CHAPTER-1

DESCRIPTION AND FABRICATION OF COMPONENT

POWER SUPPLY:
Power supply block consists of following units:
Step down transformer.
Bridge rectifier circuit.
Input filter.
Voltage regulators.
Output filter.
Indicator unit.

STEP DOWN TRANSFORMER:

The step-down transformer is used to step down the supply voltage of 230v ac from
mains to lower values, as the various ICs used in this project require reduced voltages. The
transformer consists of primary and secondary coils.
To reduce or step down the voltage, the transformer is designed to contain less number of
turns in its secondary core. The outputs from the secondary coil which is center tapped are the ac
values of 0v, 15v and 15v. The conversion of these ac values to dc values to dc values is done
using the full wave rectifier unit.

RECTIFIER UNIT:
A diode bridge is an arrangement of four diodes connected in a bridge circuit. That
provides the polarity of output voltage of any polarity of the input voltage. When used in its most
common application, for conversion of alternating current (A.C) input into direct current (D.C)
output, it is known as a bridge rectifier.
The diagram describes a diode-bridge design known as a full wave rectifier. This design
can be used to rectify single phase A.C. when no transformer center tap is available. A bridge
rectifier makes use of four diodes in a bridge arrangement to achieve full wave rectification. This

is a widely used configuration, both with individual diodes wired as shown and with single
component bridges where the diode bridge is wired internally.
For both positive and negative swings of the transformer, there is a forward path through
the diode bridge. Both conduction paths cause current to flow in the same direction through the
load resister, accomplishing full-wave rectification. While one set of diodes is forward biased,
the other set is reversing biased and effectively eliminated from the circuit.

INPUT FILTER:
Capacitors are used as filters. The ripples from the dc voltages are removed and pure dc
voltage is obtained. The primary action performed by capacitor is charging and discharging. It
charges in positive half cycle of the ac voltage and it will discharge in negative half cycle. So it
allows only ac voltage and does not allow the dc voltage. This filter is fixed before the regulator.
Capacitors used here are of the value 1000uF.

REGULATOR UNIT:
Regulator regulates the output voltage to a specific value.

The output voltage is

maintained irrespective of the fluctuations in the input dc voltage. Whenever there are any ac
voltage fluctuations, the dc voltage also changes, and to avoid this regulators are used.

REGULATORS CAN BE CLASSIFIED AS:

1. Positive regulator, which regulates the positive voltage(7805,7812)

1. > input pin

2. > ground pin
3. > output pin

2. Negative regulator, which regulates the negative voltage (7912).

1. > ground pin
2. > input pin
3. > output pin

Regulators used in this application are: 7805 which provides 5v dc

7812 which provides 12v dc
7912 which provides -121v dc

OUTPUT FILTER:
This filter is fixed after the Regulator circuit to filter any of the possibly found ripples in
the output received finally. Capacitors used here are of value 10F.

POWER SUPPLY CIRCUIT DIAGRAM:

CHAPTER-2

HARDWARE DESCRIPTION
5.1 INTRODUCTION
The hardware system of the proposed converter is implemented using a PIC micro-controller.
The software system like Proteus, Mplab, and Micropro is used for the system design for coding
the pulses in to the PIC controller. The power supply circuit is designed that will control the PIC
and driver circuit to drive the pulses to the MOSFET.

5.2 SOFTWARE UNIT

MICROPRO
Introduction & Features
This Versatile programmer is a dedicated PIC Micro controller Programmer. All the PIC series of
ICs except the 17 series can be programmed with this Hardware through RS232 Port of PC. This
programmer also supports ICSP programming for on board programming of supported flash PIC
devices.

MPLAB IDE, PIC CCS C compiler Demo software with MPLAB Plug-in, and

programming instructions are provided in CD-ROM.

The

programmer

software

is

compatible to Windows 98, Windows 2000, and Windows XP platforms. A Soft copy of the user
manual is also included in the CD, in addition to the hard copy provided with the Kit. This
Dedicated programmer is for programming a wide range of PIC Micro controllers including
EEPROMS, PIC12 series, PIC16 series & PIC18 series of ICs.

SPECIFICATIONS

Auto detection of programmer by software

Regulated Power supply 5,13.5V

Auto Flash upgrades through serial port

16 MHz crystal Oscillator

Built in RS232 connector

ZIF socket for easy programming

External ICSP Interface for on board programming

Programmable configuration and ID

Selective Erase and programming for supported PIC Devices

Manual / Auto Reset

Configurable COM Port.

Program, Read, Verify and Blank check Modes

Hex Code Editor

Program & Verify fly Window

Switchable to MPLAB software

Extensive Integrated Help

Debug vector Read & write

Oscal value read & program (for selected chips)

MPLAB

MPLAB Integrated Development Environment (IDE) is a free, integrated toolset for the
development of embedded applications on Microchip's PIC and dsPIC microcontrollers.
HI-TECH Software is an Australian-based company that provides ANSI C compilers and
development tools. Founded in 1984, the company is best known for its HI-TECH C PRO
compilers with whole-program compilation technology, or Omniscient Code Generation (OCG).
HI-TECH Software was bought by Microchip on 20 February 2009, whereupon it refocused its
development effort exclusively on supporting Microchip products.
The HI-TECH C Compiler for PIC10/12/16 MCUs (Lite mode) is a freeware compiler. It
supports all PIC10, PIC12 and PIC16 series devices. The features of HI-TECH C Compiler are
listed as followings:

Fully compatible with Microchips MPLAB IDE

Fully ANSI-compliant

Includes Library source - for standard libraries and sample code for I/O drivers

Includes macro assembler, linker, preprocessor, and one-step driver

Runs on 32/64-bit Windows, Linux and Mac OS X

PROTEUS
This package splits into three parts very conveniently namely: ISIS : Intelligent Schematic Input System - for drawing circuit diagrams etc.
ARES : Advanced Routing and Editing Software - for producing pcb layout drawings.
LISA : Labcenter Integrated Simulation Architecture - for simulation of circuit diagram. Separate
handout.
PROTUES Virtual System Modelling (VSM)
PROTUES combines advanced schematic capture, mixed mode SPICE simulation, PCB layout
and autorouting to make a complete electronic design system. The PROTUES product range
also includes our revolutionary VSM technology, which allow you to simulate micro-controller
based design, complete with all the surrounding electronic.
Intelligent Schematic Input System (ISIS)
ISIS lies right at the heart of the PROTUES system and is far more than just another schematic
package. It has powerful environment to control most aspects of the drawing appearance.
whether your requirement is the rapid entry of complex design for simulation & PCB layout, Or
the creation of attractive Schematic for publication ISIS is the right tool for the job.
Product Features
1.Produces publication quality schematic
2. Style templates allow customization of supplied library
3.Mouse driven context sensitive user interface
4. Automatic wire routing and junction dot placement
5. Full support for buses including sub- circuit ports and bus pins
6. Large and growing component library of over 8000 parts

5.2.1 CONTROLLER UNIT

A Microcontroller (sometimes abbreviated C, uC or MCU) is a small computer on a single
integrated circuit containing a processor core, memory, and programmable input/output
peripherals. Program memory in the form of NOR flash or OTP ROM is also often included on
chip, as well as a typically small amount of RAM. Microcontrollers are designed for embedded
applications, in contrast to the microprocessors used in personal computers or other general
purpose applications.
PICs are popular with both industrial developers and hobbyists alike due to their low cost, wide
availability, large user base, extensive collection of application notes, availability of low cost or
free development tools, and serial programming (and re-programming with flash memory)
capability. Microchip announced on September 2011 the shipment of its ten billionth PIC
processor.
The PIC architecture is characterized by its multiple attributes:
1 Separate code and data spaces (Harvard architecture) for devices other than PIC32, which has a
Von Neumann architecture.
2 A small number of fixed length instructions. Most instructions are single cycle execution (2
clock cycles, or 4 clock cycles in 8-bit models), with one delay cycle on branches and skips.
3 One accumulator (W0), the use of which (as source operand) is implied. (i.e. is not encoded in
the opcode)
4 All RAM locations function as registers as both source and/or destination of math and other
functions.
5 A hardware stack for storing return addresses and fairly small amount of addressable data space
(typically 256 bytes), extended through banking.
6 Data space mapped CPU, port, and peripheral registers.

