Music

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Advocacy  and  Research  in  Music  Education:  
Implications  from  the  REAP  Report  
 
   
 
Susan  Wright  
 
The  instrumental  claim  that  the  arts  can  be  used  to  buttress  the  3Rs  has  become  
a  favoured  strategy  for  keeping  the  arts  in  the  schools  and  for  making  sure  that  
every  child  has  access  to  arts  education.  Yet  such  reasoning  is  a  double-­‐edged  
sword.  If  the  arts  are  given  a  role  in  schools  solely  because  people  believe  they  
cause  academic  improvement,  they  could  lose  their  position  within  the  school  
curriculum  -­‐  particularly  if  academic  improvement  does  not  result,  or  if  the  arts  
are  shown  to  be  less  effective  than  the  3Rs  in  promoting  literacy  and  numeracy.  
The  arts  should  not  be  justified  primarily  in  terms  of  what  they  can  do  for  maths  
or  reading  or  any  other  subject.  Instead,  the  arts  should  be  justified  in  terms  of  
what  they  can  teach  that  no  other  subject  can  teach.  
 
The  issue  of  the  link  between  the  arts  and  academic  achievement  was  the  focus  
of  a  large  research  study  Reviewing  Education  and  Arts  Project  (REAP),  
conducted  by  Winner  and  Hetland.  The  REAP  project  involved  a  comprehensive  
search  of  all  studies  from  1950-­‐1999  (published  and  unpublished,  and  appearing  
in  English)  that  have  tested  the  claim  that  studying  the  arts  leads  to  some  form  of  
academic  improvement.  
 
The  full  report  was  published  as  a  special  issue  of  the  Journal  of  Aesthetic  
Education  34,  (3/4)  (Fall/Winter  2000).  The  Executive  Summary  of  the  REAP  
Report  can  be  found  in  Hetland  and  Winner  (2001).  The  REAP  Report  is  also  
discussed  in  Arts  Education  Policy  Review,  102(5)  (May/June,  2001),  on  line  
(http://www.pz.harvard.edu),  and  elsewhere.  
 
Briefly,  the  procedure  of  the  REAP  research  was  that,  by  using  188  reports  
(selected  based  on  relevancy  and  the  use  of  empirical  testing),  a  set  of  10  meta-­‐
analyses  were  conducted  to  examine  the  strength  of  the  relationship  between  
specific  variables,  such  as  music  and  reading.  These  meta-­‐analyses  combined  and  
compared  effect  sizes  across  groups  of  studies  that  addressed  similar  research  
questions  to  determine  whether  the  effect  size  can  be  generalized  to  new  studies  
on  the  same  research  question.  
 
Like  most  research  emerging  from  Harvard's  Project  Zero,  the  REAP  report  has  
provided  us  with  understanding  of  processes  and  processes  of  artistry  and  
implications  for  arts  education  and  advocacy.  However,  the  REAP  report  also  has  
created  a  great  deal  of  controversy,  and  received  some  criticism.  Four  issues  
raised,  for  example,  by  Chapman  (2001)  are:  1.  the  report  analysed  only  
correlational  and  experimental  studies,  because  the  approach  to  meta-­‐analysis  
requires  data  suitable  for  statistical  measures  of  reliability;  
 
2.  the  project  was  framed  by  an  interest  in  cognitive,  academic  outcomes  (eg.  
verbal  and  mathematical  achievement,  spatial-­‐temporal  and  nonverbal  
reasoning,  and  creative  thinking),  excluding  the  analysis  of  issues  such  as  artistic  
concepts,  familiarity  with  history,  or  criteria  for  judgment,  
 
3.  most  of  the  analyses  focused  on  the  arts  as  performances  -­‐  dancing,  singing,  
playing  an  instrument,  acting,  dramatising  stories,  and  doing  an  art  project,  and  
 
4.  the  validity  of  some  interventions  as  arts  education  was  uncertain.  
 
In  spite  of  these  limitations  of  the  REAP  study,  in  many  ways,  the  results  are  
positive  for  the  field  of  music,  and  there  is  potential  for  improved  arts  research,  
educational  practice  and  arts  advocacy  based  on  the  results  and  
recommendations  from  the  report.  
 
