency domain. Solely in the last decade non-linear numerical
analyses of dynamic problems have been performed, but, as far as constitutive
modelling is concerned, according to the authors, a great effort of synthesis of the
different experiences must still be done.
These few following pages will be devoted to enumerate the experimental
devices that are usually employed, to describe the experimental results and finally to
critically analyse some constitutive approaches conceived to highlight some aspects
of the problem and suggest new research items.
2. Experimental evidence
In the last thirty years many experimental test series were performed with the
aim of describing and highlighting the mechanical behaviour of soils under cyclic
and dynamic loads both in drained and undrained conditions. When cyclic tests are
considered, a quasi-static evolution of the material microstructure is assumed,
inertial forces are negligible but the time factor can play a role because of the time
dependency of the material mechanical behaviour. When dynamic and impulsive
tests are taken into consideration, the interpretation of the mechanical problem
becomes more complex because the time dependency of the mechanical behaviour is
superimposed to the inertial effects.
Finally, even the number of cycles as well as the amplitude that characterise the
loading disturbance are important peculiarities of the problem. When seismic actions
are taken into consideration, the number of cycles is quite small but the cyclic load
amplitude can be considerable. On the contrary, when wind actions, travelling loads
or vibrating machine foundations are considered, the loading cycle amplitude is
smaller but the representative number of cycles is enormous.
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2.1. A brief introduction to experimental laboratory devices

The most widespread experimental test apparatus to study the cyclic mechanical
behaviour of soils are the triaxial cell, the simple shear and the torsional shear
device. Whereas, the resonant column and more recently the torsional shear device
are employed to study the dynamic mechanical response.
1- Triaxial cyclic experimental test series are usually performed to analyse the
problem of cyclic liquefaction of saturated granular materials. Both compression and
extension cycles in the effective triaxial plane (q-p, where q = a r ,
p ' = ( a + 2 r ) / 3 , ij = ij u ij , u is the pore pressure and ij is the Kroneker
symbol) are usually performed. The number of cycles necessary to reach in
undrained conditions the material liquefaction is evaluated and the effective stress
path is recorded. Usually, the total stress path is imposed, the axial load is cyclically
varied and both pore pressure and axial strain are recorded. The type of
consolidation (oedometric or isotropic), the consolidation pressure, the relative
density of the specimen, the initial stress level, the strain history are usually varied.
When soil specimens are tested in drained conditions, a viscoelastic approach is
usually assumed to interpret the material mechanical response (.2.3). The single
loop in the q a plane is taken into consideration and the pseudo-elastic stiffness E
as well as the damping ratio D are directly evaluated from the stress-strain curve. A
more detailed definition of these parameters is introduced here below.
2- Conversely to the triaxial cell, the simple shear test is conceived to reproduce
the stress paths followed by soil layers during seismic ideal events. The initial state
of stress is imposed to be oedometric and the cyclic perturbation is characterised by
the change in the value of the shear stress . Analogously to the triaxial apparatus, as
is synthetically illustrated in Fig. 2.1. with reference to the torsional shear device,
these tests allow the direct evaluation both of the shear stiffness G and of the shear
damping D.
3- The torsional shear test puts together some peculiarities of the two previously
cited laboratory experimental apparatus. Cyclic shear stresses (it is worth noting that
in this case the cylinder is hollow) imposed by means of a torque moment applied
along the vertical axis (Fig. 2.1.) are superimposed to a general triaxial state of
stress. By recording the applied torque moment and the relative rotation, it is
possible to evaluate the corresponding stress paths within the soil specimen. If the
internal and external pressures are independently controlled [SYM 88], [MIU 86]
the principal axis rotation of the state of stress can be uncoupled of the change in the
stress level.
In all the three test apparatus cited above the loading history is assumed to be quasistatic and inertial forces are disregarded. Sometimes, to evaluate the stiffness of a
soil at very small strain levels, impulse tests are performed. The perturbation
frequencies are largely higher than those characterising the natural frequency of the
soil sample. The state of stress is a priori imposed by means of the test apparatus
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employed and the propagation rates of P and S waves within the soil specimen are
recorded.
Figure 2.1. Stress state and schematic interpretation of results in a cyclic torsional
shear test [VIN 96].
4- The resonant column is a triaxial apparatus equipped with a cyclic torsional
loading system (Fig. 2.2.). It is based on the theory of wave propagation in prismatic
rods. The axial and radial stresses are usually kept constant during the test and they
define the initial state of stress. On the contrary, the torsional loading frequency is
changed continuously to obtain the soil specimen resonance. Sometimes,
compression waves instead of shear waves are propagated through the soil
specimen. The resonant frequency is a function of the soil specimen mass and of the
material shear stiffness G [WOO 78]. Damping is determined by switching off the
driving power at resonance and recording the amplitude of the decaying vibrations.
Figure 2.2. Stress state in a resonant column apparatus [VIN 96].
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2.2. Cyclic mechanical behaviour: experimental results

