1.

INTRODUCTION

As we need food,water ,air shelter etc. for living, we also need electricity in stable and
continuous form. In modern civilization we cannot think of life without electricity as it has
acquired its place next to oxygen.
The network of electricity supply to the consumer is very complex one comprising of
generating plant, transmission and sub-transmission lines, grid sub-station etc .each element
of the network has got direct bearing on the quality and continuance of electric power so as
now a time in industrial sector the maintenance section also plays a important part as in the
industrial sector the input supply is 11KV and so heavy equipments are connected so the
supply should be continued and there all the equipments are employed as capacitor
bank,transformer ,diesel generator ,battery room etc. So in this section of my report its all
related to the maintenance of industrial sector.

1.1 SODEXO INDIA:In 1966, Pierre Bellon launched Sodexo, in Marseilles (France),
founded on the Bellon family's experience of more than 60
years in maritime catering for luxury liners and cruise ships.
Operations initially served staff restaurants, schools and
hospitals.
Sodexo is now the worldwide leader in Quality of Life services. For over 40 years, we have
developed unique expertise, backed by nearly 420,000 employees in 80 countries across the
globe.
In combining the diverse talents of our teams, Sodexo is the only company to integrate a
complete offer of innovative services, based on over 100 professions. We develop, manage
and deliver a unique array of On-site Services, Benefits & Rewards Services and Personal
and Home Services for all our clients to improve the Quality of Life.
Our experiences with our over 75 million customers each and every day enable us to develop
Quality of Life services that reinforce the well-being of individuals, improving their
effectiveness and helping companies and organizations to improve performance...every day.

1.2 (O&M + Soft/Corporate Services) :In IFM we provide all technical services for utilities and soft and corporate
services essential for thesuccess of the customers core business.Services
are offered on a deployment or lump sum basis.
1

1.3 (TFM & Managed Services) :Total Facilities management (TFM) is the new concept that has evolved
out of the Customers need to outsource all non-core activities to a single
vendor. Under this scenario Sodexo|MacLellan is able to offer a
comprehensive and complete solution to meet our customers needs. TFM
will enable our customers to pass the full responsibility of managing its
facilities to Sodexo|MacLellan for a fixed price.

1.4 Project management:Sodexo|MacLellan offers deployment based services in which we provide highly qualified
mana-gers, engineers, technicians and assistants to assist the customer in their projects
implementation. We typically structure this work on a cost plus basis. We provide turnkey
project management solutions for the management of small capital and engi-neering projects.
This model is very attractive option for the customer because of the substantial cost
reductions made possible due to our familiarity of the plant and facility environment. This
can be done on a rate contract or cost plus basis.

1.5 SERVICES:

Electrical installations & distribution

Emergency power systems

Mechanical & HVAC

Building Management Systems

Fire & Safety systems

Hydraulics & waste water systems

Utilities Management

2. CIRUIT BREAKER

2.1INTRODUCTION :The circuit breaker is one of the important equipment in power system. It protects the system
by isolating the faulty section while the healthy one is keep on working. Every system is
susceptible to fault or damages while can be caused due to overloading, short-circuiting, earth
fault etc. thus to protect the system and isolate the faulty section C.B. are required. Apart
from breaking and making contacts, a C.B. should be capable of doing.

Continuously carry the maximum current at point of installation.

Make and break the circuit under abnormal and normal condition.
Close or open the faulty section only where fault exists.

A circuit breaker is an automatically operated electrical switch designed to protect an

electrical circuit from damage caused by overload or short circuit .It's basic function
is to detect fault condition and interrupt current flow .
The circuit breaker contacts must carry the load current without excessive heating and
must also withstand the heat of the arc produced when interrupting the circuit
.Contacts are made of copper or copper alloys or highly conductive materials .High
voltage circuit breakers have replaceable contacts
When a current is interrupted ,an arc is generated .This arc must be contained cooled
and extinguished between the contacts .Different circuit breakers use oil and gas to
extinguish the arc also different ways as lengthening/deflection of the arc ,intensive
cooling ,division into partial arcs

2.2 Classification of circuit breakers:-

FOR DC
Low voltage circuit breakers are made for direct current applications
such as DC for subway lines it require special breakers as arc is continuous unlike AC arc .It
has blowout coils that rapidly stretches the arc. Small CB are either installed directly in
equipment or arranged in breaker panel

FOR AC
These breakers use magnetic and thermal magnetic circuit breakers as magnetic use solenoid
whose pulling force increases with current. The circuit breaker contacts are held closed by a
latch some employ a hydraulic time delay feature using viscous fluid as thermal magnetic
CB are the type found in most DB incorporate with the technique with Electro magnetic
stantaneous response and bimetallic strip is employed. The thermal portion provides an
inverse time response feature.

