21a ShearFlow ShearCenter PDF

Shear Flow/Shear Center
BASIC SHEAR STRESS FORMULA.........................................................................................3

SHEAR STRESS IN THIN OPEN CROSS SECTIONS .............................................................5
SHEAR CENTER.........................................................................................................................7
SHEAR FLOW .............................................................................................................................8
Resultant Forces Due to q ...........................................................................................................13
Example Problem 1.....................................................................................................................17
Shear Flow in Open Cell.............................................................................................................18
Example Problem 2.....................................................................................................................19
SHEAR FLOW IN SINGLE-CELL BOX..................................................................................20
Torsional Shear Flow qt on a Single Cell ...................................................................................21
Example Problem 3.....................................................................................................................22
ANGLE OF TWIST FOR A SINGLE CELL..........................................................................24
Example-Shear Center of Closed Cell ........................................................................................25
Shear Stresses in Unsymmetrical Sections .................................................................................27
Example Shear Stress in Unsymmetrical Sections .................................................................28
Example - Shear Flow, Unsymmetrical Sections ......................................................................29
SHEAR FLOW IN TAPERED BEAMS ....................................................................................30
Example Tapered Sections.......................................................................................................33
Alternate Solution .......................................................................................................................33
Example Shear Flows in Tapered Webs ..................................................................................34
Example Shear Flow in Tapered Sections ...............................................................................36
SHEAR FLOW IN MULTI-CELL BOXES...............................................................................39
TAPERED BEAMS....................................................................................................................43
TAPERED BOX BEAMS ..........................................................................................................44
SHEAR OF THIN-WALLED BEAMS......................................................................................46
MULTI-CELL CLOSED SECTION: .........................................................................................47
Design and Analysis of Aircraft Structures
21-1
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21-2

Consider an exposed rectangular cross section with width b and height h. A vertical shear
force V acts over this cross section and produces shear stresses. It is assumed that:
1. The vertical shear force produces vertical shear stresses over the exposed surface.
2. The distribution of the shear stresses is uniform across the width of the beam.
Consider the beam element shown in Figure 1.
V
Figure 1. Shear Force and Stresses in a Beam

Since one side of the element contains vertical shear stresses, equal shear stresses must be on
the perpendicular faces to maintain equilibrium. At any point in the beam, the vertical and
horizontal shear stresses must be equal. If this element is moved to the bottom or top of the
beam, it is apparent that the horizontal shear stresses vanish because there are no surfaces
stresses on the outer surfaces on the beam. Therefore, the vertical shear stresses must always
be zero at the top or bottom of the beam.
To calculate shear stresses in a beam, an element is cut from the beam and the shear force
(shear stress times area) on a longitudinal surface is set equal to the difference in normal forces
set up by differential bending. This derivation can be found in any elementary strength or
materials textbook. Doing so yields the basic shear stress formula. This formula is valid only
for beams that are bent about their principal axes. All the basic flexure formula assumptions
apply to this formula also.
Basic Shear Stress Formula
= fs =
VQ
Ib
Eq. 1
V = Applied shear force

I = Moment of Inertia about axis of bending
b = beam width
21-3

Q=
y max
y dA =
1st moment of Area (See next example)
= fs = shear stress
EXAMPLE Shear Stress, Rectangular Section
Calculate the shear stress at level y, for the rectangular
section shown.
V
ymax
y1
NA
Q=
y max
ydA =
1st Moment of Area
h y
1
b h2
h
y1 2
Q = b y1 y1 + 2
=
2 2 4
2
Area
Moment Arm
VQ V h 2
2
=
y1
Ib 2I 4
3V
3V
= f s max =
=
2 A 2 bh
= fs =
max
Notes:
The peak shear stress is 1.5 times the average shear stress for the section. The shear
stresses are zero at the top and bottom of the beam.
EXAMPLE Shear Stresses

Calculate the maximum shear stresses in the section shown if the total shear load applied is
5000 lb. Also find the running load q which is transferred from the chord to the web through
the fasteners or the bond line. The properties for the upper and lower chords are shown.
Assume web to be effective in resisting bending stresses.
21-4

I = I web + I chords
0.6
12
I = 0.20 in 4
A = 0.95 in 2
0.056
0.056(12) 3
2
I=
+ 2 0.20 + 0.95(6 0.6 ) = 63.87 in 4
12
Maximum shear occurs at mid height.
Q = 0.056 (6)(3) + 0.95 (5.4) = 6.14 in3
5000(6.14)
f s max =
= 8580 psi
63.87(0.056 )
Shear Stress in Thin Open Cross Sections
A subtle modification of the basic shear stress formula will be applied to open thin sections.
The following assumptions apply:
1. The cross sectional thickness is thin, so that all section dimensions will be measured
between the centerlines of the elements.
2. All shear stresses which act perpendicular to the thickness of the section are zero.
3. The cross section is open.
To calculate the shear stress in an open thin section, the following equation is used. Note this
is fundamentally the same as the basic shear equation.
= fs =
VQ
Ib
a
F+F
ab
d
c
d
Figure 2. Shear Force and Stresses in an Open Section
21-5