2.2.1. Sand liquefaction
During quasi-static cyclic standard triaxial compression and/or extension tests
performed in undrained conditions on saturated loose sand specimens, the inhibited
tendency of the granular assembly to suffer a volumetric compaction may cause a
continuous increase in pore water pressure. When the pore water pressure equalises
the total main pressure, i.e. when the effective mean pressure becomes about zero,
the material behaves like a viscous fluid and its shear strength disappears. This
phenomenon is evident in nature when severe seismic actions are applied to loose
sand layers and it causes many dramatic structural collapses and enormous damages
all around the world every year. An example of such a behaviour is illustrated in
Fig. 2.3., from [ISH 75]. Both the effective stress path and the stress-strain curve are
illustrated. From point A to point B of Fig. 2.3.a the mechanical response of the Fuji
River sand specimen is vergin, from point B to point C both the pore pressure and
the effective stress level (q/p) continuously increase. Nevertheless the increase in
the deviatoric strain ( = 2 / 3( a r ) , where a stands for axial and r for radial)
(Fig. 2.3.b) is quite small. When point C is reached, the mechanical response
changes abruptly: large variations of the pore water pressure are recorded and a
dramatic increase in the deviatoric strain is observed. It is evident from Fig. 2.3. that
the effective mean pressure does not become completely zero and a sort of strength
recover is observed every cycle. In this case, the term used in literature to describe
such a phenomenon is cyclic mobility and this is associated to the undrained
mechanical behaviour of medium loose sands. This latter is due to the dilatant
tendency of the medium dense or medium loose sand when large strains take place.
During the occurring of such a phenomenon, the strain distribution is no more
uniform within the soil specimen and some zones of localized strains can be
observed. The companion mechanical response, which is obtained by performing an
undrained strain controlled test on the same material, at the same relative density is
illustrated in Fig. 2.4. When the pore pressure increases the amplitude of the cycles
in the effective triaxial plane decreases according to a precise condition: the q
varies in order to keep approximately constant the ratio q/p. As q continuously
decreases, while a is kept constant, the ratio q/a decreases, too. This implies a
proportional decrease in the value of Gsec and even a cyclic degradation of the
material stiffness, however easily foreseeable because of the decrease in the current
effective mean pressure.
The factors which influence the onset of the phenomenon can therefore be
summarised as follows:
the current relative density. As is evident from Fig. 2.5. [CAS 69], when a very
loose sand specimen is subject to a similar total stress path (in this case the cycle
is asymmetric with respect to the hydrostatic axis) liquefaction takes place very
rapidly and no strength recover is observed. On the contrary, when dense sand
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specimens are tested, neither liquefaction nor cyclic mobility occur. In fact, in
this case, the increase in pore pressure is not continuous. At a certain instant of
time, the increase in the number of cycles is not associated to any decrease in the
effective mean pressure and a sort mechanical stabilisation takes place (shake
down). As is implicitly illustrated in Fig. 2.6., such a phenomenon takes place
when the amplitude of symmetric cycles does not reach a certain threshold.
Conversely, when such a threshold is exceeded, the anisotropic hardening can
induce cyclic mobility as in Fig. 2.3. The same observations are not valid when
cycles are asymmetric and the initial state of stress is characterised by a large
value of the initial effective mean pressure (see also the following points).
Figure 2.3. Stress path of loose Fuji River sand: a) effective stress path, b) stressstrain curve [ISH 75].
The cycle amplitude. By increasing this latter the number of cycles necessary for
the mechanical instability to occur decreases very rapidly.
The deviatoric medium value. In some cases, when the cycles are asymmetric,
the progressive accumulation in pore pressure can become less rapid but the
proximity to the unstable condition in the effective triaxial stress plane generally
dominates and reduces the number of cycles N necessary for the liquefaction to
occur.
The initial effective mean pressure. Such a dependency, jointly to the two factors
cited above, infers that the most important parameters are the initial stress level
and the ratio q / p '0 , that, when cyclic torsional tests on oedometrically
consolidated specimens are considered, becomes / 'v 0 (Fig. 2.6).
a)
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b)
Figure 2.4. Effective stress path (a) and stress-strain curve (b) of an undrained
strain controlled test performed on a loose sand specimen [ISH 75].
The type of perturbation. Liquefaction can be obtained even by performing