7 The program counter is also mapped into the data space and writable. (this is used to implement
indirect jumps)
The Universal Synchronous Asynchronous Receiver Transmitter (USART) module is one of the
two serial I/O modules. (USART is also known as a Serial Communications Interface or SCI.)
The USART can be configured as a full-duplex asynchronous system that can communicate
with peripheral devices, such as CRT terminals and personal computers, or it can be configured
as a half-duplex synchronous system that can communicate with peripheral devices, such as
A/D or D/A integrated circuits, serial EEPROMs, etc.
Microcontrollers are used in automatically controlled products and devices, such as automobile
engine control systems, implantable medical devices, remote controls, office machines,
appliances, power tools, toys and other embedded systems. By reducing the size and cost
compared to a design that uses a separate microprocessor, memory, and input/output devices,
microcontrollers make it economical to digitally control even more devices and processes.
Mixed signal microcontrollers are common, integrating analog components needed to control
non-digital electronic systems.
Some microcontrollers may use four-bit words and operate at clock rate frequencies as low as
4kHz, for low power consumption (milliwatts or microwatts). They will generally have the
ability to retain functionality while waiting for an event such as a button press or other interrupt;
power consumption while sleeping (CPU clock and most peripherals off) may be just
nanowatts, making many of them well suited for long lasting battery applications. Other
microcontrollers may serve performance-critical roles, where they may need to act more like a
digital signal processor (DSP), with higher clock speeds and power consumption.
The first single-chip microprocessor was the 4-bit Intel 4004 released in 1971, with the Intel
8008 and other more capable microprocessors becoming available over the next several years.
However, both processors required external chips to implement a working system, raising total
system cost, and making it impossible to economically computerize appliances.
The Smithsonian Institution says TI engineers Gary Boone and Michael Cochran succeeded in
creating the first microcontroller in 1971. The result of their work was the TMS 1000, which

went commercial in 1974. It combined read-only memory, read/write memory, processor and
clock on one chip and was targeted at embedded systems.
Partly in response to the existence of the single-chip TMS 1000, Intel developed a computer
system on a chip optimized for control applications, the Intel 8048, with commercial parts first
shipping in 1977. It combined RAM and ROM on the same chip. This chip would find its way
into over one billion PC keyboards, and other numerous applications. At that time Intel's
President, Luke J. Valenter, stated that the microcontroller was one of the most successful in the
company's history, and expanded the division's budget over 25%.
Most microcontrollers at this time had two variants. One had an erasable EPROM program
memory, which was significantly more expensive than the PROM variant which was only
programmable once. Erasing the EPROM required exposure to ultraviolet light through a
transparent quartz lid. One-time parts could be made in lower-cost opaque plastic packages.
In 1993, the introduction of EEPROM memory allowed microcontrollers (beginning with the
Microchip PIC16x84) to be electrically erased quickly without an expensive package as
required for EPROM, allowing both rapid prototyping, and In System Programming. The same
year, Atmel introduced the first microcontroller using Flash memory. Other companies rapidly
followed suit, with both memory types.
Cost has plummeted over time, with the cheapest 8-bit microcontrollers being available for
under $0.25 in quantity (thousands) in 2009, and some 32-bit microcontrollers around $1 for
similar quantities. Nowadays microcontrollers are cheap and readily available for hobbyists,
with large online communities around certain processors. In the future, MRAM could
potentially be used in microcontrollers as it has infinite endurance and its incremental
semiconductor wafer process cost is relatively low. About 55% of all CPUs sold in the world are
8-bit microcontrollers and microprocessors. According to Semico, over four billion 8-bit
microcontrollers were sold in 2006.
A typical home in a developed country is likely to have only four general-purpose
microprocessors but around three dozen microcontrollers. A typical mid-range automobile has

as many as 30 or more microcontrollers. They can also be found in many electrical devices such
as washing machines, microwave ovens, and telephones.
Microcontrollers must provide real time (predictable, though not necessarily fast) response to
events in the embedded system they are controlling. When certain events occur, an interrupt
system can signal the processor to suspend processing the current instruction sequence and to
begin an interrupt service routine (ISR, or "interrupt handler"). The ISR will perform any
processing required based on the source of the interrupt before returning to the original
instruction sequence. Possible interrupt sources are device dependent, and often include events
such as an internal timer overflow, completing an analog to digital conversion, a logic level
change on an input such as from a button being pressed, and data received on a communication
link. Where power consumption is important as in battery operated devices, interrupts may also
wake a microcontroller from a low power sleep state where the processor is halted until required
to do something by a peripheral event.
Microcontrollers usually contain from several to dozens of general purpose input/output pins
(GPIO). GPIO pins are software configurable to either an input or an output state. When GPIO
pins are configured to an input state, they are often used to read sensors or external signals.
Configured to the output state, GPIO pins can drive external devices such as LEDs or motors.
Many embedded systems need to read sensors that produce analog signals. This is the purpose
of the analog-to-digital converter (ADC). Since processors are built to interpret and process
digital data, i.e. 1s and 0s, they are not able to do anything with the analog signals that may be
sent to it by a device. So the analog to digital converter is used to convert the incoming data into
a form that the processor can recognize. A less common feature on some microcontrollers is a
digital-to-analog converter (DAC) that allows the processor to output analog signals or voltage
levels.
In addition to the converters, many embedded microprocessors include a variety of timers as
well. One of the most common types of timers is the Programmable Interval Timer (PIT). A PIT
may either count down from some value to zero, or up to the capacity of the count register,
overflowing to zero. Once it reaches zero, it sends an interrupt to the processor indicating that it

has finished counting. This is useful for devices such as thermostats, which periodically test the
temperature around them to see if they need to turn the air conditioner on, the heater on, etc. A
dedicated Pulse Width Modulation (PWM) block makes it possible for the CPU to control
power converters, resistive loads, motors, etc., without using lots of CPU resources in tight
timer loops.
Universal Asynchronous Receiver/Transmitter (UART) block makes it possible to receive and
transmit data over a serial line with very little load on the CPU. Dedicated on-chip hardware
also often includes capabilities to communicate with other devices (chips) in digital formats
such as IC and Serial Peripheral Interface (SPI).
FEATURES

Floating channel designed for bootstrap operation

Fully operational to +600V

Tolerant to negative transient voltage dv/dt immune

Gate drive supply range from 10 to 20V

Under-voltage lockout for both channels

3.3V logic compatible

Separate logic supply range from 3.3V to 20V

Logic and power ground 5V offset

CMOS Schmitt-triggered inputs with pull-down\

Cycle by cycle edge-triggered shutdown logic

Matched propagation delay for both channels

Outputs in phase with inputs

A micro-controller is a single integrated circuit, commonly with the following features:

 Central Processing Unit - ranging from small and simple 4-bit processors to complex 32or 64-bit processors
Volatile Memory (RAM) for data storage
ROM, EPROM, EEPROM or Flash memory for program and operating parameter
storage
Discrete Input and Output bits, allowing control or detection of the logic state of an
individual package pin
Serial Input/Output such as serial ports (UARTs)
Other Serial Communications Interfaces like IC, Serial Peripheral Interface and
Controller Area Network for system interconnect
Peripherals such as timers, event counters, PWM generators, and watchdog
Clock generator - often an oscillator for a quartz timing crystal, resonator or RC circuit
Many include analog-to-digital converters, some include digital-to-analog converters
In-circuit programming and debugging support
Analog Applications:
10-bit, up to 8-channel Analog-to-Digital Converter (A/D), Brown-out Reset (BOR), Analog
Comparator module with, Two analog comparators Programmable on-chip voltage reference
(VREF) module, Programmable input multiplexing from device inputs and internal voltage
reference, Comparator outputs are externally accessible
High-Performance RISC CPU:
Only 35 single-word instructions to learn, All single-cycle instructions except for program
branches, which are two-cycle, Operating speed: DC 20 MHz clock input DC 200 ns

instruction cycle, Up to 8K x 14 words of Flash Program Memory, Up to 368 x 8 bytes of Data

Memory (RAM), Up to 256 x 8 bytes of EEPROM Data Memory, Pinout compatible to other 28pin or 40/44-pin PIC16CXXX and PIC16FXXX microcontrollers