The following example of a channel section is shown next.
EXAMPLE Shear Stresses in Thin Channel
Vy
tf
Vy is applied to the channel as shown such that it does not twist

the cross section. Draw the shear stress distribution for the web
and flanges.
In general
h/2
tw
VQ
= fs =
and Q = y dA
Ib
o
h/2
tf
b
For the top flange, the shear stress is a linear function of s.
s
h/2
h/2
tf
h
Q = (t , s ) 0 s b
2
h
Q = tf s
2
VyQ Vy h
=
fs =
s
Ib
2I x
at s = b
V y hb
1 =
2I x
b
For the top of the web,
Q = Q flange + Qweb
S
21-6
t f bh h s
+ t w s
Q =
2 2 2
at s = 0 and s = h/2
V y t f bh
2 =
I x t w 2
V y t f bh t w h 2
+
3 =
8
I x t w 2
1
2
2
1
Shear Center
One of the assumptions of the basic flexure formula is that the load acts in a plane symmetry
so that the beam does not twist. If vertical loads are applied on a cross section that are not in a
plane of symmetry, the resultant of the shear stresses produced by the loads will be a force
parallel to the plane of loading, but not necessarily in that plane. Consequently, the member
will twist. Bending without twisting is possible provided that the loads are in the same plane
that the resultant shear stresses act, or in more general terms, bending without twisting will
occur when the loads are applied through the shear center. The shear center is defined as the
point on the cross section of a member through which the resultant of the shear stresses must
pass for any orientation of loading so that the member will bend and not twist.
The following example will illustrate an example on locating the shear center.
21-7

EXAMPLE Shear Center
Vy
tf
F1
tw
h
Locate the distance e so that Vy passes through the shear

center.
The resisting resultant shear forces in the flanges (F1) are
shown. The upper and lower flange resultant must be equal
for Fx = 0, the resultant F1 be calculated by integrating the
area under the shear stress distribution (see previous
example).
1bt f
F1 =
2
Note, 1 =
V y hb
2I x
, then substituting, F1 =
b 2 ht f
4I x
Vy
b
Summing moments about the flange/web junction yields.
V y (e) = F1 (h) =
e=
4I
Vy
b 2 h 2t f
4I x
Where, Ix =
e=
b 2 h 2t f
2
t w h 3 bt f h
+
, so
I2
2
b 2t f
ht w
+ 2bt f
3
Shear Flow
A common type of beam used in airplane structures is a so-called two-chord beam, which is a
beam fabricated from two heavy sections forming the upper and lower edges and joined
together by a thin web. Spars and ribs are examples of this type of beam used in the wing
structure; keel member and the floor beams are examples to be found in the body structure.
It is assumed that the bending moment is reacted by the heavier chord members and the shear
is carried by the web.
21-8

x
A
P
Web
Chord
x
x
S
Figure 3. Internal Loads in an Idealized Beam

For equilibrium,
+
0
=0=S.x-P. d
Therefore,
P=
Sx M
=
d
d
Eq. 2
This is an efficient type of beam because the material reacting the bending moment is located
at or near the extreme fibers where the maximum effects of bending occur.
From the flexure formula f =
My
I
In this case the web is not considered as resisting bending:

I =
Ad 2
d
and y =
2
2
Therefore,
f max =
md2 M
=
Ad 2 2 Ad
From the fact that

f =
P
A
P=
MA M
lb
=
Ad
d
Consider the two-chord beam shown in Figure 4:
21-9

x
P
d
P
l
Figure 4. Support Reactions for an Idealized Beam

It was shown above that the end load P in the beam chords at a section is equal to the moment
M at that section divided by the depth of the beam d; that is
First cut the beam at 1-in. from 0-0 and consider the free body to the left-hand end of the beam
shown in Figure 5.
S/
d
S/
S
A
S/
S/
d
Figure 5. Free Body Diagram of a one inch Wide element

End load in chords at 0-0 = S x 0/d 0. End load in chords at 1 in. = S x 1/d = S/d lb.
Check balance of panel:
+
0
-s
= d xd + S x 1
Now cut the beam at 2 in. from 0-0 and consider the free body to the left-hand end of the
beam.
21-10

End load in chords at 2 in. =
S x2 2S
=
lb.
d
d
Check balance of panel:
+
0
-2S d
d + 2S
On the portion of the beam 0-0 to the 1-in. cut line, the horizontal force at the upper and lower
S
edges =
lb/in.
d
Expressed as a force/unit length =
S
S
= lb / in.
dx1 d
On the portion of the beam -0- to the 2-in. cut line shown in Figure 6, the horizontal force at
2S
the panel upper and lower edges
lb.
d
P0
P2
P0
P2
Figure 6. Internal Loads in a Two Inch Wide Idealized Beam

Expressed as a force/unit length =
2S 1 S
x lb.
d 2 d
On both free bodies the vertical force on the panel edges = S lb. Expressed as a force/unit
S
length = lb as shown in Figure 7.
d
21-11
Figure 7. Free Body Diagram of a Two Inch Wide Element

It can be seen from the above that for a constant-depth beam with no change in external load S,
P
is constant anywhere in the panel.
the force/unit length
L
This force/unit length, or shear/inch, is termed shear flow q, or shear flux, on the panel. It is
expressed in lb/in. and is indicated thus:
Therefore, the shear flow in a thin web is constant between the chords and is given by the
expression q=S/d.
The advantages of working with the shear flows are:
1. The thicknesses of the webs in a shell structure, such as a wing box or a body section, need
not be known to compute the shear distribution within the structure. To determine the
thickness t required to carry a shear flow q, use
t=
q
in.
Fsall
Eq. 3
Where Fsall = allowable shear stress for the web material.