cycles at constant stress level and continuously changing the Lode angle by
means of a true triaxial apparatus [LAN 91], by rotating the principal axes
and by keeping constant both the mean pressure and the second invariant of
stresses (thanks to the hollow cylinder), by increasing simultaneously the
principal axes and the second invariant of the stress deviator.
Figure 2.5. Liquefaction of loose sand under cyclic loads: a) effective stress path,
b)stress-strain curve [CAS 69].
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Figure 2.6. Number of cycles necessary for the liquefaction to occur during simple
shear tests in double amplitude according to varying relative densities [SEE 76].
The strain history of the sample. In accordance with the experimental evidence
concerning the static liquefaction of loose sand [CAN 89], [DIP 95], isotropic or
anisotropic overconsolidations and previous strain histories can induce marked
modifications of the liquefaction potential value [ISH 93].
2.2.2 Cyclic compaction
When drained tests on saturated sand specimens are performed, the volumetric
strain is recorded while the pore pressure is kept constant. Analogously to what was
observed at point 2.2.1., with reference to undrained tests, the mechanical response
during drained cycles on sand specimens is mainly a function of the current relative
density and of cycle amplitude. In this case, however, it is worth noting that the
relative density changes with the progressive increase in the cycle number. This
implies that, during the evolution of the test, the material presumably changes its
mechanical properties. Such an observation is confirmed by the experimental results
illustrated in Fig. 2.7. [MOH 83]. In this case, a standard drained compressionextension test performed in strain controlled conditions on a medium loose Hostun
RF sand specimen, characterised by large values of strains reached during each
cycle both in compression and extension, is taken into consideration. As is evident,
the overall result of the transient load is a material compaction. Correspondingly to
the increase in the cycle number, the compaction tendency decreases and a marked
increase in the compression stiffness is recorded.
The mechanical response of the granular assembly is completely different if
cycles of small amplitude are performed (Fig. 2.8., after [LUO 80]) and the medium
effective state of stress is changed. This figure shows clearly that the same dense
sand specimen can cyclically densify or dilate according to the medium effective
state of stress, or better to the medium stress level (q/p) imposed. These results
confirm implicitly the undrained experimental evidence shown above. By following
the simplifying theoretical approach introduced by Luong, we can affirm that, when
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drained tests are taken into consideration, cycling above the characteristic state leads
to dilation of the sand and hence build up of strains; whereas below the
characteristic state, compaction occurs with progressive stiffening. The
characteristic state marks the boundary between incremental collapse and
shakedown. A similar threshold is provided for undrained loading: for stress levels
lower than the characteristic state, positive pore pressure and eventual liquefaction
can develop; at higher stress levels the prevented dilation leads to a tendency to
negative pressures which rapidly stabilize the deformation.
Different peculiarities characterise the mechanical response of granular materials
subject to large numbers (N) of loading cycles. In primis, we can cite the experience
of Suiker [SUI 02], who performed drained standard compression triaxial cyclic
tests on subballast specimens (N>106). Besides observing that the permanent
deviatoric strains generated under asymmetric cyclic loading conditions are severely
dependent on the cyclic stress level (cyc) and much less on the hydrostatic pressure,
whereas the permanent volumetric deformation are governed both by the cyclic
stress level and the main pressure p, he underlined that:
1. a large number of drained cyclic tests may cause grain degradation and change
the granulometric curve. Such a phenomenon can become not negligible when
calcareous sands, expanded clays or angular grain sands are considered and
tested at high pressures.
vol. strain (%)
2. The deformation rate measured during cyclic tests generally decreases by

increasing the number of load cycles. In fact, as is shown in Fig. 2.9, that
concerns standard drained compression triaxial tests in load controlled conditions
(n=/F =0.98), both deviatoric and volumetric strains generated between one
million and five millions is quite negligible with respect to the strains generated
during the overall loading history. The strain rate progressively decreases, even
though the cyclic stress level is very close to the static failure level of the virgin
material. Such a phenomenon is usually known as shakedown.
Figure 2.7. Drained triaxial tests on a medium loose Hostun RF sand specimen: a)
Stress-strain curve, b) volumetric behaviour [MOH 83].
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3.
The process of cyclic densification influences the strength and the stiffness
properties of the granular materials. By comparing the curves illustrated in Fig.
2.10.a (the three curves were obtained by testing a virgin subballast specimen
and three specimens previously cyclically compacted -one million of cycles- at
three different stress levels n), we can note that an increasing cyclic stress level
causes a significant increase in the post-cyclic peak strength of the material.
Figure 2.8. Cyclic loads at constant confining pressure performed on a dense