Fig.3.1. Micro-controller Peripherals

Peripheral Details:
Timer0: 8-bit timer/counter with 8-bit prescaler, Timer1: 16-bit timer/counter with prescaler, can
be incremented during Sleep via external crystal/clock, Timer2: 8-bit timer/counter with 8-bit
period register, prescaler and postscaler, Two Capture, Compare, PWM modules, Capture is 16bit max, resolution is 12.5 ns Compare is 16-bit max, resolution is 200 ns, PWM max, resolution
is 10-bit Synchronous Serial Port (SSP) with SPI (Master mode) and I2C (Master/Slave),
Universal Synchronous Asynchronous Receiver Transmitter (USART/SCI) with 9-bit address
detection, Parallel Slave Port (PSP) 8 bits wide with external RD, WR and CS controls (40/44pin only), Brown-out detection circuitry for Brown-out Reset (BOR).
Special Microcontroller Applications:
100,000 erase/write cycle Enhanced Flash program memory typical, 1,000,000 erase/write cycle
Data EEPROM memory typical, Data EEPROM Retention > 40 years, Self-reprogrammable

under software control, In-Circuit Serial Programming via two pins, Single-supply 5V In-Circuit
Serial Programming Watchdog Timer (WDT) with its own on-chip RC oscillator for reliable
operation

Programmable code protection, Power saving Sleep mode, Selectable oscillator

options, In-Circuit Debug (ICD) via two pins.

CMOS Technology:
Low-power, high-speed Flash/EEPROM technology, Fully static design, Wide operating voltage
range (2.0V to 5.5V), Commercial and Industrial temperature ranges, Low-power consumption.

Fig.3.2. Microcontroller PIC16F877A

5.3

REQUIREMENTS (HARDWARE PART)

5.3.1 MOSFET GATE DRIVER

The High And Low Side Driver (IR2112) is a high voltage, high speed power MOSFET and
IGBT driver with independent high and low side referenced output channels. Proprietary HVIC
and latch immune CMOS technologies enable ruggedized monolithic construction. Logic inputs

are compatible with standard CMOS or LSTTL outputs, down to 3.3V logic. The output drivers
feature a high pulse current buffer stage designed for minimum driver cross conduction.
Propagation delays are matched to simplify use in high frequency applications. The floating
channel can be used to drive an N-channel power MOSFET or IGBT in the high side
configuration which operates up to 600 volts.
The driver circuit is used to drive the bi-directional converter switches where in this project the
converter acts as a shunt active filter (2-quadrant) for unity power factor operation and the dc
voltage regulation. Here two BJTs (n-type and p-type) are used for amplification.

Fig.3.3. DRIVER CKT IR2110

Fig.3.4. Operation of the MOSFET gate driver

Fig.3.5. Driver Circuit operation

Fig.3.6. IR2110 Driver

FEATURES
Floating channel designed for bootstrap operation
Fully operational to +500V or +600V
Tolerant to negative transient voltage & dV/dt immune
Gate drive supply range from 10 to 20V
Undervoltage lockout for both channels
3.3V logic compatible
Separate logic supply range from 3.3V to 20V
Logic and power ground 5V offset
CMOS Schmitt-triggered inputs with pull-down
Cycle by cycle edge-triggered shutdown logic
Matched propagation delay for both channels
Outputs in phase with inputs
The IR2110/IR2113 are high voltage, high speed power MOSFET and IGBT drivers with
independent high and low side referenced output channels. Proprietary HVIC and latch immune
CMOS technologies enable ruggedized monolithic construction. Logic inputs are compatible
with standard CMOS or LSTTL output, down to 3.3V logic. The output drivers feature a high
pulse current buffer stage designed for minimum driver cross-conduction. Propagation delays are
matched to simplify use in high frequency applications. The floating channel can be used to drive
an N-channel power MOSFET or IGBT in the high side configuration which operates up to 500
or 600 volts.

5.3.2 RECTIFIER

A rectifier is an electrical device that converts alternating current (AC), which periodically
reverses direction, to direct current (DC), which flows in only one direction. The process is
known as rectification. Physically, rectifiers take a number of forms, including vacuum tube
diodes, mercury-arc valves, copper and selenium oxide rectifiers, semiconductor diodes, siliconcontrolled rectifiers and other silicon-based semiconductor switches. Historically, even
synchronous electromechanical switches and motors have been used. Early radio receivers,
called crystal radios, used a "cat's whisker" of fine wire pressing on a crystal of galena (lead
sulfide) to serve as a point-contact rectifier or "crystal detector".

Rectifiers have many uses, but are often found serving as components of DC power
supplies and high-voltage direct current power transmission systems. Rectification may serve in
roles other than to generate direct current for use as a source of power. As
noted, detectors of radio signals serve as rectifiers. In gas heating systems flame rectification is
used to detect presence of a flame.
Because of the alternating nature of the input AC sine wave, the process of rectification alone
produces a DC current that, though unidirectional, consists of pulses of current. Many
applications of rectifiers, such as power supplies for radio, television and computer equipment,
require a steady constant DC current (as would be produced by a battery). In these applications
the output of the rectifier is smoothed by an electronic filter (usually a capacitor) to produce a
steady current.

5.3.3 MOSFET
A cross section through an n-MOSFET when the gate voltage V GS is below the threshold
for making a conductive channel; there is little or no conduction between the terminals source
and drain; the switch is off. When the gate is more positive, it attracts electrons, inducing an ntype conductive channel in the substrate below the oxide, which allows electrons to flow
between the n-doped terminals; the switch is on.
The metaloxidesemiconductor field-effect transistor (MOSFET, MOS-FET, or MOS
FET) is a transistor used for amplifying or switching electronic signals. The basic principle of
this kind of transistor was first patented by Julius Edgar Lilienfeld in 1925. Twenty five years
later, when Bell Telephone attempted to patent the junction transistor, they found Lilienfeld
already holding a patent which was worded in a way that would include all types of transistors.
Bell Labs was able to work out an agreement with Lilienfeld, who was still alive at that time. (It
is not known if they paid him money or not.) It was at that time the Bell Labs version was given
the name bipolar junction transistor, or simply junction transistor, and Lilienfeld's design took
the name field effect transistor.
In MOSFETs, a voltage on the oxide-insulated gate electrode can induce a conducting
channel between the two other contacts called source and drain. The channel can be of n-type or
p-type (see article on semiconductor devices), and is accordingly called an nMOSFET or a
pMOSFET (also commonly nMOS, pMOS). It is by far the most common transistor in both
digital and analog circuits, though the bipolar junction transistor was at one time much more
common. The 'metal' in the name is now often a misnomer because the previously metal gate
material is now often a layer of polysilicon (polycrystalline silicon). Aluminium had been the
gate material until the mid 1970s, when polysilicon became dominant, due to its capability to
form self-aligned gates. Metallic gates are regaining popularity, since it is difficult to increase
the speed of operation of transistors without metal gates.
An insulated-gate field-effect transistor or IGFET is a related term almost synonymous
with MOSFET. The term may be more inclusive, since many "MOSFETs" use a gate that is not
metal, and a gate insulator that is not oxide. Another synonym is MISFET for metalinsulator

semiconductor FET. Usually the semiconductor of choice is silicon, but some chip
manufacturers, most notably IBM and Intel, recently started using a chemical compound of
silicon and germanium (SiGe) in MOSFET channels. Unfortunately, many semiconductors with
better electrical properties than silicon, such as gallium arsenide, do not form good
semiconductor-to-insulator interfaces, thus are not suitable for MOSFETs. Research continues
on creating insulators with acceptable electrical characteristics on other semiconductor material.
In order to overcome the increase in power consumption due to gate current leakage, a
high dielectric is used instead of silicon dioxide for the gate insulator, while polysilicon is
replaced by metal gates. The gate is separated from the channel by a thin insulating layer,
traditionally of silicon dioxide and later of silicon oxynitride. Some companies have started to
introduce a high- dielectric + metal gate combination in the 45 nanometer node. When a
voltage is applied between the gate and body terminals, the electric field generated penetrates
through the oxide and creates an "inversion layer" or "channel" at the semiconductor-insulator
interface. The inversion channel is of the same type, p-type or n-type, as the source and drain,
thus it provides a channel through which current can pass. Varying the voltage between the gate
and body modulates the conductivity of this layer and thereby controls the current flow between
drain and source.
The Power MOSFET switch IRF840 is used. A Power MOSFET is a specific type of
metal oxide semiconductor field-effect transistor (MOSFET) designed to handle significant
power levels. Compared to the other power semiconductor devices (IGBT, Thyristor...), its main
advantages are high commutation speed and good efficiency at low voltages. It shares with the
IGBT an isolated gate that makes it easy to drive. It was made possible by the evolution of
CMOS technology, developed for manufacturing Integrated circuits in the late 1970s. The
power MOSFET shares its operating principle with its low-power counterpart, the lateral
MOSFET. The power MOSFET is the most widely used low-voltage (i.e. less than 200 V)
switch. It can be found in most power supplies, DC to DC converters, and low voltage motor
controllers. Because of their unipolar nature, the power MOSFET can switch at very high speed.
Indeed, there is no need to remove minority carriers as with bipolar devices. The only intrinsic
limitation in commutation speed is due to the internal capacitances of the MOSFET (see figure
4). These capacitances must be charged or discharged when the transistor switches. This can be