2.3 Types of circuit breakers: MCB (Miniature circuit breakers)

MCCB (Molded case circuit breaker)
RCCB (Residual current circuit breaker)
Common trip breaker (Two and three pole TPN)
ACB (Air circuit breaker)
VCB (Vacuum circuit breaker)
OCB (Oil circuit breaker)
SF6 CB( Sulphur hexafluoride circuit breaker)

2.3.1 MCB (Miniature circuit breakers) :The rated current of MCB is 6-125A.Trip characteristics normally not
adjustable. Thermal or thermal-magnetic operation The ambient air temperature
is 30*C. The commonly available preferred values for the rated current are
6A,10A,13A,16A,20A, 25A,32A,40A,50A125A.The circuit breaker is
labeled with the rated current in amperes. The ampere figure is preceded by a
letter B,C,D,K,Z That indicates the instantaneous tripping current. That is the
minimum value of current that causes the circuit breaker to trip without
intentional time delay.

2.3.2 MCCB (Molded case circuit breaker) :The rating of MCCB is rated current up to 2500A.Thermal or thermal magnetic
operation. Trip current may be adjustable in larger rating. MCCB can also be
termed as next level of MCB as has high rating then that and there is also reset
option.
2.3.3 RCCB (Residual current circuit breaker) :The RCCB detects the current imbalance, but does not provide over current
protection. The RCCB is also available as RCBO(residual current breaker with
over current protection) as RCCB and MCB in one package.

2.3.4 Common trip breaker (Two and three pole TPN) :When supplying a branch circuit with more than one live conductor, each live
conductor must be protected by breaker pole. To ensure that all live conductors
are interrupted when any pole trips, a common trip breaker must be used. These
either contain two or three tripping mechanisms within one case ,or for small
breakers.

2.3.5 ACB (Air circuit breaker) :The Rating of air circuit breaker is upto 10,000A.Their characteristics are fully
adjustable including configurable trip thresholds and delays. These CB use air
alone to extinguish the arc, have metal plates to divide and cool the arc .Magnet
blowout coils or permanent magnets deflect the arc into the arc chute.
2.3.6 VCB (Vacuum circuit breaker) :Rated current is up to 3000A these breakers interrupt the current by creating and
extinguishing arc in vacuum container. These are generally applied for voltages
up to 35000V which corresponds roughly to the medium voltage range of power
systems have longer life than ACB
2.3.7 OCB (Oil circuit breaker) :In the oil circuit breaker the fixed and moving contacts are immerged inside the
insulating oil. Whenever there is a separation of current carrying contacts in the
oil, the arc initialized at the movement of separation of contacts, and due to this
arc the oil is vaporized and decomposed in mostly hydrogen gas and ultimately
creates a hydrogen bubble around the arc it prevents re-striking of arc after
current reaches zero crossing of the cycle. The rating of OCB is 6-220KV,and
maximum rated current is 3.2KA.
8

2.3.8 SF6 CB:( Sulphur hexafluoride circuit breaker)

Sulfur Hexafluoride (SF6) is an excellent gaseous dielectric for high voltage
power applications. It has been used extensively in high voltage circuit breakers
and other switchgears employed by the power industry. Applications for SF6
include gas insulated transmission lines and 'gas insulated power distributions.
Rated voltage for SF6 CB is 7.2KV-36KV,Rated current value is 630A-2500A.
Some of the outstanding properties of SF6 making it desirable to use in power
applications are:
High dielectric strength
Unique arc-quenching ability
Excellent thermal stability
Good thermal conductivity

3. RELAYS

Relay is a device which detect fault current and energize trip circuit of circuit breaker.Relays
must be able to evaluate a wide variety of parameters to establish that corrective action is
required. Obviously, a relay cannot prevent the fault. Its primary purpose is to detect the fault
and take the necessary action to minimize the damage to the equipment or to the system. The
most common parameters which reflect the presence of a fault are the voltages and currents at
the terminals of the protected apparatus or at the appropriate zone boundaries. The
fundamental problem in power system protection is to define the quantities that can
differentiate between normal and abnormal conditions. This problem is compounded by the
fact that normal in the present sense means outside the zone of protection. This aspect,
which is of the greatest significance in designing a secure relaying system, dominates the
design of all protection systems.