Fointanbleu sand specimen [LUO 80].
Many methods for estimating cumulative plastic strains associated to large
numbers of loading cycles for fine-grained soils have been published in the past. For
instance, Dingqing and Selig [DIN 96] have proposed such a simple formula:
p =A m N b
where
[1]
stands for the cumulative irreversible strain, = d s represents the
amplitude of cycles normalised with respect to the peak value of stress s , while A
can be considered conceptually as the produced soil plastic strain when the soil is
loaded to failure under a monotonic loading, i.e., when =N=1, p=A. Exponent b
can be considered as a constant introduced to quantify the accumulation rate of
plastic strain under repeated loading. When the load cycle amplitude is changed, the
total amount is calculated as is shown in Fig. 2.11.
a)
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b)
Figure 2.9. Cyclic response of subballast material (load frequency = 5 Hz): a)

evolution of total deviatoric strain (solid line) and permanent deviatoric strain
(dashed line) with load cycles; b) evolution of total volumetric strain (solid line)
and permanent volumetric strain(dashed line) with load cycles [SUI 02].
a)
b)
Figure 2.10. Static response of subballast material after pre-loading at various

cyclic stress levels n=/F : a)stress ratio q/p versus the total deviatoric strain; b)
total volumetric strain versus the total deviatoric strain [SUI 02].
2.3. Dynamic behaviour

The most simple way of interpreting the dynamic response of soils consists in
defining an elasto-viscous model in which the elastic stresses are added to the
viscous ones and both contributes are obtained by assuming the linearity of the
constitutive relationship. By following such an approach, the coupling between the
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shear and the volumetric components is missing, and, consequently, these models
are not capable to capture all the phenomena associated to the coupling between
water and soil skeleton, in which soil liquefaction is included.
Figure 2.11. Model for total cumulative plastic strain [DIN 96].
According to such an interpretation of the material mechanical behaviour, as was
partially already observed in .2.1, the only three constitutive parameters to be
defined are the shear stiffness G, the bulk modulus K and the damping ratio D which
is usually calibrated on cyclic shear test results and solely associated to this latter
component of stress. In order to appropriately discuss such an approach, we must in
primis remind that the deformation characteristics of soil are non-linear and, as a
consequence, both the shear modulus and the damping ratio vary significantly with
a) the amplitude of shear strains under cyclic loading, b) the confining pressure, c)
the stress level and d) the strain history.
In Fig. 2.12. [IWA 78] some experimental results relative to the dependency on
the amplitude of shear strain under cyclic loading are reported. These results are
obtained by means of a torsional shear test device, in drained conditions on
isotropically consolidated Toyoura sand specimens. The specimen was sheared in
quasi static conditions. By increasing the shear stress or better the shear strain
amplitude the shear stiffness G decreases whereas the damping ratio D increases. An
analogous trend is recorded when the dependency of G and D on the number of
cycles is discussed: by increasing it the shear modulus increases whereas the
damping ratio decreases. The importance of the factors previously cited is well
known and accepted. On the contrary, the dependency of the shear modulus and
damping ratio on the loading frequency is more complex and less investigated, in
particular when granular soils are concerned. As was recently shown by [MEN 03]
with reference to cohesive materials, the shear modulus depends linearly and not
dramatically on loading frequency, while the damping ratio dependency is severe
and highly non linear (Fig. 2.13.). It is worth noting that both these dependencies are
also markedly influenced by the strain amplitude experimentally analysed.
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a)
b)
Figure 2.12. Torsional shear tests on Toyoura sand: a) stress-strain records at 10th
cycle of I to VII stages, b) shear moduli and damping ratios [IWA 78].
From Fig. 2.13. we derive that the range taken into consideration is relative to
low frequencies and that the minimum value of the damping ratio corresponds with
values of frequency smaller than 1 Hz. As was observed by Shibuya [SHI 95], the
three zones of the curves illustrated in Fig. 2.13. are due to two antagonistic factors:
the time dependency of the material mechanical behaviour and the viscous effects
associated to high frequencies.
Analogously, as far as granular soils are concerned, Lin et al [LIN 96] performed
cyclic torsional shear tests on Ottawa and I-lan river sand specimens and recorded
the mechanical response during each cycle. They analysed very small strain
amplitudes 105 104 and took into consideration the frequencies ranging
from 0,1 to 20 Hz, i.e. they diregarded smaller values of frequency where the time
dependency of the material mechanical behaviour is dominant. Therefore, they
observed that the shear modulus is approximately constant while the damping ratio
linearly increases with frequency f. Such a dependency induced the authors to
suggest the following expressione for D:
D = Af + B f f
[2]
where the two parameters Af and Bf describe the hysteretic and the viscous
damping, respectively. The values of both terms seem to increase with the increase
in shear strain and to decrease with the increase in the confining pressure.
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Contrary to what observed by Lin et al, Bolton and Wilson [BOL 89], by
performing resonant column tests, explored the ranges of high frequencies. By
interpreting the experimental data by means of the equation of a one dimensional
viscoelastic system, they observed that the mechanical response of the material in
terms of stiffness (G) and damping (D) (Fig .2.14.) are independent of load
frequency. In this figure, it is illustrated an almost satisfactory comparison between
experimental data and numerical simulations, at different shear strain amplitudes,
where constitutive parameters were calibrated on quasi-static cyclic torsional
experimental test results.
Figure 2.13. Frequency effect on material damping ratio [MEN 03].