The  Good  News  for  Music.  
 
REAP  found  that,  out  of  10  areas  analysed,  three  areas  demonstrate  clear  causal  
links  between  the  arts  and  achievements  in  a  non-­‐arts,  academic  area.  Two  of  
these  three  areas  were  related  to  music,  and  reliable  causal  links  were  found  
between:  
 
·  Listening  to  Music  and  Spatial-­‐Temporal  Reasoning.  
 
Although  the  existing  research  does  not  reveal  conclusively  why  listening  to  
music  affects  spatial-­‐temporal  thinking,  evidence  for  a  causal  link  between  these  
two  dimensions  is  very  positive.  Hetland  and  Winner  claim  the  finding  has  little  
importance  for  education,  since  improved  spatial-­‐temporal  reasoning  after  
listening  to  music  is  temporary,  rather  than  long-­‐term.  However,  scientifically,  
the  finding  is  of  interest  because  it  suggests  that  music  and  spatial  reasoning  are  
related  psychologically  (ie.  relying  on  some  underlying  skills)  and  perhaps  
neurologically  (ie.  relying  on  some  of  the  same,  or  proximal,  brain  areas).  
Remarkably,  there  now  seems  to  be  clear  evidence  for  a  "Mozart  Effect"  
(Hetland,  2000).  
 
·  Learning  to  Play  Music  and  Spatial  Reasoning.  
 
The  link  between  these  two  dimensions  was  greater  when  standard  music  
notation  was  learned,  but  the  causal  link  between  learning  to  play  music  and  
spatial  reasoning  was  found  even  when  standard  notation  was  not  used.  The  
value  of  this  result,  for  education,  is  that  the  link  between  learning  to  play  music  
and  spatial  reasoning  applies  equally  to  both  general  and  at-­‐risk  populations,  
costs  little  to  the  school  (since  it  is  based  on  standard  music  curricula),  and  
influences  many  students.  However,  spatial  skills  may  or  may  not  be  of  benefit  
for  students,  depending  upon  whether  learning  in  subjects  such  as  maths  or  
geography,  offers  students  chances  to  apply  spatial  abilities.  
 
   
 
While  the  evidence  for  links  between  music  and  these  two  spatial  dimensions  is  
positive  for  music,  some  of  the  other  findings  of  the  REAP  report  have  created  
some  heated  debate  within  the  arts  and  arts  education  communities.  This  debate  
centres  on  the  authors'  caution  that  it  would  be  dangerous  to  continue  to  justify  
arts  education  by  secondary,  non-­‐arts  effects,  since  7  of  the  10  areas  analysed  
did  not  show  clear  causal  links  between  the  arts  and  achievements  in  a  non-­‐
arts/academic  area.  Yet  the  reality  is  that  the  arts  are  the  only  school  subjects  
that  have  been  challenged  to  demonstrate  transfer  as  a  justification  for  their  
usefulness,  for  example,  by  demonstrating  that  the  teaching  of  arts  might  
improve  abilities  in  maths.  (For  more  information  on  transfer,  see  Smith,  2001).  
 
The  authors  of  the  REAP  report  rightfully  state  that  we  must  not  require  more  of  
the  arts  -­‐-­‐  as  a  justified  area  of  the  curriculum  -­‐-­‐  than  would  be  required  of  any  
other  subject  (eg.  maths,  science).  To  do  so  puts  the  arts  in  a  weakened  and  
vulnerable  position.  Just  as  we  do  not  justify  the  teaching  of  history  for  its  power  
to  transfer  to  maths,  or  the  teaching  of  physical  education  for  its  power  to  
transfer  to  science,  we  must  not  allow  policy  makers  to  justify  (or  reject)  the  arts  
based  on  their  alleged  power  to  transfer  to  academic  subject  matters.  
Nonetheless,  the  REAP  authors  state,  it  is  notable  that  the  arts  can  demonstrate  
any  transfer  at  all.  It  is  likely  that  the  results  of  transfer  between  history  and  
maths,  for  example,  or  between  physical  education  and  science,  might  not  be  
better,  and  probably  would  be  worse.  So  what  is  an  alternative  approach  to  
justifying  the  arts  in  schools  and  our  culture,  other  than  using  the  common  
instrumental  claim  that  the  arts  can  be  used  to  buttress  the  3Rs?  
 