( Relays )

10

3.1 INVERSE TIME-DELAY OVERCURRENT RELAY

The principal application of time-delay over current relays (TDOC) is on a radial system
where they provide both phase and ground protection. A basic complement of relays would
be two phase and one ground relay. This arrangement will protect the line for all
combinations of phase and ground faults using the minimum number of relays.

3.2 INSTANTANEOUS OVERCURRENT RELAY

The closer the fault is to the source, the greater the fault current magnitude, yet the longer the
tripping time. The addition of an instantaneous over current relay makes this system of
protection viable. In order to properly apply the instantaneous over current relay, there must
be a substantial reduction in short-circuit current as the fault moves from the relay toward the
far end of the line. However, there still must be enough of a difference in the fault current
between the near and far end faults to allow a setting for the near end faults. This will prevent
the relay from operating for faults beyond the end of the line and still provide high-speed
protection for an appreciable portion of the line.

3.3 DIRECTIONAL OVERCURRENT RELAY

Directional over current relaying is necessary for multiple source circuits when it is essential
to limit tripping for faults in only one direction. If the same magnitude of fault current could
flow in either direction at the relay location, coordination cannot be achieved with the relays
in front of, and, for the same fault, the relays behind the non directional relay, except in very
unusual system configurations.

3.4 DISTANCE RELAY

Distance relays respond to the voltage and current, i.e., the impedance, at the relay location.
The impedance per mile is fairly constant so these relays respond to the distance between the
relay location and the fault location. As the power systems become more complex and the
fault current varies with changes in generation and system configuration, directional over
current relays become difficult to apply and to set for all contingencies, whereas the distance
relay setting is constant for a wide variety of changes external to the protected line.

11

3.5 Types Of Distance relay:a. Impedance Relay:The impedance relay has a circular characteristic centred. It is non directional and is used
primarily as a fault detector.

b. Admittance Relay:The admittance relay is the most commonly used distance relay. It is the tripping relay in
pilot schemes and as the backup relay in step distance schemes. In the electromechanical
design it is circular, and in the solid state design, it can be shaped to correspond to the
transmission line impedance.

c. Reactance Relay:The reactance relay is a straight-line characteristic that responds only to the reactance of the
protected line. It is non directional and is used to supplement the admittance relay as a
tripping relay to make the overall protection independent of resistance. It is particularly
useful on short lines where the fault arc resistance is the same order of magnitude as the line
length.

d. DIFFERENTIAL RELAY

A differential relay operates when the vector difference of current in circuit in which relay is
connected , exceed a set value.

3.7 Type Of Differential Relay:Current Differential Relay:In this type, relay compares the current entering a section of the system and the current
leaving the section. Under fault condition,these currents are different.

Voltage Differntial Relay:In this type of relay two transformer are used.The secondaries of the transformer in series
with the relay in such a way that the induced e.m.f. are in opposition under normal
condition.under fault condition , primaries carry current due to which induced e.m.f.s no
longer remain in opposition and the relay operates.

12

4. BUS-BARS

A bus bar (sometimes pronounced "buzz bars") in electrical power distribution refers to thick
strips of copper or aluminium that conduct electricity within a switchboard, distribution
board, substation, or other electrical apparatus.
The size of the bus bar is important in determining the maximum amount of current that can
be safely carried. Bus bars can have a cross-sectional area of as little as 10 mm but electrical
substations may use metal tubes of 50 mm in diameter (1,963 mm) or more as bus bars.
Bus bars are typically either flat strips or hollow tubes as these shapes allow heat to dissipate
more efficiently due to their high surface area to cross-sectional area ratio.
The skin effectmakes 5060 Hz AC bus bars more than about 8 mm (1/3 in) thick inefficient,
so hollow or flat shapes are prevalent in higher current applications. A hollow section has
higher stiffness than a solid rod of equivalent current-carrying capacity, which allows a
greater span between bus bar supports in outdoor switchyards.
A bus bar may either be supported on insulators, or else insulation may completely surround
it. Bus bars are protected from accidental contact either by a metal enclosure or by elevation
out of normal reach. Neutral bus bars may also be insulated. Earth bus bars are typically
bolted directly onto any metal chassis of their enclosure. Bus bars may be enclosed in a metal
housing, in the form of bus duct or bus way, segregated-phase bus, or isolated-phase bus.
Bus bars may be connected to each other and to electrical apparatus by bolted or clamp
connections. Often joints between high-current bus sections have matching surfaces that are
silver-plated to reduce the contact resistance.
A bus bar must have its own protection, although they have high degrees of reliability.
Bearing in mind the risk of unnecessary trips, the protection should be dependable, selective
and should be stable for external faults, called 'through faults'.
The most common fault is phase to ground, which usually results from human error. There
are many types of relaying principles used in bus bar.