a relatively slow process because the current that flows through the gate capacitances is limited
by the external driver circuit. This circuit will actually dictate the commutation speed of the
transistor (assuming the power circuit has sufficiently low inductance).

Fig.3.8. MOSFET

ADVANTAGES
Silicon gate for fast switching speeds.
Low Rds(on) to minimize On-losses, specified at elevated temperature.
Rugged---SOA is power dissipation limited.
Source to drain diode characterized for use with inductive loads.
Dynamic dv/dt rating
Repetitive avalanche rated
Fast switching
Ease of paralleling
Simple drive requirements

Fig.3.9. IRF840

Fig.3.9. IRF840

Third generation Power MOSFETs from Vishay provide the designer with the best
combination of fast switching, ruggedized device design, low on-resistance and costeffectiveness. The TO-220AB package is universally preferred for all commercial-industrial
applications at power dissipation levels to approximately 50 W. The low thermal resistance and
low package cost of the TO-220AB contribute to its wide acceptance throughout the industry.
This N-Channel enhancement mode silicon gate power field effect transistor is an
advanced power MOSFET designed, tested, and guaranteed to withstand a specified level of

energy in the breakdown avalanche mode of operation. All of these power MOSFETs are
designed for applications such as switching regulators, switching converters, motor drivers, relay
drivers, and drivers for high power bipolar switching transistors requiring high speed and low
gate drive power. These types can be operated directly from integrated circuits.
FEATURES
Ids= 8A; Vds=500V ;Rds(on)= 0.850
Single Pulse Avalanche Energy Rated
SOA is Power Dissipation Limited
Nanosecond Switching Speeds
Linear Transfer Characteristics
High Input Impedance

5.3.4 DIODE

Fig.3.10. Diode

In electronics, a diode is a type of two-terminal electronic component with nonlinear

resistance and conductance (i.e., a nonlinear currentvoltage characteristic), distinguishing it
from components such as two-terminal linear resistors which obey Ohm's law. A semiconductor
diode, the most common type today, is a crystalline piece of semiconductor material connected
to two electrical terminals. A vacuum tube diode (now rarely used except in some high-power

technologies) is a vacuum tube with two electrodes: a plate and a cathode. The most common
function of a diode is to allow an electric current to pass in one direction (called the diode's
forward direction), while blocking current in the opposite direction (the reverse direction). Thus,
the diode can be thought of as an electronic version of a check valve. This unidirectional
behavior is called rectification, and is used to convert alternating current to direct current, and to
extract modulation from radio signals in radio receiversthese diodes are forms of rectifiers.
However, diodes can have more complicated behavior than this simple onoff action.
Semiconductor diodes do not begin conducting electricity until a certain threshold voltage is
present in the forward direction (a state in which the diode is said to be forward-biased). The
voltage drop across a forward-biased diode varies only a little with the current, and is a function
of temperature; this effect can be used as a temperature sensor or voltage reference.
Semiconductor diodes' nonlinear currentvoltage characteristic can be tailored by varying
the semiconductor materials and introducing impurities into (doping) the materials. These are
exploited in special purpose diodes that perform many different functions. For example, diodes
are used to regulate voltage (Zener diodes), to protect circuits from high voltage surges
(avalanche diodes), to electronically tune radio and TV receivers (varactor diodes), to generate
radio frequency oscillations (tunnel diodes, Gunn diodes, IMPATT diodes), and to produce light
(light emitting diodes). Tunnel diodes exhibit negative resistance, which makes them useful in
some types of circuits.

5.3.5 INDUCTOR

Fig.3.11 Inductor

An inductor (or reactor or coil) is a passive two-terminal electrical component used to

stored energy in a magnetic field. Any conductor has inductance although the conductor is
typically wound in loops to reinforce the magnetic field. Due to the time-varying magnetic field
inside the coil, a voltage is induced, according to Faraday's law of electromagnetic induction,
which by Lenz's law opposes the change in current that created it. Inductors are one of the basic
components used in electronics where current and voltage change with time, due to the ability
of inductors to delay and reshape alternating currents. Inductors called chokes are used as parts
of filters in power supplies or can be used to block AC signals from passing through a circuit.
An inductor is used as the energy storage device in some switched-mode power supplies.
The inductor is energized for a specific fraction of the regulator's switching frequency, and deenergized for the remainder of the cycle. This energy transfer ratio determines the input-voltage
to output-voltage ratio. This XL is used in complement with an active semiconductor device to
maintain very accurate voltage control.

5.3.6 CAPACITOR

Fig.3.12. Capacitor

A capacitor (formerly known as condenser) is a passive two-terminal electrical

component used to store energy in an electric field. The forms of practical capacitors vary
widely, but all contain at least two electrical conductors separated by a dielectric (insulator); for
example, one common construction consists of metal foils separated by a thin layer of insulating
film. Capacitors are widely used as parts of electrical circuits in many common electrical
devices.
When there is a potential difference (voltage) across the conductors, a static electric field
develops across the dielectric, causing positive charge to collect on one plate and negative
charge on the other plate. Energy is stored in the electrostatic field. An ideal capacitor is
characterized by a single constant value, capacitance, measured in farads. This is the ratio of the
electric charge on each conductor to the potential difference between them.
The capacitance is greatest when there is a narrow separation between large areas of
conductor, hence capacitor conductors are often called "plates," referring to an early means of
construction. In practice, the dielectric between the plates passes a small amount of leakage
current and also has an electric field strength limit, resulting in a breakdown voltage, while the
conductors and leads introduce an undesired inductance and resistance. Capacitors are widely
used in electronic circuits for blocking direct current while allowing alternating current to pass,

in filter networks, for smoothing the output of power supplies, in the resonant circuits that tune
radios to particular frequencies and for many other purposes.
5.3.7

POWER SUPPLY UNIT

Power Supply for PIC 16F877A Microcontroller. This section describes how to generate +5V
DC power supply and +12V DC power supply.

Fig.3.13. Power Supply Unit

The power supply section is the important one. It should deliver constant output regulated
power supply for successful working of the project. A 0-12V/1mA transformer is used for this
purpose. The primary of this transformer is connected in to main supply through on/off switch&
fuse for protecting from overload and short circuit protection. The secondary is connected to the
diodes to convert 12V AC to 12V DC voltage. And filtered by the capacitors, which is further
regulated to +5v, by using IC 7805 and +12v by using IC7812.
5.11