Advocacy  and  Policy  Implications  
 
The  problematic  nature  of  conducting  research  in  music,  or  the  arts  and  
humanities  in  general,  is  that  they  are  domains  that  are  not  firmly  structured  to  
begin  with  and,  consequently,  there  are  many  competing  and  conflicting  views  
(Smith,  2001).  The  arts  are  "the  very  subjects  where  ambiguity,  uncertainty,  
struggles  of  conscience,  and  independent  thinking  are  as  unavoidable  as  they  are  
in  life  beyond  schools"  (Chapman,  2001,  p.  23).  
 
Justification  for  the  arts,  like  justification  for  anything,  is  inextricably  linked  to  
values,  and  having  a  clear  set  of  values  makes  the  role  of  advocacy  not  only  
easier,  but  more  effective.  The  fields  of  arts  and  arts  education  must  be  as  clear  
as  possible  about  the  values  of  the  arts  that  justify  the  teaching  of  the  arts  in  the  
first  place.  
 
It  is  expected  that  there  will  continue  to  be  many  critical  debates  about  the  value  
of  the  arts,  based  on  interpreting  and  applying  the  REAP  data.  Such  debate  will  
impact  on  the  arts  communities'  ability  to  define  and  redefine  the  role  of  arts  
education  in  public  schools.  Confronting  this  challenge  may  provide  a  chance  to  
reassess  what  it  is  we  really  advocate  and  why  we  do  so.  "Such  reassessment  
should  strengthen  future  advocacy  efforts,  and  lead  to  the  expanded  infusion  of  
the  arts  in  education  and  in  daily  life"  (Urice,  2001,  p.  3).  
 
The  REAP  authors  suggest  that  the  most  important  sorts  of  learning  in  the  arts  
are  those  that  help  the  young  realise  the  inherent  values  of  the  arts.  The  values  
they  recommend  for  advocating  for  quality  arts  education,  which  are  cognisant  
with  philosophical  positions  of  many  arts  educators  and  arts  advocates,  include:  
 
·  The  arts  offer  a  way  of  thinking,  knowing  and  understanding  that  is  unavailable  
in  other  disciplines  (eg.  mastery  of  symbols  and  symbol  systems  that  are  every  
bit  as  difficult  to  achieve  as  the  mastery  of  the  symbols  of  language  and  science).  
This  is  a  type  of  literacy  that  is  slowly  becoming  acknowledged  in  the  
international  community  under  the  framework  of  'multi-­‐literacy'  (Wright,  in  
press).  The  arts  are  powerful  because  they  offer  qualities  and  techniques  -­‐-­‐  
sensuous,  formal,  technical,  symbolic,  expressive  -­‐-­‐  that  have  consequences,  
"especially  when  they  are  skillfully  deployed  over  time,  in  multiple  contexts,  and  
with  some  coherence  in  form,  content  and  intent"  (Chapman,  2001,  p.  3),  
 
·  The  arts  provide  powerful  and  special  types  of  experiences  (eg.  joy,  
appreciation,  engagement,  flow,  self-­‐expression,  communication),  life-­‐skills  
preparation  for  the  21st  century  workplace  (discipline,  collaboration,  creativity,  
multiple  'literacies'),  and  opportunities  to  discern,  interpret  and  critique  
aesthetic  qualities  (eg.  medium,  form,  content,  expression,  style,  meaning),  and  
 
   
 
·  The  arts  are  a  fundamentally  important  part  of  culture.  The  arts  are  not  
ancillary  either  to  society  or  to  education  -­‐  they  are  vital  and  essential  for  both.  
An  education  without  the  arts  is  an  impoverished  education  leading  to  an  
impoverished  society.  The  arts  involve  time-­‐honoured  ways  of  learning,  knowing  
and  expressing.  
 