4.1 BUS-BAR ARRENGMENT

Bus bar arrangement depends upon: Interruption tolerable in the supply scheme.
Alternative supply arrangement

13

BUS BAR ARRENGEMENT MAY BE OF FOLLOWING TYPE WHICH

IS BEING ADOPTED BY R.R.V.P.N.L.:1. Single bus bar arrangement
2. Double bus bar arrangement
3. Main bus with transformer bus
4. Main bus-I with main bus-II
5. Double bus bar arrangement with auxiliary bus.

Single Bus Bar Arrangement:This arrangement is simplest and cheapest. It suffers however, from major defects.

Double Bus Bar Arrangement/Contains Main Bus-I With Main Bus-II

Arrangements:This scheme have two bus bars so that:Each load may be fed from either bus.The load circuit
may be divided in two separate groups if needed from operational consideration. Two
supplies from different sources can be put on each bus separately.Either bus bar may be taken
out from maintenance and clearing the insulators.

5. UNINTERRUPTIBLE POWER
14

SUPPLY
5.1 INTRODUCTION:An UPS system is an alternate or backup source of power with the electric utility company being
the primary source. The UPS provides protection of load against line frequency variations,
elimination of power line noise and voltage transients, voltage regulation, and uninterruptible
power for critical loads during failures of normal utility source. An UPS can be considered a
source of standby power or emergency power depending on the nature of the critical loads. The
amount of power that the UPS must supply also depends on these specific needs. These needs
can include emergency lighting for evacuation, emergency perimeter lighting for security, orderly
shut down of manufacturing or computer operations, continued operation of life support or
critical medical equipment, safe operation of equipment during sags and brownouts, and a
combination of the preceding needs.

Block diagram of UPS:-

5.2 Types of UPS:Mainly there are three types of UPS are available:5.2.1 Offlile UPS

The mains to battery changeover time or battery to mains changeover time in offline
UPS is very low as compared to inverter.
Typically, changeover time in inverters is 500 milliseconds & Offline UPS has
changeover time of 3-8 milliseconds.
In a time, when mains ac is present, Inverter provides the output as is the input
mains.
While, Offline UPS has built in Automatic Voltage Regulator (AVR) to regulate the
output voltage close to 220V ac.
Offline UPSs are normal weight UPSs and are widely used for domestic computers.
15

Block diagram of Offline UPS:-

5.2.2 Line interactive UPS:

In this design, the battery to AC power converter (inverter) is always connected

to the o/p of the UPS.
Battery charging is done during times when the I/P AC power is normal when
the I/P AC fails, transfer switch opens and then the inverter starts functioning to
provide power to load immediately.

Block diagram of Line Interactive UPS:-

5.2.3 Online UPS:-

16

In this type of UPS, the system always remains on battery, whether mains ac is
present or not.
When mains ac is present, it provides power to DC supply of inverter section as
well as charges the battery simultaneously.
When mains ac is not present, it will run the connected load till the battery has a
recommended dischargeable level.

Block diagram of Online UPS:-

6. CONTROL ROOM

17

At NPH not only remote control carry the appropriate means by which circuit breaker may be
open or close but also necessary indicating devices, indicating lamps, isolating switching,
protective relays, secondary circuit and wires are located here and most important No load
tap changer for transformer is available. There is a panel for synchronizing.
Different panels are located at different stages and on each panel control switch is provided
on the board. The control switches for each circuit breaker and isolators are provided on
control panel. Colors of signals are synchronized as follows:

Red
:- For circuit breaker or isolator is in closed position.
Green :- For circuit breaker is in open position.
Amber :- Indicates abnormal condition requiring action.

There are different relays located.

6.1 Announcing Section:- This section is always checked by the shift incharge. If any
fault or any relay moves from L.T., alarm swings and type of fault is indicated on the
announcing box. The most important section is transformer control section, winding
temperature indicator. Tap position selector is situated on control panel. A control engineer
controls the loading of various lines, outgoing feeders, synchronizing the incoming lines with
bus bars.

6.2 Control and Relay Panel:- The arrangement of control and relay power is such that
the indicating apparatus is clearly visible from control place. These respective panels are
provided-

Control and indicating equipment.