Naturally, the linear interpretation based on the viscoelastic model works solely
when high frequencies are considered, in fact, during quasi static loading cycles (i.e.
when both strain acceleration and strain rate are negligible) the numerical loop
disappears. This derives from the fact that the viscosity parameter is confused with
the irreversibility of the mechanical response of the material.
To confirm the conceptual framework outlined in Fig. 2.13., we report the
experimental data of Santucci et al [SAN 98] (Fig. 2.15.) obtained by testing in
undrained conditions Metrano silty sand specimens at small frequencies. It is
evident that by increasing the strain rate the stiffness increases and the damping ratio
decreases abruptly. By decreasing the strain rate, the deformation properties become
less linear and less reversible (i.e. G decreases and D increases).
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Figure 2.14. Dynamic response [BOL 89].
Figure 2.15. Effects of strain rate on Youngs modulus E0 and damping ratio D0 at
strains less than 0.001 % from cyclic undrained triaxial tests on Metramo silty sand
[SAN 98].
Analogously, here below (Fig. 2.16.) some experimental results obtained by
performing undrained triaxial tests on Banckok clays [TEA 02] are reported. In
particular, the influence of the rate of loading on the value of the measured secant
Youngs modulus is illustrated: samples tested at a faster loading rate exhibit higher
values of E, expecially at moderate strains (a 0.02-0.2 %). Moreover, an increase
in the excess pore pressure accumulation corresponds with slower loading rates (Fig.
2.16.b). This confirms that by increasing the loading rate, the mechanical response
becomes more reversible.
Finally, in Fig. 2.17. the dependency on the loading frequency of the time
necessary for the liquefaction to occur is illustrated. Two identical samples of quick
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Tiller clay have been tested at frequencies of 0.1 and 0.4 Hz: in the former case the
number of cycles at liquefaction was 11, while in the latter one was 180.
a)
b)
Figure 2.16. Undrained triaxial tests (compression, extension and cyclic loading)
on samples of soft Bangkok clays: a) variation of secant Youngs modulus; b)
development of excess pore water pressure for compression tests [TEA 02].
3. Mathematical modelling: the elastoplastic approach

The theoretical approaches usually followed to simulate the mechanical
behaviour of soils subject to cyclic loading at low frequencies can be roughly
separated into two distinct classes: a) incrementally non-linear models [DAR 78],
[DAR 84] and b) plastic models. Within the framework of the former class, the
hypoplastic approach, as was defined by [KOL 91], is particular successful. The
irreversibility of the material mechanical behaviour is associated both to loading and
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unloading stress paths. Such a theory by avoiding the classical notions and
definitions of elastoplasticity (yield locus, plastic potential, flow rule and
consistency rule) defines a unique equation for loading and unloading.
Figure 2.17. Cyclic standard triaxial compression tests on quick Tiller clay
specimens at different frequencies of loading [VOZ 99].
Within the framework of plasticity, instead, we distinguish three different classes:
(a) the bounding surface models, (b) the generalised plasticity and (c) the multiple
mechanism plastic models. Class (a) is characterised by two surfaces, an outer or
consolidation surface, and an inner loading locus, and provides a rule for the
definition of the hardening modulus in the space between them [DAF 86]. In order
to obtain a satisfactory simulation of the material mechanical behaviour an
anisotropic hardening for both the inner loading locus and the outer boundary
surface must be provided [GAJ 99]. In the generalized plasticity (class b), instead,
the concepts of loading and unloading, as well as of flow rule, are extended. As is
exhaustively explained in [PAS 85], [ZIE 85], [DIP 00] the elastic domain
disappears as well as plastic potential and consistency rule.
Finally, the natural extension of single-mechanism plasticity is provided by
multiple-mechanism plasticity, in which two or more yield surfaces and plastic
potentials are defined. An example of such a class is the Milan Model 2002 [ZAM
02], an elasto-plastic-cyclic model characterised by two uncoupled plastic
mechanisms: the first one which is associated to a generalised and global evolution
of the material internal fabric, the second one associated to small strains and small
loops taking into account the fabric rearrangements due to small size cyclic load
disturbances. Such an approach allows to separate, perhaps in a unphysical manner,
the two distinct contributes but allows a very simple calibration of the constitutive
parameters. As was previously observed with reference to bounding surface models,
in order to achieve a satisfactory simulation of cyclic mechanical behaviour of soils,
898
both yield surfaces and plastic potential must be characterised by an anisotropic