2. Between end load carrying elements (chords) q is considered a constant.
When a curved member is subjected to an end load, a component of force normal to the
curvature is present, as shown in Figure 8.
21-12

Component
P
Tension
Compression
Figure 8. Component Crushing Forces

Component force = P ( sin + sin ).
On bending an initially straight beam, the resulting curvature causes each fiber to press in
toward the NA. This results in a compressive load normal to the compressive and tensile loads
resisting the bending, as shown in Figure 9. This type of loading becomes a major
consideration in a beam in which the highly loaded chord members are supported by a light
intermediate web.
P
ds
P
d
P
P
Figure 9. Changes in Angle of Internal Chord Loads

d M
=
ds EI
Therefore, d =
Mds
EI
Inward component of P = Pcrush :
Pcrush = Pd
Expressed in pounds per inch: Pcrush =
Pd M P
lb/in.
=
ds
EI
Resultant Forces Due to q

As has been demonstrated, the shear flow is constant in the panel between the chords. This
applies to a curved panel as shown (typical of a wing panel, or body skin, between stringers).
21-13

At any elemental length of the curve ds the shear flow q is parallel to the surface. The shear
stress fs on a web that is thin compared to its length is considered constant across the web
thickness.
x
q
A
ds
dy
dx
x
B
L
Figure 10. Shear Flow in a Curved Panel

Summating the forces horizontally
x
Fx = q dx = q x lb
o
Eq. 4
In words, the horizontal force due to q is equal to the shear flow times the horizontal distance
between the chords.
Summating the forces vertically
x
Fy = q dy = q y lb
o
Eq. 5
In words, the vertical force due to q is equal to the shear flow times the vertical distance
between the chords.
The resultant force due to q = q L lb, and its line of action is parallel to a line drawn between
the chords.
21-14

Referring to the diagram below and taking moments due to the shear flow about
dM o = q ds x R
Area of shaded segment d a.
dA =
Rds
2
Therefore,
R=
2da
ds
A
q
ds
Figure 11. Moments of Shear Flow on a Curved Web

Then, dMo = q x 2 da
M o = 2 q
da = 2 A q lb-in.
In words, the moment, or torque, about any point 0 due to q is equal to the shear flow times
twice the enclosed area of OAB.
In order that zero resultant torsion is produced on the section, the resultant force must be
applied at a point defined as the shear center (SC).
21-15

From the above, F = q L lb for equilibrium.
=
e=
+
0
F e - 2A q
Eq. 6
2A q
2A
=
L
L
Eq. 7
Therefore,
F
S.C.
Figure 12. Shear Center of a Sheared Panel

The position of the shear center for various cross sections is given in Formulas for Stress and
Strain by Roark, Chapter 8.
21-16

Example Problem 1
Determine shear flows in the webs of a web-type beam.
a
4
b
4
c
4
d
8,000 lb
23
Chord area = 0.5 in. 2 (typical)

Because the beam is of constant depth over its length and there is no change in the external
load along the beam, the shear flows in the webs are a constant lb/in. Therefore, only a unit
length of the beam need be considered in obtaining the web shears.
Ina = 0.5 (62 + 22) 2 = 40 in. 4
End load in chord at Sta. 1 = P.
P=
My
8,000 x 1
seg x Aseg =
x y seg x 0.5 = 100 y seg lb
I na
40
Seg
a
b
c
d
P
(lb)
Y
(in)
6
2
-2
-6
600
200
-200
-600
L
(in)
1.0
1.0
1.0
1.0
P
L
(lb/in)
600
200
-200
-600
q web =
P
L
(lb/in)
600
800
600
Check on horizontal balance: P = 0
21-17

600 lb
qab
200 lb
qbc
200 lb
qcd
600 lb
Check on vertical balance:

F = 0 = 8,000 600 x 4 800 x 4 600 x 4 Check
Shear Flow in Open Cell
21-18

Example Problem 2
Determine the position e of the shear center for the cell shown.
4
b
10
10,000 lb
d
e
Chord area = 1.0 n. 2

End loads in chords
P=
M yseg
I na
x Aseg
Ina = 2 (1.0 x 52)2 = 100 in. 4

P=
10,000
x y seg x 1.0
100
P = 100 yseg lb
21-19

qab
b
qbc
qcd
Seg
a
b
c
d
5
5
-5
-5
500
500
-500
-500
1.0
1.0
1.0
1.0
P
L
500
500
-500
-500
q web =
P
L
500
1,000
500
For zero twist on the section the applied shear must act through the shear center.
d =
+
0
= 10,000 x e -500 x
4 x 10
10 x 4
x 2 - 1,000 x
x2
2
2
Therefore,
e = 6.0 in.
Shear Flow in Single-Cell Box
The determination of shear flows in the webs of single-cell sections are slightly more
complicated than the determination of shear flows in an open-cell section. The complication
arises because each end-load-carrying element has two reaction load paths and only one
equation of equilibrium, that is, Fx = 0. To overcome the difficulty the following procedure
can be adopted:
1. Cut one of the webs, thus making the cell an open cell, and therefore a statically
determinate structure.
2. Solve for the shear flows in the open cell, the so-called qo system.
21-20