Relay and recording equipment.

The synchronization switch is put to auto position when condition of synchronizing is

satisfied. The white lamp on the top indicating synchronizing relay operated glow and
Circuit Breaker is automatically closed. When bus bar is dead there is no need of
synchronizing in that case line is connected directly to bus bar by pulling a switch bar dead
bus to on position.
Event Logger- to work in control room contain work are automated with computer based
control system. By facilitate the operator locating identification and reporting fault,
information is received.

6.3 Supervisory Control And Data Acquire System:- For power system operation
and control includes-

18

Data collection system

Data transmission telemetric equipment
Data monitoring equipment
Man/machine interface

Data collection equipment as data logger collects the primary data from source Converts it
into suitable form of information and then transmitting and processing data. Logger records
the rating from different location in the plant. Data logger is designed for plant performance
computation for logical analysis of alarm condition. Thus minimizing possible confusion
during emergency.
The input scanner is an automatic sequence switch, which select each, signal in turn
transducers are used to convert original signal in the suitable electrical form for the input of
scanner.
The signal is converted from low-level signal to high-level signal. Data logger supplies the
digitalized data of microprocessor. The signal is fed to the input scanner. The input scanner
selects each signal in turn.

6.4 Scanning And Indication:- The automatic control necessities a series and checks at
regular interval, which provide indication whether and when appropriate action is to
be indicated. The scanning gives necessary data regarding the value of various input
variables. The decision regarding follow up section is taken according to the program.
The logic operation and calculation are performed readily by microprocessor.

a. CRT Display:- The operation in the control room needs information regarding
parameters and configuration according to feeders. It is divided in many parts-

Indicating system
Control switches
Relay section
Meter section
Announcing section
D.C supply system
Transformer control unit.

Indicating system is used to indicate total load, bus bar voltage indication of circuit breaker,
isolator position. Lever type arrangement for opening and closing of circuit breaker close or
open.
Relay section indicates the position of different relay at different feeder. Fault in any feeder is
denoted by corresponding relay that gives alarm signal.

19

Master relay gives the signal to the trip coil of circuit breaker and thus faulty feeder is
disconnected from supply. Meter section includes different types of meter.

(Control Panels In Control Room)

7. BATTERY ROOM

20

As the system connected is so sensitive for its protection separate dc supply is maintained for
signalling remote position control, alarm circuit etc as if the supply discontinues so system
may get damage or any minor fault can occur to it so a separate battery room is made. Direct
current can be obtained from 132volt 3 phase ac supply via rectifier and in event of ac failure,
from the fixed batteries, which are kept, charged in normal condition by rectifier supply.

( Battery Room)

7.1 Battery System:The batteries used are lead acid type having a solution of sulphuric acid and distilled water as
electrolytes. In charged state, it has a specific gravity of 1.2 at temperature of 30C.In the
battery room batteries are mounted on wooden stand. The cells are installed stand by
porcelain.

How do batteries work:Electricity is the flow of electrons through a circuit or conductive path like a wire.
Batteries have three parts, an anode (-), a cathode (+), and the electrolyte. The cathode and
anode (the positive and negative sides at either end of a smaller battery) are hooked up to an
electrical circuit.

Electron Flow:The chemical reactions in the battery causes a build up of electrons at the anode. This
results in an electrical difference between the anode and the cathode. Having unstable buildup of the electrons the electrons wants to rearrange themselves
to get rid of this difference. But they do this in a certain way. Electrons repel each other and
try
to go to a place with fewer electrons.
In a battery, the only place to go is to the cathode. But, the electrolyte keeps the electrons
from going straight from the anode to the cathode within the battery. When the circuit is
closed
(a wire connects the cathode and the anode) the electrons will be able to get to the cathode. In
21

this example, the electrons go through the wire, lighting the light bulb along the way. This is
one
way of describing how electrical potential causes electrons to flow through the circuit.
However, these electrochemical processes change the chemicals in anode and cathode to
make them stop supplying electrons. So there is a limited amount of power available in a
battery.
When a battery is recharged, the direction of the flow of electrons is changed, The
electrochemical processes happen in reverse, and the anode and cathode are restored to their
original state and can again provide full power.

Cell Voltage:Each cell element of the battery produces approximately 2.1,regardless of the quantity or size
of the plates. The battery shown have six cells that are connected in series ,which total
produces voltage of 12.6 Volts.