Identifying  these  and  other  values  of  the  arts  are  important  for  framing  agendas  
in  many  areas,  particularly  in  arts  research  and  arts  advocacy.  Most  importantly,  
these  agendas  must  emerge  from  theories  and  debates  about  potential  research  
and  advocacy  directions  that  have  controlling  guidelines  (Smith,  2001).  
 
Theory-­‐building  to  advocate  for  music  education  
 
One  theory-­‐based  issue  that  could  address  the  three  values  described  above  
would  be  to  conduct  an  analysis  of  what  actually  happens  in  schools  when  the  
arts  are  given  a  prominent  role  (Hetland  &  Winner,  2001).  The  music  community  
could  provide  leadership  in  policy  making  in  music  education  by  carrying  out  
ethnographic  studies  of  exemplary  schools  that  grant  music  a  serious  role  in  the  
curriculum.  The  focus  of  such  a  study  could  centre  on  the  kinds  of  innovations  
that  have  been  made  in  these  schools  to  foster  excellence  -­‐-­‐  to  develop  an  
understanding  of  the  effects  of  the  arts  on  school  culture.  As  suggested  in  the  
REAP  report,  "If  certain  innovations  are  always  found  in  schools  that  grant  the  
arts  a  serious  role,  this  finding  could  account  for  why  schools  with  serious  arts  
programs  have  high  academic  performance"  (Hetland  &  Winner,  2001,  p.  6).  
 
Determining  what  is  meant  by  an  exemplary  program,  again,  will  be  influenced  
by  values,  and  finding  clear  definitions  of  quality  will  be  a  challenge.  We  have  
anecdotal  evidence,  for  example,  that  schools  with  strong  arts  programs  often  
report  improved  academic  achievement.  There  could  be  a  number  of  possible  
influences  on  why  this  might  be  the  case,  and  some  of  these  possibilities  could  be  
a  starting  place  for  an  analysis  of  why  schools  with  serious  arts  programs  have  
high  academic  performance.  One  possibility  could  be  that  the  same  schools  that  
treat  the  arts  seriously  institute  other  kinds  of  innovations  that  are  favourable  to  
academic  learning  (Hetland  &  Winner,  2001).  These  innovations  might  include,  
for  example,  inquiry-­‐oriented,  project-­‐based  approaches  and  the  demand  for  
high  standards  and  processes  that  lead  to  excellence.  
 
A  second  theory-­‐based  issue  that  could  assist  in  advocacy  of  music  education  
could  be  related  to  the  REAP  finding  of  the  link  between  music  
(listening/playing)  and  forms  of  spatial  reasoning.  Although  this  result  may  have  
minor  educational  significance,  it  is  of  scientific  importance  (Hope,  2001).  The  
finding  has  powerful  implications  for  justifying  music  for  its  inherent  power  -­‐-­‐  
for  its  capacity  to  enhance  underlying  skills  and  use  specific  brain  functions  in  
ways  not  available  through  other  subject  areas.  
 
REAP  findings  are  likely  to  have  a  significant  effect  on  the  future  of  psychological  
research  and  promote  thinking  about  future  research  programs.  They  point  to  
possible  relationships  between  arts  study  and  brain/mind  development  that  
may  be  confirmed  at  a  later  time  (Hope,  2001).  
 