3. Replace the cut web and apply a closing torsional shear flow qt system.
4. Summate the qo and qt shear flow systems for the final shear flows in the cell webs.
On the single-cell below, or box section, abcd, let the applied torque = T in-lb and the reacting
shear flow = qt lb/in., which is constant around the cell.
Torsional Shear Flow qt on a Single Cell
qt
b
qt
qt
c
qt
Figure 13. Shear Flow in a One Cell Box Subjected to Torsion

From equation 7 the moment, or torque, due to a shear flow on a web is T = 2Aq.
Therefore,
qt =
T
2A
Eq. 8
Which is
qt =
the applied torque

2 x the area enclosed by abcd
Free-Body Diagram for Cell abcd

a
q
t
y
P
qt
d
c
0
Figure 14. Free Body Diagram of a One Cell Box Subjected to Torsion
21-21

Consider the balance of chord c:
End load in the chord due to shear flow in web, bc = qt x L, and the end load in the chord due
to shear flow in web dc = -qt x L.
F = 0 = qt x L -qt x L -P
Therefore,
P = 0.
It can be seen, neglecting any warping of the box, that the qt system develops zero end loads in
the chords.
Example Problem 3
For a typical nose cell of a wing section, calculate the shear flows in the webs.
1.
Cut one web to form an open cell.

U
Cut
web
21-22
2.
Balance the open cell.
I n a = (1 x 5 2 ) 2 = 50 in.4
qo =
P 1,000
=
= 1,000 lb / in
L
1
My
x Aseg
I na
10,000 x 1 x 5 x 1
= 1,000 lb
50
Pu = PL =
P
U
0
q
o
P
L
3.
Close cell and apply a closing torsional shear flow qt.=
T
2A
Torque about any point for equilibrium must = 0.

Therefore,
L =
+
0
= 10,000 x 3 -qt x 2 x 100
21-23

Then
qt = 150 lb/in.
4.
Summate the qo and qt systems.

1,000 lb/in.
150 lb/in.
=
150 lb/in.
q system
o
5.
850 lb/in.
150 lb/in.
q system
t
Final q
Check balance.
F = 0 = 10,000 150 x 10 850 x 10 Check

F = 0 = 150 x 0
Check
Angle of Twist for a Single Cell
Consider an element ds of a unit length single cell.

ds
1 in.
q
Figure 15.
= the deflection of element due to q
The strain energy stored in the element is defined as dU, where
dU =
qds
The shear strain in the element is
21-24
fs
G
ds

Now making use of the expressions fs =
=
Then, dU =
q
T
and q =
, we find that the shearing strain is:
t
2A
T2
2tAG
T2
ds
8tA2G
The total shear strain energy is then given by:

Equation
Where the integral
ds
is the summation of the ratio of web length to web thickness around
t
the cell.
Using Catifliano's theorem, we can find an expression for the angle of twist with respect to the
applied torque, T.
T
U
ds
1
ds
or =
q
=
2
2 AG
t
T 4 A G t
The shear center for open cells was located by maintaining rotational equilibrium between the
applied load and reactive web shear flows. This is a requirement for open cells which are
unstable under torsion loading. Closed cells are stable under bending and torsion loads so a
different procedure is required, and is outlined as follows:
1. Solve the closed cell web shear flows. If the applied loads are not applied at the shear
center, the cell will undergo some angle of twist.
2. Calculate the shear flow, which would twist the cell back into its original position.
3. The summation of shear flows from step one and two represent the shear flow in the cell
when the load is applied at the shear center (zero twist).
4. Locate the line of action of the shear center by maintaining rotational equilibrium between
the shear flows in step 3 and the applied load.
Example-Shear Center of Closed Cell
A
2k
10
5
C
Calculate the line of action of the shear center

for the closed cell shown.
Cell area = 100 in2
tab = .08"
tbc = .06"
Cell circumference = 45 in
tca = .04"
10
21-25

The web shear flows can be found by statics
2k
q1
=0
2k (5" ) = 2q1 (100) q1 = 50 lb / in
q2
q1(10) = q3(1) q3 = 50 lb / in
=0
q1 (10 + q 2 (10) = 2000 q 2 = 150 lb / in
q3
2k
qt
5
B
=0
50 lb/in
q1
qt
B
qt
50 lb/in
q2
q3
The cell with the wk load applied 5" away from AB will undergo bending and torsion. A shear
flow qt is then applied to this cell to twist it back to its original position. The resulting shear
flows, q1', q2' and q3' represent the shear flows in the cell when the 2k load is applied at the
shear center. The shear flow, qt, can be calculated as follows:
For zero twist,
qs
for the cell must be zero
t
(Remember that the angle of twist , is =

Solve for qt => q
1
ds
q
)
2 AG
t
ds
=0
t
50(25) ( q1 )(25) 50(10 ) (q1 )(10) (150)(10) (q1 )(10)

+
+
+
+
+
= 0 => q1 = 22.73 lb / in
.04
.04
.06
.06
.08
.08
21-26

The shear flows for the cell when the cell is applied at the shear center are
2k
27.27
e
172.73
27.27
The distance e can be then calculated:

M=0
2000(e) = 2(27.27)(100) =>e=2.73" distance to shear center
Shear Stresses in Unsymmetrical Sections
VQ
does not apply for unsymmetrical sections. This
Ib
formula is based on My/I and is valid only for sections that are bent about their principle axes.
For complex bending problems a generalized bending formula was developed to be used to
calculate bending stresses for unsymmetrical sections. This generalized formula can also be
rewritten in terms of external shear forces instead of external bending moments. The shear
flow q, in an unsymmetrical section can be calculated by the following equation:
The basic shear stress formula =
Q = -(K3Vx-K1Vy) Qy-(K2Vy-K1Vx) Qx
Where
Q x , Q y 1st moment of areas about the x and y axes

s
Q x = ydA
Q y = xdA
K1 =
I xy
IxIy I
2
xy
K2 =
Iy
IxIy I
2
xy
K3 =
Ix
I x I y I xy2
Vx = shear force in positive x direction

Vy = shear force in positive y direction
The shear stress can then be calculated by fs = q/t
21-27

Example Shear Stress in Unsymmetrical Sections
The loads Vx = 5000 lb and Vy = 8667lb area pplied at
the shear center for the z section shown. Calculate the
shear stress at "a" and "b".
Given:
Ix = .6035 in4
Iy = .0574 in4
Ixy = -.1305 in4
I xy
K1 =
= 7.410
I x I y I xy2
1.0 in
a
0.1
0.1
3.0
K2 =
Iy
IxIy I
2
xy
= 3.259 K 3 =
Ix
= 34.269
I x I y I xy2
q = -(34.269)(5000) (-7.420)(8667) Qy (3.259)(8667) (-7.410)(5000) Qx

Q = -235,567 Qy -65296 Qx
For point a
Qx = (0.1)(1.45) = 0.145 in3
Qy = (0.1)(-0.45) = -0.045 in2
Area = 0.1 in 2
a
Thus,
1.45
qa = -235,567 (-0.045) - 65296 (0.145)

qa = 1,133 lb/in fs = 1,133/0.1 = 11,330 psi
For point b
Qx = 0.145 + (0.1)(1.4)(0.7) = 0.243 in2

Qy = -0.045 in3
1.45
Thus,
0.7
qb = -235,567 (-0.045) - 65296 (0.243)

qb = 5,266 lb/in fs = 52,600 psi
-0.45
21-28

Example - Shear Flow, Unsymmetrical Sections
Calculate the shear flows in the webs. Assume 36k load is applied at the shear center.
1.0 in2
a
yref
2 in2
b
12
x
1.5
in2
1.5
in2
xref
c
8
Locate centroid of the section

x=
xA = 2(8) + 1.5(8) = 4.667"

6
A
y=
yA = 2(12) + 1(12) = 6"

6
A
Compute section properties

I x = Ad y = (2 + 1) 6 2 + (1.5 + 1.5) 6 2 = 216 in 4
2
I y = Ad x = (2 + 1.5) 3.333 2 + (1.0 + 1.5) 4.667 2 = 93.333 in 4

2
I xy = Ad x d y
= (2)(3.333)(6)+(1.0)(-4.667)(6)+(1.5)(-4.667)(-6)+(1.5)(3.333)(-6)=24 in4
Compute constants
K1 =
K2 =
K3 =
I xy
IxIy I
2
xy
I xy
IxIy I
2
xy
I xy
IxIy I
2
xy
24
23
=
= 0.00123
2
19584
(216)(93.333) 24
93.333
= 0.00477
19584
216
= 0.01103
19584
Develop expressions of shear flow q

q = -(K3Vx-K1Vy) Qy - (K2Vy-K1Vx(Qx
q = -(-0.00123(-36)) Qy (0.00477(-36))Qx
q = -0.04428 Qy + 0.17172 Qx
21-29

Compute Qx and Qy and shear flows q
From a to b:
Qx = (2)(6) = 12 in3
Qy = (2)(3.333) = 6.667 in3
q = 1.77 k/in
Qy = 6.667 + (1)(-4.667) + 2.0 in3
q = 3.00 k/in
Qy = 2.0 + (1.5)(-4.667) = 5.0 in3
q = 1.77 k/in
From b to c
Qx = 12 + (1)(6) = 18 in3
From c to d
Qx = 18 + (1.5)(-6) = 9 in3
Final Shear Flows
36k
1.77 k/in
a
3 k/in
1.77 k/in
Shear Flow in Tapered Beams
In the introductory lessons on shear flow, the beams were constant in height and the shear flow
was constant throughout the web where a constant shear force was applied. In aircraft
structures, there are many applications where the beams are tapered in depth. Consider the
beam shown in Figure 16.
21-30

c
a
b
h1
1
2
h
h2
Vy
Ptan 1
P
Vw
ho
Ptan 2
Vy
Vw = V y
ho
h
Vf = V y
h-ho
h
Vf = P tan1 + P tan2
Figure 16. Beams

The beam consists of two concentrated flange areas (chords) separated by a thin web. An
applied load Vy is applied at the free end of the beam, putting a total shear force of Vy
throughout the length of the beam. It is assumed that the chords can only take axial load and
that the web is ineffective in bending. The chords are inclined at angles a1 and a2 with respect
to the horizontal. Since the chords are inclined and can resist axial loads only, the resultant
chord loads can be separated into its horizontal and vertical components. The horizontal
chords resist the applied bending moment resulting from Vy, and the vertical components resist
part of the shear force Vy. Unlike a constant height beam, where the web resists the total shear
force, both the web and the chords resist the shear force in a tapered web beam. Let Fv be
equal to the total shear force resisted by the chords and Vw be equal on the total shear force
resisted by the web. Then at any section along the beam, the total shear force, Vy is equal to:
Vy = Vf + Vw
Let the horizontal components of the chords be denoted by P. The load P must be equal to the
total bending moment divided by the beam height, h. The vertical components of the chord
loads are then equal to P times the tangent of the angle of the chord inclination. The total shear
force resisted by the chords, Vf, is then
Vf = P tan 1 + P tan 2
Or
Vf = P (tan1 + tan2)
21-31