Battery capacity:The quantity A is defined as the current that discharges the battery in 1 hour,
so that the battery capacity can be said to be C Ampere-hours (units confusion)
22

If we discharge the battery more slowly, say at a current of C/10, then we might
expect that the battery would run longer (10 hours) before becoming
discharged.
In practice, the relationship between battery capacity and discharge current is not linear, and
less energy is recovered at faster discharge rates. Peukerts Law relates battery capacity to
discharge rate: AH = Ik t where AH (amp-hour) is capacity at a 1 A discharge rateI is the
discharge current in Amperes t is the discharge time, in hours k is the Peukert coefficient,
typically 1.1 to 1.3

Following precautions are taken in a battery room:

The conductor connecting the cells are greased and coated with electrolyte
resisting varnish.

Proper care is taken so that acid vapours do not accumulate in the room to avoid
risk of explosion, smoking, winding etc.

Any arc is prohibited in the room.

The windows of battery are of forested glass to avoid the batteries from direct
action of sun light.

8. AUTO TRANSFORMER
23

Basically auto-transformer comprises of only one winding per phase, part of which is used by
both primary and secondary winding. This arrangement results into an appreciable saving in
cost as well as higher operating efficiency is achieved, but their extensive use is not being
favored by power utilities due to certain inherent disadvantages which are as follows:
1. It has got low inherent reactance as such is subjected to severe short circuit conditions.
2. Since primary and secondary side uses same windings, there is always possibility of
imposition of higher voltage on secondary in case of fault.
3. Both the windings make use of common neutral, as such neutral is required to be earthed
or isolated on both sides.
4. Provision of additional insulation on secondary side and increased frame size when
adjustable taps are provided erodes the initial advantage of low cost.

8.1 Constructional Part:The chief elements of the construction are :

1. Magnetic Circuits: Comprising limbs, yokes and clamping structures.
2. Electrical Circuits: The primary, secondary and (if any) tertiary windings, formers,
insulation and bracing devices.
3. Terminals: Tapings, tapping switches, terminal insulators and leads.
4. Tank: oil, cooling devices, conservators, dryers and auxiliary apparatus.

24

(Auto Transformer)

Core Construction:Special alloy steel of high resistance and low hysteresis loss is used almost exclusively in
transformer's cores. Induction densities up to 1.35 - 1.55 wb/m2 are possible. The limit for
50 c/s is being the loss and the magnetizing current.
As the flux in the cores is a pulsating one, the magnetic circuit must be laminated and the
separate laminations insulated in order to retain the advantages of subdivision. Paper, Japan,
Varnish, China clay or phosphate may be used.
Burring of edges of plates may cause a considerable increase in a core loss by providing paths
for eddy currents should the sharp edges cut through the insulation and establish contacts
between adjacent plates. Burrs are removed before core assembly. Silicon alloy steel are
hard, and cause wearing of the punching tools, so that the removal of burrs needs special
attention.
25

Transformer shut sheet are cut as far as possible along the grain which is in the direction in
which the material has a higher permeability.

Constructional Frame Work:Considerable use is made of channel and angle section rolled steel in the framework of core
type transformers. a typical construction is to clamp the top and bottom yokes between
channel sections, held firmly by tie-holts. The bottom pair of channels has cross channels as
feet. The upper pair carries clamps for the high and low voltage connections.

Windings :Classification of windings maybe done as (a) Circular or rectangular & (b) Concentric or
sandwiched.
In core type circular or rectangular type of windings are used and in shell type generally
sandwiched type windings are used.
On account of easier insulation facilities, the low voltage winding is placed nearer to the
core. In the case of core type and on the outside positions in the case of shell type
transformers. The insulation spaces between low and high voltage coils also serve to
facilitate cooling.

Insulation:The insulation between the H.V. and I.V. windings, and between I.V. winding and
core, compresses Bakelite paper cylinders or elephantine wrap.
The insulation of the conductors may be of paper, cotton or glass tape being used for
air insulated transformers. The paper is wrapped round the conductor in a suitable machine,
preferably without overlap of adjacent turns. In the power transformers, owing to strain on
the insulation between turns t the line end of the high voltage winding, about 5 percent of the
turns are reinforced with the extra insulating material.

Leads And Material:The connections to the windings are copper rods or bars, insulated wholly or in part,
and taken to the bus bars directly in the case of oil cooled transformers. The shape and size
of the conductors are of importance in very high voltage systems, not on account of the
26

current carrying capacity, but because of dielectric stresses, corona, etc. at sharp bends
corners with such voltages.