Regulator ICs

Fig.3.14. Regulators Unit

In electronics, a linear regulator is a component used to maintain a steady voltage. The

resistance of the regulator varies in accordance with the load resulting in a constant output
voltage. In contrast, the switching regulator is nothing more than just a simple switch. This
switch goes on and off at a fixed rate usually between 50 kHz to 100 kHz as set by the circuit.
The regulating device is made to act like a variable resistor, continuously adjusting a voltage
divider network to maintain a constant output voltage. The primary advantage of a switching
regulator over linear regulator is very high efficiency, a lot less heat and smaller size.
The transistor (or other device) is used as one half of a potential divider to establish the
regulated output voltage. The output voltage is compared to a reference voltage to produce a
control signal to the transistor which will drive its gate or base. With negative feedback and good

choice of compensation, the output voltage is kept reasonably constant. Linear regulators are
often inefficient: since the transistor is acting like a resistor, it will waste electrical energy by
converting it to heat. In fact, the power loss due to heating in the transistor is the current times
the voltage dropped across the transistor. The same function can often be performed much more
efficiently by a switched-mode power supply, but a linear regulator may be preferred for light
loads or where the desired output voltage approaches the source voltage. In these cases, the
linear regulator may dissipate less power than a switcher. The linear regulator also has the
advantage of not requiring magnetic devices (inductors or transformers) which can be relatively
expensive or bulky, being often of simpler design, and being quieter. Linear regulators exist in
two basic forms: series regulators and shunt regulators.
Series regulators are the more common form. The series regulator works by providing a
path from the supply voltage to the load through a variable resistance (the main transistor is in
the "top half" of the voltage divider). The power dissipated by the regulating device is equal to
the power supply output current times the voltage drop in the regulating device. The shunt
regulator works by providing a path from the supply voltage to ground through a variable
resistance (the main transistor is in the "bottom half" of the voltage divider). The current through
the shunt regulator is diverted away from the load and flows uselessly to ground, making this
form even less efficient than the series regulator. It is, however, simpler, sometimes consisting of
just a voltage-reference diode, and is used in very low-powered circuits where the wasted current
is too small to be of concern. This form is very common for voltage reference circuits.
All linear regulators require an input voltage at least some minimum amount higher than
the desired output voltage. That minimum amount is called the dropout voltage. For example, a
common regulator such as the 7805 has an output voltage of 5V, but can only maintain this if the
input voltage remains above about 7V, before the output voltage begins sagging below the rated
output. Its dropout voltage is therefore 7V - 5V = 2V. When the supply voltage is less than about
2V above the desired output voltage, as is the case in low-voltage microprocessor power
supplies, so-called low dropout regulators (LDOs) must be used. When one wants an output
voltage higher than the available input voltage, no linear regulator will work (not even an LDO).
In this situation, a switching regulator.

5.3.8

Load
If an electric circuit has a well-defined output terminal, the circuit connected to this

terminal (or its input impedance) is the load. (The term 'load' may also refer to the power
consumed by a circuit; that topic is not discussed here). Load affects the performance of circuits
that output voltages or currents, such as sensors, voltage sources, and amplifiers. Mains power
outlets provide an easy example: they supply power at constant voltage, with electrical
appliances connected to the power circuit collectively making up the load. When a high-power
appliance switches on, it dramatically reduces the load impedance. If the load impedance is not
very much higher than the power supply impedance, the voltage will drop. In a domestic
environment, switching on a heating appliance may cause incandescent lights to dim noticeably.

CHAPTER-5
MOSFET(METAL OXITE SEMICONDUCTOR FIELD EFFECT
TRANSISTOR)
The metaloxidesemiconductor field-effect transistor (MOSFET, MOS-FET, or
MOS FET) is a type of transistor used for amplifying or switching electronic signals. Although

the MOSFET is a four-terminal device with source (S), gate (G), drain (D), and body (B)
terminals, the body (or substrate) of the MOSFET is often connected to the source terminal,
making it a three-terminal device like other field-effect transistors. Because these two terminals
are normally connected to each other (short-circuited) internally, only three terminals appear in
electrical diagrams.

The MOSFET is by far the most common transistor in both digital and analog circuits,
though the bipolar junction transistor was at one time much more common. In enhancement
mode MOSFETs, a voltage drop across the oxide induces a conducting channel between the
source and drain contacts via the field effect. The term "enhancement mode" refers to the
increase of conductivity with increase in oxide field that adds carriers to the channel, also
referred to as the inversion layer. The channel can contain electrons (called an nMOSFET or
nMOS), or holes (called a pMOSFET or pMOS), opposite in type to the substrate, so nMOS is
made with a p-type substrate, and pMOS with an n-type substrate (see article on semiconductor
devices).
In the less common depletion mode MOSFET, detailed later on, the channel consists of
carriers in a surface impurity layer of opposite type to the substrate, and conductivity is
decreased by application of a field that depletes carriers from this surface layer. The "metal" in

the name MOSFET is now often a misnomer because the previously metal gate material is now
often a layer of polysilicon (polycrystalline silicon). Aluminium had been the gate material until
the mid-1970s, when polysilicon became dominant, due to its capability to form self-aligned
gates. Metallic gates are regaining popularity, since it is difficult to increase the speed of
operation of transistors without metal gates. Likewise, the "oxide" in the name can be a
misnomer, as different dielectric materials are used with the aim of obtaining strong channels
with smaller applied voltages. An insulated-gate field-effect transistor or IGFET is a related
term almost synonymous with MOSFET. The term may be more inclusive, since many
"MOSFETs" use a gate that is not metal, and a gate insulator that is not oxide. Another synonym
is MISFET for metalinsulatorsemiconductor FET. The basic principle of the field-effect
transistor was first patented by Julius Edgar Lilienfeld in 1925.

Usually the semiconductor of choice is silicon, but some chip manufacturers, most
notably IBM and Intel, recently started using a chemical compound of silicon and germanium

(SiGe) in MOSFET channels. Unfortunately, many semiconductors with better electrical

properties than silicon, such as gallium arsenide, do not form good semiconductor-to-insulator
interfaces, thus are not suitable for MOSFETs. Research continues on creating insulators with
acceptable electrical characteristics on other semiconductor material. In order to overcome the
increase in power consumption due to gate current leakage, a high- dielectric is used instead of
silicon dioxide for the gate insulator, while polysilicon is replaced by metal gates (see Intel
announcement). The gate is separated from the channel by a thin insulating layer, traditionally of
silicon dioxide and later of silicon oxynitride. Some companies have started to introduce a high-
dielectric + metal gate combination in the 45 nanometer node.
When a voltage is applied between the gate and body terminals, the electric field
generated penetrates through the oxide and creates an "inversion layer" or "channel" at the
semiconductor-insulator interface. The inversion channel is of the same type, p-type or n-type, as
the source and drain, thus it provides a channel through which current can pass. Varying the
voltage between the gate and body modulates the conductivity of this layer and thereby controls
the current flow between drain and source.

Circuit symbols
A variety of symbols are used for the MOSFET. The basic design is generally a line for
the channel with the source and drain leaving it at right angles and then bending back at right
angles into the same direction as the channel. Sometimes three line segments are used for
enhancement mode and a solid line for depletion mode. (see Depletion and enhancement modes)
Another line is drawn parallel to the channel for the gate. The "bulk" or "body" connection, if
shown, is shown connected to the back of the channel with an arrow indicating PMOS or NMOS.
Arrows always point from P to N, so an NMOS (N-channel in P-well or P-substrate) has the
arrow pointing in (from the bulk to the channel).

If the bulk is connected to the source (as is generally the case with discrete devices) it is
sometimes angled to meet up with the source leaving the transistor. If the bulk is not shown (as is
often the case in IC design as they are generally common bulk) an inversion symbol is
sometimes used to indicate PMOS, alternatively an arrow on the source may be used in the same
way as for bipolar transistors (out for nMOS, in for pMOS). Comparison of enhancement-mode
and depletion-mode MOSFET symbols, along with JFET symbols.
The orientation of the symbols, (most significantly the position of source relative to
drain) is such that more positive voltages appear higher on the page than less positive voltages,
implying current flowing "down" the page: In schematics where G, S, D are not labeled, the
detailed features of the symbol indicate which terminal is source and which is drain. For
enhancement-mode and depletion-mode MOSFET symbols (in columns two and five), the source
terminal is the one connected to the triangle. Additionally, in this diagram, the gate is shown as
an "L" shape, whose input leg is closer to S than D, also indicating which is which. However,
these symbols are often drawn with a "T" shaped gate (as elsewhere on this page), so it is the
triangle which must be relied upon to indicate the source terminal. For the symbols in which the
bulk, or body, terminal is shown, it is here shown internally connected to the source (i.e., the
black triangles in the diagrams in columns 2 and 5). This is a typical configuration, but by no
means the only important configuration. In general, the MOSFET is a four-terminal device, and
in integrated circuits many of the MOSFETs share a body connection, not necessarily connected
to the source terminals of all the transistors.