From the beam geometry, it can be shown that
tan 1 + tan 2 =
h
c
so
Vf = P
h
c
For the loading shown in the figure, P = V y

V f = Vy
By similar triangles,
b
c
b
, so
h
Vw = V y V f = V y
and
a
c
a ho
=
, so this leads to the final expressions for Vw and Vf.
c h
Vw = V y
ho
h
and
h ho
V f = Vy
h
The shear flow I the web, q, can be calculated by q =
Vw
.
h
The preceding discussion dealt with the distribution of shear forces in a tapered web with an
applied load Vy. Relationships between the shear flows can also be developed. Consider the
tapered web element shown in Figure 17.
B
qavg
h
qo
ho
qavg
b
Figure 17. Tapered Web Element

This element must be in equilibrium. Summing moments about point B yields
(qoho)b = (qavgb)(h) or qavg = qo(ho/h)
21-32

Summing moments about Point A yields,
(qh)b = (qavgb)(ho) or q = qavg (h0/h
This yields a final expression for q in terms of qo and the beam geometry.
h
q = qo o
h
Hence, once one shear flow on a tapered web is known, the shear flows on the other edges can
be calculated from the above equations.
Example Tapered Sections
For the tapered beam shown below, calculate the shear flows in the web at x-0, 20, 40, 60, 80
and 100".
A
14
10,000 lb
100
The solution lends itself to making a table using the formula Vw = V y
ho
.
h
x
(in)
h
(in)
ho
h
Vw
(lb)
10,000
1111.1
20
10
0.90
9000
900
40
11
0.8182
8182
743.8
60
12
0.75
7500
625
80
13
0.6923
6923
532.5
100
14
0.6429
6429
459.2
q=
Vw
(lb / in)
h
Alternate Solution
21-33

2
10,000
h
= 1,111.1 lb / in
Another equation can be used, q = q o o ; qo =
9
h
2
x
(in)
h
(in)
ho

h
h
q = q o o (lb / in)
h
1111.1
20
10
0.81
900
40
11
0.669
743.8
60
12
0.5625
625
80
13
0.4793
532.5
100
14
0.4133
459.2
Example Shear Flows in Tapered Webs

Find the shear flow in each web and draw a free body diagram of elements. Assume chords
resist axial load only and web is ineffective in bending.
12
4
36k
20
20
Please refer to the free-body diagram shown in the next page. Because of the assumptions, the
chords resist the moment reaction in the form of a couple at the right end; also the web in the
right end resists the vertical shear reaction. Thus, we find the chord reactions by external
equilibrium.
M = 0 R1(12) = 36 (40) => R1 = 120k
Fx = 0 R2 = 120k
From the shear conditions at both ends,

qo = 36/4 = I k / in
q2 = 36/12 =- 3 k / in
21-34

2
h
Now we use the expression q = q o o to find q1.
h
2
4
q1 = 9 = 1 k / in
12
And the expression qavg = qo(ho/h) to find the average shear flow in the tapered web.
qavg = qo(4/12)= 3 k/in
The complete free-body diagram is shown on the next page. From equilibrium, we find the
axial forces and the other shear flows.
20
P2 =
P1 = q avg
(4
416
4
P3 =
+ 20 2 = 3 416
P1 = 60 k
P1 = 12 k
416
P4 = 12q1 + P3 + P3 = 36 k
P5 = 120 P2 = 60 k
P1
P2
P3
R1
q2
qavg
q1
qo
q2
q2
qavg
36k
q2
P3
P1
R2
P2
21-35

Example Shear Flow in Tapered Sections
Calculate the web shear flows at Section A-A.
50
10
A
15
2 in2 a
10
b 1 in2 c
2 in2 f
1 in
5 10
A
8,000 lb
8,000 lb
2
100
In tapered sections, the shear in the web decreases with an increasing taper depth. Thus, we
need to know the web shear and the shear taken by the chords to find the shear flows.
At section A A, the moment of inertia is
I = (2 x 52 + 1 x 52 + 1 x 52)2 = 200 in4
Determination of web and chord shears
The analysis can be assisted by using the
FBD of the section cut at A-A,, as shown at
the right. The force P represents the sum of
the horizontal components of the axial forces
in the chords (a, b, and c) or (d, e and f). by
equilibrium we can find P = 40,000 lb.
However, we need the forces in the
individual chords; this is done using the
equation (forces need to be proportional to
the chord areas):
P tan
P
Vw
P
8,000 lb
50
EQUATION
P=
(8000lb 50") y A = 2,000 y A