Bushings:Up to voltages of 33 kV, ordinary porcelain insulators can be used. Above this voltage the use
of conductor and of oil filled terminal bushings, or, for certain cases, a combination of the
two has to be considered. Of course, any conductor can be effectively insulated by air
provided that it is at a sufficient distance from other conducting bodies and sufficiently
proportioned to prevent corona phenomena. Such conditions are naturally UN-obtainable
with transformers where the conductor has to be taken through the cover of the containing
tank, although common enough with over head transmission lines.
The oil filled bushing consists of a hollow porcelain cylinder of special shape with a
conductor (usually a hollow tube) through its centre.
The space between the conductor and the porcelain is filled with oil, the dielectric strength of
which is greater than that of air. The dielectric field strength is greatest at the surface of the
conductor, and this breaks down at a much lower voltage in air than in oil. Oil is fed into the
bushing at the top, act as an expansion chamber for the oil when the bushing temperature
rises.
Under the influence of the electric field, foreign substances in the form of dust, moisture or
metallic particles have a tendency to arrange themselves in radial lines giving rise to paths of
low dielectric strength, with constant danger of breakdown. To prevent such action by
unavoidable impurities in the oil Bakelite tubes are used to surround the conductor
concentrically. The effect is to break up radial chains of semi-conducting particles.

Tanks:Small tanks are constructed from welded sheet steel, and larger ones from plain boilerplates.
The lids may be cast iron, or waterproof gasket being used at the joints. The fittings include
thermometer pockets, drain cock, rollers or wheels for moving the transformer into position,
eye bolts for lifting, conservators and breathers, cooling tubes are welded in, but separate
radiators are individually welded and afterwards bolted on.
27

Temperature Indicators:Most of the transformer (small transformers have only OTI) are provided with indicators that
displace oil temperature and winding temperature. There are thermometers pockets provided
in the tank top cover which hold the sensing bulls in them. Oil temperature measured is that of
the top oil, where as the winding temperature measurement is indirect. This is done by adding
the temperature rise due to the heat produced in a heater coil (known as image coil) when a
current proportional to that flowing in windings is passed in it to that or top oil. For proper
functioning or OTI & WTI it is essential to keep the thermometers pocket clean and filled with
oil.

(Winding And Oil Temperature Indicator)

Silica Gel Breather:Both transformer oil and cellulosic paper are highly hygroscopic. Paper being more
hygroscopic than the mineral oil The moisture, if not excluded from the oil surface in
conservator, thus will find its way finally into the paper insulation and causes reduction
insulation strength of transformer.
To minimize this conservator is allowed to breathe only through the silica gel column, which
absorbs the moisture in air before it enters the conservator air surface.

(Silica Gel Breather)

28

Conservator:Conservators are required to take up the expansion and contraction of the oil to come in
contact with the air, from which it is liable to take up moisture. The conservator may consist
of an airtight cylindrical metal drum supported on the transformer lid or on a neighboring
wall, or of a flexible flat corrugated disc drum. The tank is filled when cold and the
expansion is taken up in the conservator.
The figure conservator is as shown below:-

(Conservator)

Transformer Oil:Oil in transformer construction serves the double purpose of cooling and insulating. In the
choice of oil for transformer use the following characteristics have to be considered.

Viscosity
Insulating property
Flash point
Fire point
Purity
Slugging
Audity

9. CAPACITATIVE VOLTAGE TRANSFORMER

29

A capacitor voltage transformer (CVT) is a transformer used in power systems to step-down

extra high voltage signals and provide low voltage signals either for measurement or to
operate a protective relay. In its most basic form the device consists of three parts: two
capacitors across which the voltage signal is split, an inductive element used to tune the
device to the supply frequency and a transformer used to isolate and further step-down the
voltage for the instrumentation or protective relay. The device has at least four terminals, a
high-voltage terminal for connection to the high voltage signal, a ground terminal and at least
one set of secondary terminals for connection to the instrumentation or protective relay.
CVTs are typically single-phase devices used for measuring voltages in excess of one
hundred kilovolts where the use of voltage transformers would be uneconomical. In practice
the first capacitor, C1, is often replaced by a stack of capacitors connected in series.
This results in a large voltage drop across the stack of capacitors that replaced the first
capacitor and a comparatively small voltage drop across the second capacitor, C 2, and hence
the secondary terminals.

( CVT )

The porcelain in multi unit stack, all the potentials points are electrically tied and suitably
shielded to overcome the effect of corona RIV etc. Capacitive voltage transformers are
available for system voltage.