To  me,  one  area  of  research  that  is  highly  relevant  to  brain  development  and  
could  have  strong  implications  for  music  education  is  the  theory  that  musical  
behaviours  have  deep  biological  roots  (Weinberger,  1998).  The  underpinning  
argument  here  is  that  musical  behaviours  are  revealed  early  in  life  (eg.  at  
prenatal,  neonatal  and  infant  stages),  before  cultural  factors  achieve  a  strong  
influence.  It  has  been  found,  for  example,  that  infants  who  receive  systematic  
prenatal  musical  stimulation  are  more  advanced  in  areas,  such  as  attention  and  
vocalization,  than  those  whose  musical  stimulation  comes  later  (LaFuente,  Grifol,  
Segarra,  Ssoriano,  Gorba,  Montesinos,  1997;  Lamb  &  Gregory,  1993).  Infants  also  
have  been  found  to  be  able  to  perceive  and  remember  melodic  contours  (Trehub,  
Bull  &  Thorpe,  1984),  and  they  mentally  'chunk'  sequences  of  sound  (Thorpe  &  
Trehub,  1989).  In  addition,  the  structure  of  infants  and  preschool  children's  
spontaneous  song  reveal  a  range  of  abilities  to  imitate,  compose  and  perform  
music  with  complex  structure  (see  eg.  Davidson  &  Colley,  1987;  Shuter-­‐Dyson  &  
Gabriel,  1981).  
 
Professional  artists  and  specialist  arts  teachers  -­‐-­‐  often  the  same  people  -­‐-­‐  know  
from  personal  experience  that  in-­‐depth  study  of  an  art  form  develops  the  mind  
(Hope,  2001).  Research  might  throw  light  on  the  ways  involvement  with  the  arts  
stimulates  certain  parts  of  the  brain,  leading  perhaps  to  the  conclusion  that  the  
brain  is  less  modular  in  its  functions  than  previously  believed  (Smith,  2001).  
 
Research  findings  that  ultimately  became  dubbed  the  "Mozart  Effect"  (Rauscher,  
Shaw,  &  Ky,  1993)  are  associated  with  the  belief  that  humans  are  born  with  
certain  brain  cell  groupings  that  respond  to  patterns,  whether  in  numbers,  
musical  notes  or  moves  on  a  chessboard.  These  neurons  fire  in  patterns  that  can  
be  expanded  as  a  sort  of  'pre-­‐language'  to  perform  ever-­‐more  complex  
interactions  -­‐-­‐  even  before  the  brain  has  developed  verbal  language  skills  (Leng  
&  Shaw,  1991).  Leng  &  Shaw  proposed  that  this  inherent  repertoire  of  patterns  is  
essentially  present  at  birth,  and  perhaps  a  necessary  condition  for  infants  to  
understand  music.  In  addition,  they  propose  that  there  is  an  inherent  structure  
in  the  brain  that  is  devoted  to  music,  similar  to  that  proposed  by  Chomsky  
(1986)  in  relation  to  brain  structure  and  language.  Leng  and  Shaw  state  that  this  
structure  is  accessible  for  use  from  birth,  without  any  learning  -­‐-­‐  it  is  sort  of  a  
'pre-­‐language',  which  enhances  spatial-­‐temporal  reasoning.  
 
Science  is  at  the  surface  of  an  infinitely  complicated  issue  as  it  uncovers  
indicators  about  the  nature  of  artistic  intelligence  and  its  connections  with  other  
kinds  of  intelligence,  and  the  highly  complex,  physiological,  psychological,  and  
spiritual  system  that  is  involved  (Hope,  2001).  According  to  Hope,  such  scientific  
research  is  needed,  not  to  justify  art  but,  rather,  to  shed  more  light  on  why  art  
justifies  itself  in  the  minds  and  hearts  of  people  over  time.  Such  substance,  
revealed  and  generated  by  both  science  and  art,  should  elevate  the  role  of  arts  
education  beyond  that  of  increasing  academic  improvement  in  other  areas  of  the  
curriculum.  Research  will  assist  theory  building  in  the  arts,  and  our  capacity  to  
advocate  for  the  value  of  music  in  the  school  curriculum  and  within  culture  in  
general.  
 
References  
 
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Chapman,  L.  (2001).  Can  the  arts  win  hearts  and  minds?  Arts  Education  Policy  
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Chomsky,  N.  (1986).  Knowledge  of  Language,  its  Nature,  Origin  and  Use.  New  
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Davidson,  L.  &  Colley,  B.  (1987).  Children's  rhythmic  development  from  age  5  to  
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Associate  Professor  Susan  Wright  works  at  the  Centre  for  Applied  Studies  in  
Early  Childhood,  QUT,  and  is  a  member  of  the  Music  Council  of  Australia