M
y chord Achord =
chord chord
chord chord
I
200
21-36
10
P tan

In tabular form and noticing that tan = 0.05, we have
Chord
Area (nin2)
P (lb)
P tan (lb)
a
b
c
d
e
f
2
1
1
1
1
2
20,000
10,000
10,000
-10,000
-10,000
-20,000
1000
500
500
500
500
1000
The directions of P tan were deducted from the free-body diagram. P tan is the shear
force resisted by the individual chords at section A-A, acting downward in the right face of the
segment cut at section A-A.
h ho
Vf = total shear taken by chords = V y
= 8000 5/10) = 4,000 lb
h
This number is also equal to the sum of the numbers in the last column of the table.
Vw = Shear taken by web = Vy Vf = Vy (ho/h) = 8000 (5/10) = 4,000 lb
Calculate shear flow due to Vw.
We use the four-step procedure outlined for determining shear flows for closed cells.
1. Cut one of the webs to make it an open cell.
2. Determine the shear flows qo.
3. Apply a constant shear flow qt, closing the cell and find qt using equilibrium. However,
the equilibrium needs to include the shear forces taken by the chords and
4. Superimpose the qo and the qt systems to determine the web's final shear flows.
(1)
(2) use a modified formula

M
y chord Achord
I
(4000lbx1") y A = 200 y A
=
chord chord
chord chord
200
P =
1"
4,000 lb
21-37

In tabular form
y
(in.)
P
(lb)
L
(in.)
P
(lb/in)
L
200 C
-200
100 C
-100
100 C
-100
-5
100 T
100
-5
100 T
100
-5
200 T
200
chord
q web =
P
L
(lb/in)
-200
-300
-400
-300
-200
Or using a free-body-diagram of the chords and webs,

200
100
q=200
100
q=300
q=400
q=0
200
100
100
q=200
q=300
(3) Apply a constant shear flow qt, to close the cell and find qt using equilibrium. Include the
shear forces taken by the chords. This view is taken at the right face of the left segment by
cutting through Section A-A.
21-38

qt
1000
500
500
300
10
10
400
200
qt 10
300
qt
200
qt
qt
8000
18
=0
8000(19) 2000(20) 1000(10) + 200(10)(10) + 300(10)(10) + 2qt(200) = 0

qt = 360 lb / in
(4) Superimpose the results to obtain the final shear flows.
160lb/in
60lb/in
b
360lb/in
40lb/in
10
160lb/in
60lb/in
Shear Flow in Multi-Cell Boxes
The procedure in solving for shear flows in multi-cell structures, as shown in Figure 18, is
similar to the procedure used in the single-cell analysis. The difference is in obtaining the
distribution of torsional or closing shear between the cells. The distribution of the torsional or
closing shear is determined by equating the stiffness of each cell such that the relative angle of
twist between the cells is equal.
21-39

Cell 1
2
t
ds
Cell 2
3
A
2
A
1
1
A
3
10
9
q
Cell 3
4
q
2
10
Figure 18. Torsion in a Multi Cell Box

The number next to each web indicates the suffix used to denote that web in the following
expressions. To facilitate the writing of the expressions, the term ds/t is noted as a.
From the previous discussion and equation 11, the twist per unit length of a cell subjected to
torsion = .
ds
1
q
t
2 AG
Referring to above diagram:
=
For cell 1
2 1 G =
1
[q1s1 + q1a2 + q1a8 + (q1 q2 )a 9 ]
A1
For cell 2
2 2 G =
1
[q2 a3 + q2a7 + (q1 q 2 ) a9 + (q2 a3 )a 10 ]
A2
For cell 3
2 3 G =
1
[q3a4 + q3a6 + q3a5 + (q2 q3 )a 10 ]
A3
The total torque applied to the complete section = T.

T = 2A1q1 + 2A2q2 + 2A3q3
Eq. 9
Also
1 = 2 = 2
Eq. 10
From the above expressions the values of q1, q2, and q3 can be calculated.
Solving the above equations is a tedious and laborious process, especially when three or more
cells must be considered. Therefore, their solution should be accomplished using a computer,
21-40

or the following method of successive numerical approximations can be used. (A complete
description of this method is given in Analysis and Design of Flight Vehicles by Bruhn,
paragraph A6-1.4.) Basically the method is as follows:
q1
q2
Web
ds
tw
Figure 19. Torsion in a Two Cell Box

ds
for cell 1
t
ds
and 2
for cell 2
t
From
q
ds
=
2 AG
t
G2 A
ds
t
for each cell must be equal. For a first approximation of torsional shears q in each cell, let
G = 1.0.
q=
Then
2A
ds
t
Procedure
1. Consider each cell separately and determine the first approximation of the shear flow q.
2. Join the two cells by superposition. The net shear flow in the vertical web = q1 q2.
Consider cell 1:
q =
21-41
q1
q2
q1
Figure 20. Shear Flows for Successive Numerical Evaluation

To make G1 = 1, a corrective shear flow q1 must be applied to cell 1 to balance the effect of
q2 on cell 1.
Therefore,
ds
ds
q 2
=0
t
tw
Then
ds
t
q1 = q 2 w
ds
t
In words, the corrective shear to make G1 = 1 is equal to the shear from q2 times a carryover
factor.
ds
tw
ds
t
Similarly for cell 2
ds
t
q 2 = q1 w
ds
t
21-42

3. Carry out the above iteration until the desired accuracy is obtained.
The final shear in a cell = q.
q = q' + q" +qn
The calculations used in the above procedure are the best presented in a tabular form, which
will be demonstrated in the following example.
Tapered Beams
In the foregoing discussions it has been assumed that the beams were of constant depth. As the
moment increases along a beam it is efficient to increase the depth of the beam to reduce the
bending stresses. A typical example is an airplane wing that is shallow at the tip, where the
moment is small, and that increases in depth the further inboard the moment increases. The
effect of the variation, or taper, is to modify the shear to be reacted by the web of the beam.
a
ha
P
sw
Figure 21. Shear Flow in a Tapered Beam

Consider a section at a-a in Figure 21:
P=
S xa
ha
Eq. 1
Where P is acting normal to the section a-a.