hardening.
As is usually done when shear and volumetric contributes are dealt with
separately, such an approach consists in adding three distinct terms as follows:
ij = ijel + ijir + ijcir ,
[3]
el
ir
where ij stands for the elastic strain rate tensor, ij for the standard irreversible
cir
strain rate tensor and ij for the irreversible strain rate tensor associated to the
second cyclic irreversible mechanism. In the constitutive model previously cited,

that will be here in the following very briefly outlined, the elastic strain rate tensor is
defined by starting from the definition of an elastic potential [LAD 87] [MOL 88],
el
from which the elastic incremental stiffness matrix Cijhk can be easily derived. Both
the two irreversible strain rate tensors are calculated by assuming the existence of a
yield locus f, a plastic potential g, a flow rule and a hardening rule. As far as the first
plastic mechanism is concerned, a viscoplastic Perzjna approach is followed ([PER
63], [PER 66], [DIP 96]), i.e.:
irij = ( f1 )
g1
ij'
[4]
this choice derives from the aim to achieve three distinct goals:
The simulation of the time dependent unstable mechanical behaviour of

granular materials during drained and undrained creep tests ([LIN 81], [DIP 96]).
To reproduce the dependency of the mechanical behaviour on the time factor

when they are subject to dynamic actions of large intensity (.3.2.).
To describe the dependency of the mechanical behaviour on current relative

density. In fact, when Eq.(4) is introduced and the consistency rule is avoided,
the updating of constitutive parameters on the relative density becomes very
simple [DIP 02].
As was described in [DIP 93], both f1 and g1 are characterised by an anisotropic

hardening, that is governed by a tensor ij (Fig. 3.1.). The yield locus f1 is a function
of two additional hidden variables: rc, which describes its size, and f, its shape,
respectively.
As is schematically illustrated in Fig. 3.1., even the cyclic mechanism is
characterised by a very elongated cone shaped yield locus f2, rotating in the effective
stress space in accordance with the evolution of its axis ij2 [ZAM 02] and keeping
constant its size. The definition of the yield locus derives from the assumption that
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cyclic irreversible strains take place only when the stress level ( in the triaxial
plane) changes: i.e. radial cyclic effective stress paths are approximately reversible.
Figure 3.1. Two mechanisms constitutive model: a schematical representation of the

two yield loci.
In this case, by assuming a time independent mechanical response, a standard
elastoplastic approach has been chosen:
g
ijcir = cir 2'
ij
[5]
where cir is the relative plastic multiplier calculated by imposing the consistency
rule and a hardening rule defining a Prager type dependency of
ij2 on ijcir [PRA
52]. Even this second plastic mechanism has been assumed to be non associate: the
'
plastic potential g2 rotates with f2 but its size evolves as a function of ij and ij2 .
The two mechanisms allow us to simulate independently and simultaneously two
distinct aspects of the mechanical behaviour of granular materials: the first one
which is associated to large strains, to material collapse and unstable phenomena,
the second one to irreversible strains associated to small loading cycles and to
volumetric compaction or dilation associated to shear cyclic perturbations. In other
worths, such an approach makes possible the interpretation and the simulation of the
previously defined (Eq.2) hysteretic damping.
3.1. Numerical examples

In order to illustrate the capability of the constitutive model briefly presented in the
previous paragraph, to simulate the cyclic mechanical behaviour of granular soils,
here in the following some cyclic experimental test results will be compared with
relative numerical simulations [ZAM 02]. In Fig. 3.2. standard drained strain
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controlled triaxial compression/extension tests are considered. The strain amplitude