Metaloxidesemiconductor structure:
The traditional metaloxidesemiconductor (MOS) structure is obtained by growing a
layer of silicon dioxide (SiO2) on top of a silicon substrate and depositing a layer of metal or

polycrystalline silicon (the latter is commonly used). As the silicon dioxide is a dielectric
material, its structure is equivalent to a planar capacitor, with one of the electrodes replaced by a
semiconductor. When a voltage is applied across a MOS structure, it modifies the distribution of
charges in the semiconductor. If we consider a p-type semiconductor (with the density of
acceptors, p the density of holes; p = NA in neutral bulk), a positive voltage, , from gate to body
creates a depletion layer by forcing the positively charged holes away from the gateinsulator/semiconductor interface, leaving exposed a carrier-free region of immobile, negatively
charged acceptor ions (see doping (semiconductor)).
If is high enough, a high concentration of negative charge carriers forms in an inversion
layer located in a thin layer next to the interface between the semiconductor and the insulator.
Unlike the MOSFET, where the inversion layer electrons are supplied rapidly from the
source/drain electrodes, in the MOS capacitor they are produced much more slowly by thermal
generation through carrier generation and recombination centers in the depletion region.
Conventionally, the gate voltage at which the volume density of electrons in the inversion layer
is the same as the volume density of holes in the body is called the threshold voltage. When the
voltage between transistor gate and source (VGS) exceeds the threshold voltage (Vth), it is
known as overdrive voltage. This structure with p-type body is the basis of the n-type MOSFET,
which requires the addition of an n-type sourceand drain regions.
MOSFET structure and channel formation
An applied gate voltage bends bands, depleting holes from surface (left). The charge
inducing the bending is balanced by a layer of negative acceptor-ion charge (right). Bottom
panel: A larger applied voltage further depletes holes but conduction band lowers enough in
energy to populate a conducting channel. A metaloxidesemiconductor field-effect transistor
(MOSFET) is based on the modulation of charge concentration by a MOS capacitance between a
body electrode and a gate electrode located above the body and insulated from all other device
regions by a gate dielectric layer which in the case of a MOSFET is an oxide, such as silicon
dioxide.
If dielectrics other than an oxide such as silicon dioxide (often referred to as oxide) are
employed the device may be referred to as a metalinsulatorsemiconductor FET (MISFET).
Compared to the MOS capacitor, the MOSFET includes two additional terminals (source and

drain), each connected to individual highly doped regions that are separated by the body region.
These regions can be either p or n type, but they must both be of the same type, and of opposite
type to the body region. The source and drain (unlike the body) are highly doped as signified by
a "+" sign after the type of doping.

If the MOSFET is an n-channel or nMOS FET, then the source and drain are "n+" regions
and the body is a "p" region. If the MOSFET is a p-channel or pMOS FET, then the source and
drain are "p+" regions and the body is a "n" region. The source is so named because it is the
source of the charge carriers (electrons for n-channel, holes for p-channel) that flow through the
channel; similarly, the drain is where the charge carriers leave the channel.

The occupancy of the energy bands in a semiconductor is set by the position of the Fermi
level relative to the semiconductor energy-band edges. As described above, and shown in the
figure, with sufficient gate voltage, the valence band edge is driven far from the Fermi level, and
holes from the body are driven away from the gate. At larger gate bias still, near the
semiconductor surface the conduction band edge is brought close to the Fermi level, populating
the surface with electrons in an inversion layer or n-channel at the interface between the p region
and the oxide.
This conducting channel extends between the source and the drain, and current is
conducted through it when a voltage is applied between the two electrodes. Increasing the
voltage on the gate leads to a higher electron density in the inversion layer and therefore

increases the current flow between the source and drain. For gate voltages below the threshold
value, the channel is lightly populated, and only a very small subthreshold leakage current can
flow between the source and the drain. When a negative gate-source voltage (positive sourcegate) is applied, it creates a p-channel at the surface of the n region, analogous to the n-channel
case, but with opposite polarities of charges and voltages. When a voltage less negative than the
threshold value (a negative voltage for p-channel) is applied between gate and source, the
channel disappears and only a very small subthreshold current can flow between the source and
the drain. The device may comprise a Silicon On Insulator (SOI) device in which a buried oxide
(BOX) is formed below a thin semiconductor layer. If the channel region between the gate
dielectric and a BOX region is very thin, the very thin channel region is referred to as an
ultrathin channel (UTC) region with the source and drain regions formed on either side thereof in
and/or above the thin semiconductor layer. Alternatively, the device may comprise a
semiconductor on insulator (SEMOI) device in which semiconductors other than silicon are
employed. Many alternative semiconductor materials may be employed.
When the source and drain regions are formed above the channel in whole or in part, they
are referred to as raised source/drain (RSD) regions. The operation of a MOSFET can be
separated into three different modes, depending on the voltages at the terminals. In the following
discussion, a simplified algebraic model is used. Modern MOSFET characteristics are more
complex than the algebraic model presented here.
Modes of operation:
The operation of a MOSFET can be separated into three different modes, depending on
the voltages at the terminals. In the following discussion, a simplified algebraic model is used.[5]
Modern MOSFET characteristics are more complex than the algebraic model presented here. For
an enhancement-mode, n-channel MOSFET, the three operational modes are: Cutoff,
subthreshold, or weak-inversion mode When VGS < Vth: where is gate-to-source bias and is the
threshold voltage of the device. According to the basic threshold model, the transistor is turned
off, and there is no conduction between drain and source. A more accurate model considers the
effect of thermal energy on the FermiDirac distribution of electron energies which allow some
of the more energetic electrons at the source to enter the channel and flow to the drain. This
results in a subthreshold current that is an exponential function of gatesource voltage. While the
current between drain and source should ideally be zero when the transistor is being used as a

turned-off switch, there is a weak-inversion current, sometimes called subthreshold leakage. In

weak inversion where the source is tied to bulk, the current varies exponentially with as
givenapproximately by:

Where

then the thermal voltage =

with = capacitance of the depletion layer and = capacitance of the oxide layer. This equation is
generally used, but is only an adequate approximation for the source.

The switch is turned on, and a channel has been created, which allows current to flow
between the drain and source. Since the drain voltage is higher than the source voltage, the
electrons spread out, and conduction is not through a narrow channel but through a broader, twoor three-dimensional current distribution extending away from the interface and deeper in the
substrate. The onset of this region is also known as pinch-off to indicate the lack of channel
region near the drain. Although the channel does not extend the full length of the device, the

electric field between the drain and the channel is very high, and conduction continues. The drain
current is now weakly dependent upon drain voltage and controlled primarily by the gatesource
voltage, and modeled approximately as:

As the channel length becomes very short, these equations become quite inaccurate. New
physical effects arise. For example, carrier transport in the active mode may become limited by
velocity saturation. When velocity saturation dominates, the saturation drain current is more
nearly linear than quadratic in VGS. At even shorter lengths, carriers transport with near zero
scattering, known as quasi-ballistic transport. In the ballistic regime, the carriers travel at an
injection velocity that may exceed the saturation velocity and approaches the Fermi velocity at
high inversion charge density. In addition, drain-induced barrier lowering increases off-state
(cutoff) current and requires an increase in threshold voltage to compensate, which in turn
reduces the saturation current.

Digital:
The growth of digital technologies like the microprocessor has provided the motivation to
advance MOSFET technology faster than any other type of silicon-based transistor. A big
advantage of MOSFETs for digital switching is that the oxide layer between the gate and the
channel prevents DC current from flowing through the gate, further reducing power consumption
and giving a very large input impedance. The insulating oxide between the gate and channel
effectively isolates a MOSFET in one logic stage from earlier and later stages, which allows a
single MOSFET output to drive a considerable number of MOSFET inputs. Bipolar transistorbased logic (such as TTL) does not have such a high fanout capacity. This isolation also makes it
easier for the designers to ignore to some extent loading effects between logic stages

independently. That extent is defined by the operating frequency: as frequencies increase, the
input impedance of the MOSFETs decreases.