10. CURRENT TRANSFORMER

30

As you all know this is the device which provides the pre-decoded fraction of the primary
current passing through the line/bus main circuit. Such as primary current 60A, 75A, 150A,
240A, 300A, 400A, to the secondary output of 1A to 5A.
Now a day mostly separate current transformer units are used instead of bushing mounting
CTs on levelled structure they should be for oil level indication and base should be earthed
properly. Care should be taken so that there should be no strain as the terminals.
When connecting the jumpers, mostly secondary connections is taken to three unction boxes
where star delta formation is connected for three phase and final leads taken to protection
/metering scheme. There should be no chance of secondary circuit remaining opens as it leads
to extremely high voltage which ultimately damage the CT itself.

(Current Transformers)
It can be used to supply information for measuring power flows and the electrical inputs for
the operation of protective relays associated with the transmission and distribution circuit or
for power transformer. These current transformers have the primary winding connected in
series with the conductor carrying the current to be measured or controlled. The secondary
winding is thus insulated from the high voltage and can then be connected to low voltage
metering circuits.
Current transformers are also used for street lighting circuits. Street lighting requires a
constant current to prevent flickering lights and a current transformer is used to provide that
constant current. In this case the current transformer utilizes a moving secondary coil to vary
the output so that a constant current is obtained.

11. POTENTIAL TRANSFORMER

31

A potential transformer (PT) is used to transform the high voltage of a power line to a lower
value, which is in the range of an ac voltmeter or the potential coil of an ac voltmeter.

( Potential Transformer)
The voltage transformers are classified as under:
1.Capacitive voltage transformer or capacitive type
2.Electromagnetic type.
Capacitive voltage transformer is being used more and more for voltage measurement in high
voltage transmission network, particularly for systems voltage of 132KV and above where it
becomes increasingly more economical. It enables measurement of the line to earth voltage to
be made with simultaneous provision for carrier frequency coupling, which has reached wide
application in modern high voltage network for tele-metering remote control and telephone
communication purpose.
The capacitance type voltage transformers are of twp type:
Coupling Capacitor type
Pushing Type
he performance of CVT is affected by the supply frequency switching transient and
magnitude of connected Burdon. The CVT is more economical than an electromagnetic
voltage transformer when the nominal supply voltage increases above 66KV.
The capacitor connected in series act like potential dividers, provided, the current taken by
burden is negligible compared with current passing through the series connected capacitor.

12. CAPACITOR BANK

32

The capacitor bank provides reactive power at grid substation. The voltage regulation
problem frequently reduces so of circulation of reactive power.
Unlike the active power, reactive power can be produced, transmitted and absorbed of course
with in the certain limit, which have always to be workout. At any point in the system shunt
capacitor are commonly used in all voltage and in all size.

(Capacitor Bank)

Benefits of using the capacitor bank are many and the reason is that capacitor reduces the
reactive current flowing in the whole system from generator to the point of installation.
Capacitor bank is used following purpose1.Increased voltage level at the load
2. Reduced system losses
3. Increase power factor of loading current
4. Reduce loading on source generator and generators.
5. Reduce system investment per KW of load.

13. CONCLUSION

33

It was a very good experience of taking vocational training in SODEXO FASCILITIES

MANAGEMENT SERVICES INDIA PVT LTD

.
All the employees working there were very helpful and were always ready to guide us.They
gave their best to make us understand.
The Assistant Engineer, Junior Engineer & Technicians gave us the detailed theory. the
insight of the real instruments used. There are many instruments like transformer, CT, PT,
CVT, LA, Relay, PLCC, Bus bars, Capacitor bank, Insulator, Isolators, Control room, Battery
room etc. What is the various problem seen in substation while handling this instruments.
There are various occasion when relay operate and circuit breaker open, load shedding, shut
down, which has been heard previously.
To get insight of the substation, how things operate, how things manage all is learned there.
Practical training as a whole proved to be extremely informative and experience building and
the things learnt at it would definitely help a lot in snapping the future ahead a better way.
The working of control room was also very interesting.
All in all the training at SODEXO FASCILITIES MANAGEMENT SERVICES INDIA PVT LTD
a memorable experience.

34

14. REFERENCES

Badriram:- Switch gear protection system

B. R. Gupta:- Transmission & Distribution system

OTHERS:-

Wikipedia

en.wikipedia.org/wiki/circuit_breaker
en.wikipedia.org/wiki/capacitor
en.wikipedia.org/wiki/transformer
en.wikipedia.org/wiki/isolator

en.wikipedia.org/wiki/relay

35

36