of cycles is large enough to make active the anisotropic hardening, i.e. the rotation
of the yield locus f1. It is interesting to note that, during the compression unloading
paths, both experimental data (Fig. 2.7.) and numerical simulations show a marked
volumetric loop. This is due to the initial pseudo-elastic dilation associated to the
unloading that is cancelled by the successive plastic compaction. The global
volumetric response is compactant but such a behaviour is progressively inhibited
by the evolution of the current relative density.
a)
b)
Figure 3.2. Numerical simulation of the experimental data shown in Fig. 2.7.
Drained cyclic compression/extension test on medium loose Hostun RF sand: a)
Stress-strain curve, b) Volumetric behaviour.
A completely different mechanical response is observed when smaller cycles are
performed (Fig. 3.3. and Fig. 3.4.). In this case the evolution of the yield locus
associated to the macro-fabric is negligible and only micro-sliding phenomena take
place. It is evident the marked change in the mechanical response when the
maximum deviatoric load is exceeded (Fig. 3.3.) and it is important to underline the
absence of the phenomenon of ratcheting: i.e. the stress-strain curves show,
whatever the stress cycle amplitude or the medium stress level are, a well defined
loop (Fig. 3.3.).
As was previously observed, when cyclic loads are considered, the importance of the
medium stress level is crucial, in particular when the volumetric response is
concerned. Obviously, in undrained conditions this implies a completely different
mechanical response and varying effective stress paths (Fig. 3.4.). In this case the
increase in the pore pressure is inhibited by the increase in the effective stress level
901
and a sort of phenomenon of stabilisation takes place. On the contrary, when a loose
sand specimen is cyclically loaded, liquefaction takes place (Fig. 3.5.). The
difference between the two mechanical responses is essentially due to the capability
of the material of reaching the yield locus . In fact, both in Fig. 3.4. and 3.5., the
effective stress path is within the yield locus f 1 and irreversible strains are due to the
second micro-plastic mechanism. In Fig. 3.4. f1 is not reached, while in Fig. 3.5., this
latter is reached and instability takes place. It is essential to underline, that the
mechanical response, when the effective stress image point is within the yield locus
f1, is always stable, while when the effective stress point belongs to such a yield
locus, volumetric instability becomes possible [NOV 91].
a)
b)
c)
d)
Figure 3.3. Drained triaxial test on Hostun medium dense sand: a) and b)
numerical simulation, c) and d) experimental data [MOH 83].
902
a)
b)
c)
d)
Figure 3.4. Undrained cyclic compression triaxial test on a Toyoura dense sand
specimen: a) and b) numerical simulation, c) and d) experimental data [HYO 91].
Figure 3.5. Numerical simulation of a cyclic, load controlled, undrained

compression triaxial test on a loose sand specimen: a) stress-strain curve, b)
effective stress path [ZAM 02].
903
3.2. Dynamic modelling

When granular media under dynamic actions are considered, an important
question naturally arises: is the constitutive relationship time independent? That is:
during cyclic tests is the frequency value an important factor?, what kind of
constitutive modelling is more suitable for describing the material mechanical
response during cyclic or impulsive loading conditions? Definitive answers to these
questions are not yet be introduced and in literature experimental observations lead
often to contradictory conclusions. For the sake of simplicity, it is at any rate
important to distinguish between the mechanical response recorded during small
strain cyclic load tests and that one we obtain when large strain loading cycles are
performed or impulsive load increments are imposed on virgin soils.
If an elastoplastic approach is taken into consideration, the dependency of the
mechanical response on the load frequency, during cyclic tests, or on the load period
when impulsive tests are analysed, is completely provided by the inertial term; in
fact the incremental elastoplastic constitutive relationship is assumed to be timeindependent. Conversely, the elasto-viscoplastic constitutive models take actually
into consideration the dependency of the mechanical behaviour of soils on the time
factor, but such a dependency is very well known as far as cohesive soils are
concerned but less when soft rocks and granular soils [DIP 96] are considered.
In accordance with Tatsuoka et al [TAT 98], the time effects that can be
observed during laboratory experimental tests on sand specimens can be summarised
as follows:
a)
creep deformation at constant effective stress state,
b) strain relaxation at constant axial strain,

c)
temporary overshooting and undershooting in stress immediately after

change in constant strain rate,
d) volumetric instabilities, i.e. sudden collapses, of loose sand specimens