Analog:
The MOSFET's advantages in digital circuits do not translate into supremacy in all
analog circuits. The two types of circuit draw upon different features of transistor behavior.
Digital circuits switch, spending most of their time outside the switching region, while analog
circuits depend on the linearity of response when the MOSFET is held precisely in the switching
region. The bipolar junction transistor (BJT) has traditionally been the analog designer's
transistor of choice, due largely to its higher transconductance and its lower output impedance
(drain-voltage independence) in the switching region. Nevertheless, MOSFETs are widely used
in many types of analog circuits because of certain advantages. The characteristics and
performance of many analog circuits can be scaled up or down by changing the sizes (length and
width) of the MOSFETs used.
By comparison, in most bipolar transistors the size of the device does not significantly
affect its performance. MOSFETs' ideal characteristics regarding gate current (zero) and drainsource offset voltage (zero) also make them nearly ideal switch elements, and also make
switched capacitor analog circuits practical. In their linear region, MOSFETs can be used as
precision resistors, which can have a much higher controlled resistance than BJTs. In high power
circuits, MOSFETs sometimes have the advantage of not suffering from thermal runaway as
BJTs do. Also, MOSFETs can be configured to perform as capacitors and gyrator circuits which
allow op-amps made from them to appear as inductors, thereby allowing all of the normal analog
devices on a chip (except for diodes, which can be made smaller than a MOSFET anyway) to be
built entirely out of MOSFETs. This means that complete analog circuits can be made on a
silicon chip in a much smaller space and with simpler fabrication techniques.
Some ICs combine analog and digital MOSFET circuitry on a single mixed-signal
integrated circuit, making the needed board space even smaller. This creates a need to isolate the
analog circuits from the digital circuits on a chip level, leading to the use of isolation rings and
Silicon-On-Insulator (SOI). Since MOSFETs require more space to handle a given amount of
power than a BJT, fabrication processes can incorporate BJTs and MOSFETs into a single
device. Mixed-transistor devices are called Bi-FETs (bipolar FETs) if they contain just one BJT-

FET and BiCMOS (bipolar-CMOS) if they contain complementary BJT-FETs. Such devices
have the advantages of both insulated gates and higher current density.

Reasons for MOSFET scaling:

Smaller MOSFETs are desirable for several reasons. The main reason to make transistors
smaller is to pack more and more devices in a given chip area. This results in a chip with the
same functionality in a smaller area, or chips with more functionality in the same area. Since
fabrication costs for a semiconductor wafer are relatively fixed, the cost per integrated circuits is
mainly related to the number of chips that can be produced per wafer. Hence, smaller ICs allow
more chips per wafer, reducing the price per chip. In fact, over the past 30 years the number of
transistors per chip has been doubled every 23 years once a new technology node is introduced.
For example the number of MOSFETs in a microprocessor fabricated in a 45 nm technology can
well be twice as many as in a 65 nm chip. This doubling of transistor density was first observed
by Gordon Moore in 1965 and is commonly referred to as Moore's law.

Increased gate-oxide leakage:

The gate oxide, which serves as insulator between the gate and channel, should be made
as thin as possible to increase the channel conductivity and performance when the transistor is on
and to reduce subthreshold leakage when the transistor is off. However, with current gate oxides
with a thickness of around 1.2 nm (which in silicon is ~5 atoms thick) the quantum mechanical
phenomenon of electron tunneling occurs between the gate and channel, leading to increased
power consumption. Silicon dioxide has traditionally been used as the gate insulator. Silicon
dioxide however has a modest dielectric constant. Increasing the dielectric constant of the gate
dielectric allows a thicker layer while maintaining a high capacitance (capacitance is
proportional to dielectric constant and inversely proportional to dielectric thickness). All else
equal, a higher dielectric thickness reduces the quantum tunneling current through the dielectric
between the gate and the channel.
Insulators that have a larger dielectric constant than silicon dioxide (referred to as high-k
dielectrics), such as group IVb metal silicates e.g. hafnium and zirconium silicates and oxides are
being used to reduce the gate leakage from the 45 nanometer technology node onwards. On the
other hand, the barrier height of the new gate insulator is an important consideration; the
difference in conduction band energy between the semiconductor and the dielectric (and the
corresponding difference in valence band energy) also affects leakage current level. For the

traditional gate oxide, silicon dioxide, the former barrier is approximately 8 eV. For many
alternative dielectrics the value is significantly lower, tending to increase the tunneling current,
somewhat negating the advantage of higher dielectric constant. The maximum gate-source
voltage is determined by the strength of the electric field able to be sustained by the gate
dielectric before significant leakage occurs. As the insulating dielectric is made thinner, the
electric field strength within it goes up for a fixed voltage. This necessitates using lower voltages
with the thinner dielectric.

Heat production
Large heatsinks to cool power transistors in a TRM-800 audio amplifier The everincreasing density of MOSFETs on an integrated circuit creates problems of substantial localized
heat generation that can impair circuit operation. Circuits operate more slowly at high
temperatures, and have reduced reliability and shorter lifetimes. Heat sinks and other cooling
devices and methods are now required for many integrated circuits including microprocessors.
Power MOSFETs are at risk of thermal runaway. As their on-state resistance rises with
temperature, if the load is approximately a constant-current load then the power loss rises
correspondingly, generating further heat. When the heatsink is not able to keep the temperature
low enough, the junction temperature may rise quickly and uncontrollably, resulting in
destruction of the device.

MOSFET construction:
Gate material:
The primary criterion for the gate material is that it is a good conductor. Highly doped
polycrystalline silicon is an acceptable but certainly not ideal conductor, and also suffers from
some more technical deficiencies in its role as the standard gate material. Nevertheless, there are
several reasons favoring use of polysilicon:
1. The threshold voltage (and consequently the drain to source on-current) is modified by
the work function difference between the gate material and channel material. Because polysilicon
is a semiconductor, its work function can be modulated by adjusting the type and level of doping.
Furthermore, because polysilicon has the same bandgap as the underlying silicon channel, it is
quite straightforward to tune the work function to achieve low threshold voltages for both NMOS
and PMOS devices. By contrast, the work functions of metals are not easily modulated, so tuning
the work function to obtain low threshold voltages becomes a significant challenge. Additionally,
obtaining low-threshold devices on both PMOS and NMOS devices would likely require the use
of different metals for each device type, introducing additional complexity to the fabrication
process.
2. The silicon-SiO2 interface has been well studied and is known to have relatively few
defects. By contrast many metalinsulator interfaces contain significant levels of defects which

can lead to Fermi level pinning, charging, or other phenomena that ultimately degrade device
performance.
3. In the MOSFET IC fabrication process, it is preferable to deposit the gate material
prior to certain high-temperature steps in order to make better-performing transistors. Such high
temperature steps would melt some metals, limiting the types of metal that can be used in a
metal-gate-based process. While polysilicon gates have been the de facto standard for the last
twenty years, they do have some disadvantages which have led to their likely future replacement
by metal gates. These disadvantages include:
Polysilicon is not a great conductor (approximately 1000 times more resistive than
metals) which reduces the signal propagation speed through the material. The resistivity can be
lowered by increasing the level of doping, but even highly doped polysilicon is not as conductive
as most metals. To improve conductivity further, sometimes a high-temperature metal such as
tungsten, titanium, cobalt, and more recently nickel is alloyed with the top layers of the
polysilicon. Such a blended material is called silicide. The silicide-polysilicon combination has
better electrical properties than polysilicon alone and still does not melt in subsequent
processing. Also the threshold voltage is not significantly higher than with polysilicon alone,
because the silicide material is not near the channel. The process in which silicide is formed on
both the gate electrode and the source and drain regions is sometimes called salicide, self-aligned
silicide.
When the transistors are extremely scaled down, it is necessary to make the gate
dielectric layer very thin, around 1 nm in state-of-the-art technologies. A phenomenon observed
here is the so-called poly depletion, where a depletion layer is formed in the gate polysilicon
layer next to the gate dielectric when the transistor is in the inversion. To avoid this problem, a
metal gate is desired. A variety of metal gates such as tantalum, tungsten, tantalum nitride, and
titanium nitride are used, usually in conjunction with high-k dielectrics. An alternative is to use
fully silicided polysilicon gates, a process known as FUSI.
Present high performance CPUs use metal gate technology, together with high-k dielectrics, a
combination known as HKMG (High-K, Metal Gate). The disadvantages of metal gates are
overcome by a few techniques:
1. The threshold voltage is tuned by including a thin "work function metal" layer between
the high-K dielectric and the main metal. This layer is thin enough that the total work function of

the gate is influenced by both the main metal and thin metal work functions (either due to
alloying during annealing, or simply due to the incomplete screening by the thin metal). The
threshold voltage thus can be tuned by the thickness of the thin metal layer.
2. High-K dielectrics are now well studied, and their defects are understood.
3. HKMG processes exist that do not require the metals to experience high temperature
anneals; other processes select metals that can survive the annealing step.