Therefore, the actual and loads in the chords are:
Pu (the upper chord) =
P
cos
Eq. 2
21-43

Pl (the lower chord) =
P
cos
Eq. 3
The vertical components of Pu and Pl are:

Su = P tan
Eq. 4
Sl = P tan
Eq. 5
Let Su + Sl = Sc, which is the vertical load, that is, the shear reacted by the chords.
For equilibrium, Ft and section a-a must equal zero
Fl = o = S S c S web
ha
tan tan
S web = S S c = P
a
Eq. 6
which is the resultant shear the web has to react.

Tapered Box Beams
The reasons for tapering a beam also apply to box beams. In addition to a vertical taper a box
beam may also have a horizontal taper, which causes kick loads that may cause twisting of the
cell (or cells). Consider the portion of a tapered beam from S to section A-A as a free body.
21-44

A
Vertical
kick loads
P
P
S
Section A-A
(showing only the vertical

components of chord loads
acting on the free body)
P
Horizontal
kick loads
Figure 22. Shear Flow in a Tapered Box Beam

Note: The equations of equilibrium must be satisfied; that is,
F = 0, F
= 0,
= 0
21-45

Shear of Thin-Walled Beams
(L Webs, M Cells, N Stringers: L = N + M -1)

Open Section:
q(s) = q(0) + P
q(0) = 0
N-1 Equations, N Unknowns

1 Equation, No New Unknowns
=> Shear flows, q, in Each web

T = 2Aq
1 Equation, 1 New Unknown (e)
=> Shear Center Location, e
Single-cell closed section:

Cut Cell and assume q(0)
q(s) = q(0) + P
=> Relative Shear Flows

A)
T = 2Aq
=> Assumed Shear Flow, q(0)

=> Absolute Shear Flows, q
or B)
N
=
i =1
q i S i L
=0
2 At i Gi
=> Assumed Shear Flow, q(0)

and
T = Aq
21-46

Multi-cell closed section:
(singly connected)
Cut each cell (j)and assume qi(0)

qj(s) = qj(0) + P
=> Relative Shear Flows
Assume cross section does not deform
1= 2 = = m
M-1 Equations, No New Unknowns
=> Assumed Shear Flows, qj(0), except q1(0)

M
T = 2 j Aj q j
i =1
=> Assumed Shear Flow, q1(0)

A)
N
1 =
i =1
qi Si L
2 Ati Gi
1 Equation, 1 New Unknown ()
=> Angle of Twist,

or B)
N
1 =
i =1
qi Si L
=0
2 Ati Gi
21-47
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Shear Flow/Shear Center

BASIC SHEAR STRESS FORMULA.........................................................................................3

Design and Analysis of Aircraft Structures

Shear Flow/Shear Center

This page intentionally left blank.

Design and Analysis of Aircraft Structures

Shear Flow/Shear Center

Figure 1. Shear Force and Stresses in a Beam

V = Applied shear force

Shear Flow/Shear Center

1st moment of Area (See next example)

1st Moment of Area

EXAMPLE Shear Stresses

Design and Analysis of Aircraft Structures

Shear Flow/Shear Center

Shear Stress in Thin Open Cross Sections

Figure 2. Shear Force and Stresses in an Open Section

Design and Analysis of Aircraft Structures

Shear Flow/Shear Center

Vy is applied to the channel as shown such that it does not twist

Design and Analysis of Aircraft Structures

Shear Flow/Shear Center

Design and Analysis of Aircraft Structures

Shear Flow/Shear Center

Locate the distance e so that Vy passes through the shear

Design and Analysis of Aircraft Structures

Shear Flow/Shear Center

Figure 3. Internal Loads in an Idealized Beam

In this case the web is not considered as resisting bending:

From the fact that

Consider the two-chord beam shown in Figure 4:

Design and Analysis of Aircraft Structures

Shear Flow/Shear Center

Figure 4. Support Reactions for an Idealized Beam

Figure 5. Free Body Diagram of a one inch Wide element

Design and Analysis of Aircraft Structures

Shear Flow/Shear Center

Check balance of panel:

Figure 6. Internal Loads in a Two Inch Wide Idealized Beam

Design and Analysis of Aircraft Structures

Shear Flow/Shear Center

Figure 7. Free Body Diagram of a Two Inch Wide Element

Where Fsall = allowable shear stress for the web material.

Design and Analysis of Aircraft Structures

Shear Flow/Shear Center

Figure 8. Component Crushing Forces

Figure 9. Changes in Angle of Internal Chord Loads

Inward component of P = Pcrush :

Expressed in pounds per inch: Pcrush =

Resultant Forces Due to q

Design and Analysis of Aircraft Structures

Shear Flow/Shear Center

Figure 10. Shear Flow in a Curved Panel

Design and Analysis of Aircraft Structures

Shear Flow/Shear Center

Figure 11. Moments of Shear Flow on a Curved Web

Design and Analysis of Aircraft Structures

Shear Flow/Shear Center

Figure 12. Shear Center of a Sheared Panel

Design and Analysis of Aircraft Structures

Shear Flow/Shear Center

Chord area = 0.5 in. 2 (typical)

Check on horizontal balance: P = 0