tested in load controlled conditions [DIP 97], [DIP 00a].
Whereas phenomena a and b can be satisfactorily simulated by means of a standard
elasto-viscoplastic approach, the phenomena recalled at points c and d can be
simulated only by introducing in the constitutive relationship the dependency on
strain acceleration [DIP 00b], [DIP 03], or non linearity in the hardening rules.
An example of the time dependency of the mechanical behaviour of granular soils is
illustrated in Fig. 3.6. [DIP 96]. The experimental data are relative to a drained
triaxial creep test characterised by an instantaneous increase in the axial load. The
relative numerical simulations are obtained by means of the previously introduced
MM 2002 constitutive model, in which an exponential definition for the viscous
nucleus was assumed.
904
Figure 3.6. Creep test experimental data and numerical simulation obtained by
means of the Milan 2002 constitutive model previously cited corresponding to an
instantaneous axial load increment of 5 kPa (cell pressure of 100 kPa, mobilised
friction angle of 16) [DIP 96].
It is also worth noting that elasto-viscoplastic constitutive models are capable of
reproducing both the dependency of the number of cycles necessary for the
liquefaction to occur on the stress rate imposed ( in Fig. 2.17.), and the dependency
of the damping ratio on frequency when this later varies between 0 and 0,1 Hz
(Fig.2.15.) (where such a range has not to be interpreted in a strict manner because it
depends on the amplitude of the loading cycles).
As far as the former aspect is concerned, in Fig.3.7. some numerical simulations
of a standard undrained triaxial cyclic compression test performed at varying stress
rates are shown. Unfortunately, as is evident from the comparison of the three
numerical curves with those shown in Fig. 2.17. [VOZ 99], such a dependency is a
consequence only of the undrained mechanical response calculated during the first
cycle. In fact, in the model numerically implemented only the first plastic
mechanism is viscoplastic.
In the definition of the viscoplastic relationship a crucial role is played by the the
function describing the viscous nucleus. In fact, this latter dramatically affects the
numerical system response during the evolution of time. A definition which can be
acceptable when long term mechanical behaviour is taken into consideration can
become unsatisfactory when the time range is changed. For instance, by choosing an
exponential function (Fig. 3.9.a), the material mechanical response, for high
frequencies or impulsive loads, becomes almost instantaneous, whereas the time
dependency remains evident when creep tests are considered. Such a high non
linearity is quite important to capture some important aspects of the mechanical
response (i.e. this latter justifies the evident creeping behaviour during load
controlled tests and the negligible effect of strain rate during strain controlled tests)
but must be dealt with extreme caution. By changing the definition of (in this case
905

a maximum threshold has been introduced (Fig.3.8.a.), that becomes active only
when
dynamic and/or unstable phenomena take place) and by reducing the value of

, it is possible to observe a continuous change in the system mechanical response,
that passes from plastic to elastic. In Fig. 3.8 [ZAM 02], three numerical simulations
of an horizontal dense sand infinitely long stratum, subject to a Ricker wave action
imposed along the x direction
at the bottom boundary (Fig. 3.8.b), at increasing
viscous nucleus thresholds , are compared. In Fig. 3.8.c the imposed action,
whereas in Fig. 3.8.d, e and f, the horizontal displacements along the sand stratum
during the evolution of time are illustrated.
a) =0.059 kPa/s
a
b) =0.59 kPa/s
a
c) =5.9 kPa/s
a
Figure 3.7. Numerical simulation of a standard undrained triaxial cyclic test on

Fuji River loose sand specimen at varying loading rate [ZAM 02].
These observations become very important when large strain cycles are triggered
by seismic actions. In this case plastic waves occur, but the choice in the constitutive
model and in the viscous nucleus definition can become dramatically important
[FAC 95].
906
a)
b)
c)
d)
e)
f)
Figure 3.8. Numerical analysis of an ideal infinitely long stratum dynamically

loaded [ZAM 02]: dynamic excitation (c), horizontal displacements numerically
simulated by increasing the viscous nucleus thresholds (d-f) [ZAM 02].
4.
Concluding remarks
Even if the experimental study and the constitutive modelling of the cyclic and
dynamic mechanical behaviour of soils is quite complex and, as has been shown in
907
this brief written discussion, not yet completely highlighted, it is important to

summarise the following experimental and theoretical observations:
a)
within the framework of the most sophisticated constitutive modelling

approaches previously cited (bounding surface, generalized plasticity,
hypoplasticity and so on) constitutive relationships capable of reproducing the
quasi-static cyclic mechanical behaviour of soils can be conceived.
b) When the number of cycles is quite large, and/or the considered granular
material is loosely compacted, the evolution of relative density becomes an
essential factor influencing the mechanical response.
c)
When rapid load increments or high frequencies in cyclic loading conditions are
taken into consideration, the time factor must be introduced in the constitutive
approach.
d) Standard viscoplasticity seems to be capable of reproducing the dependency of

the mechanical behaviour of soils on the time factor, in particular when low
frequencies and hysteretic damping are considered.
e)
Conversely, the dependency of the numerical response on instantaneous

changes in strain rate, the unstable collapses of loose sand specimens taking
place during triaxial load controlled tests are phenomena that can be reproduced
only by modifying the standard elasto-viscoplastic approach and by adding non
linearity or strain acceleration dependency.
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Cyclic and Dynamic Mechanical Behaviour of Soils

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Cyclic and dynamic mechanical behaviour

of granular soils: experimental evidence

The mechanical behaviour of granular soils under transient loading conditions is

A basic description of standard laboratory experimental devices conceived to describe the

RFGC. 7/2003. Geodynamics and Cycling Modelling, pages 881 to 910

RFGC. 7/2003. Geodynamics and Cycling Modelling