CHAPTER-4
SNUBBER CIRCUIT
A snubber is a device used to suppress ("snub") some phenomenon, such as:

Voltage transients in electrical systems.

Pressure transients in fluid systems.

Excess force or rapid movement in mechanical systems.

Snubbers are frequently used in electrical systems with an inductive load where the sudden
interruption of current flow leads to a sharp rise in voltage across the current switching device, in
accordance with Faraday's law. This transient can be a source of electromagnetic
interference (EMI) in other circuits. Additionally, if the voltage generated across the device is
beyond what the device is intended to tolerate, it may damage or destroy it. The snubber provides
a short-term alternative current path around the current switching device so that the inductive
element may be discharged more safely and quietly. Inductive elements are often unintentional,
but arise from the current loops implied by physical circuitry. While current switching is
everywhere, snubbers will generally only be required where a major current path is switched,
such as in power supplies. Snubbers are also often used to prevent arcing across the contacts of
relays and switches and the electrical interference and welding/sticking of the contacts that can
occur.

Diode snubbers:

When the current flowing is DC, a simple rectifier diode is often employed as a snubber.
The snubber diode is wired in parallel with an inductive load (such as a relay coil or electric
motor). The diode is installed so that it does not conduct under normal conditions. When the
external driving current is interrupted, the inductor current flows instead through the diode. The
stored energy of the inductor is then gradually dissipated by the diode voltage drop and the
resistance of the inductor itself. One disadvantage of using a simple rectifier diode as a snubber
is that the diode allows current to continue flowing for some time, causing the inductor to remain
active for slightly longer than desired. Circuit designs must consider this delay in the droppingout of the actuator.
The diode must immediately enter into forward conduction mode as the driving current is
interrupted. Most ordinary diodes, even "slow" power silicon diodes, are able to turn on very
quickly,[1] in contrast to their slow reverse recovery time. These are sufficient for snubbing
electromechanical devices such as relays and motors. In high-speed cases, where the switching is
faster than 10 nanoseconds, such as in certain switching power regulators, "fast", "ultrafast",
or Schottky diodes may be required

CHAPTER-5
PULSE-WIDTH MODULATION
Pulse-width modulation (PWM), or pulse-duration modulation (PDM), is a
modulation technique that controls the width of the pulse, formally the pulse duration, based on
modulator signal information. Although this modulation technique can be used to encode
information for transmission, its main use is to allow the control of the power supplied to
electricaldevices, especially to inertial loads such as motors. In addition, PWM is one of the two
principal algorithms used in photovoltaic solar battery chargers, the other being MPPT. The
average value of voltage (and current) fed to the load is controlled by turning the switch between
supply and load on and off at a fast pace. The longer the switch is on compared to the off periods,
the higher the power supplied to the load.

The PWM switching frequency has to be much higher than what would affect the load
(the device that uses the power), which is to say that the resultant waveform perceived by the
load must be as smooth as possible. Typically switching has to be done several times a minute in
an electric stove, 120 Hz in a lamp dimmer, from few kilohertz (kHz) to tens of kHz for a motor
drive and well into the tens or hundreds of kHz in audio amplifiers and computer power supplies.
The term duty cycle describes the proportion of 'on' time to the regular interval or 'period' of
time; a low duty cycle corresponds to low power, because the power is off for most of the time.
Duty cycle is expressed in percent, 100% being fully on.
The main advantage of PWM is that power loss in the switching devices is very low.
When a switch is off there is practically no current, and when it is on and power is being
transferred to the load, there is almost no voltage drop across the switch. Power loss, being the

product of voltage and current, is thus in both cases close to zero. PWM also works well with
digital controls, which, because of their on/off nature, can easily set the needed duty cycle.
PWM has also been used in certain communication systems where its duty cycle has been used
to convey information over a communications channel.

Principle:
A pulse wave, showing the definitions of , and D. Pulse-width modulation uses a
rectangular pulse wave whose pulse width is modulated resulting in the variation of the average
value of the waveform. If we consider a pulse waveform , with period , low value , a high value
and a duty cycle D (see figure 1), the average value of the waveform is given by:

The simplest way to generate a PWM signal is the intersective method, which requires
only a sawtooth or a triangle waveform (easily generated using a simple oscillator) and a
comparator. When the value of the reference signal is more than the modulation waveform
(blue), the PWM signal (magenta) is in the high state, otherwise it is in the low state.

Time proportioning
Many digital circuits can generate PWM signals (e.g., many microcontrollers have PWM
outputs). They normally use a counter that increments periodically (it is connected directly or
indirectly to the clock of the circuit) and is reset at the end of every period of the PWM. When

the counter value is more than the reference value, the PWM output changes state from high to
low (or low to high). This technique is referred to as time proportioning, particularly as timeproportioning control which proportion of a fixed cycle time is spent in the high state. The
incremented and periodically reset counter is the discrete version of the intersecting method's
sawtooth. The analog comparator of the intersecting method becomes a simple integer
comparison between the current counter value and the digital (possibly digitized) reference
value. The duty cycle can only be varied in discrete steps, as a function of the counter resolution.
However, a high-resolution counter can provide quite satisfactory performance.

Power delivery
PWM can be used to control the amount of power delivered to a load without incurring
the losses that would result from linear power delivery by resistive means. Potential drawbacks
to this technique are the pulsations defined by the duty cycle, switching frequency and properties
of the load. With a sufficiently high switching frequency and, when necessary, using additional
passive electronic filters, the pulse train can be smoothed and average analog waveform
recovered.
High frequency PWM power control systems are easily realisable with semiconductor
switches. As explained above, almost no power is dissipated by the switch in either on or off
state. However, during the transitions between on and off states, both voltage and current are
nonzero and thus power is dissipated in the switches. By quickly changing the state between

fully on and fully off (typically less than 100 nanoseconds), the power dissipation in the switches
can be quite low compared to the power being delivered to the load. Modern semiconductor
switches such as MOSFETs or Insulated-gate bipolar transistors (IGBTs) are well suited
components for high efficiency controllers. Frequency converters used to control AC motors may
have efficiencies exceeding 98%. Switching power supplies have lower efficiency due to low
output voltage levels (often even less than 2 V for microprocessors are needed) but still more
than 7080% efficiency can be achieved.

Variable-speed fan controllers for computers usually use PWM, as it is far more efficient
when compared to a potentiometer or rheostat. (Neither of the latter is practical to operate
electronically; they would require a small drive motor.) Light dimmers for home use employ a
specific type of PWM control. Home-use light dimmers typically include electronic circuitry
which suppresses current flow during defined portions of each cycle of the AC line voltage.
Adjusting the brightness of light emitted by a light source is then merely a matter of setting at
what voltage (or phase) in the AC halfcycle the dimmer begins to provide electrical current to the

light source (e.g. by using an electronic switch such as a triac). In this case the PWM duty cycle
is the ratio of the conduction time to the duration of the half AC cycle defined by the frequency
of the AC line voltage (50 Hz or 60 Hz depending on the country).
These rather simple types of dimmers can be effectively used with inert (or relatively
slow reacting) light sources such as incandescent lamps, for example, for which the additional
modulation in supplied electrical energy which iscaused by the dimmer causes only negligible
additional fluctuations in the emitted light. Some other types of light sources such as lightemitting diodes (LEDs), however, turn on and off extremely rapidly and would perceivably
flicker if supplied with low frequency drive voltages. Perceivable flicker effects from such rapid
response light sources can be reduced by increasing the PWM frequency. If the light fluctuations
are sufficiently rapid, the human visual system can no longer resolve them and the eye perceives
the time average intensity without flicker (see flicker fusion threshold).
In electric cookers, continuously variable power is applied to the heating elements such
as the hob or the grill using a device known as a Simmerstat. This consists of a thermal oscillator
running at approximately two cycles per minute and the mechanism varies the duty cycle
according to the knob setting. The thermal time constant of the heating elements is several
minutes, so that the temperature fluctuations are too small to matter in practice.