HYdraulics Lab

EAT 202/3 Fundamental of Fluid Flow
Laboratory Module
EXPERIMENT 1
OSBORNE REYNOLDS DEMONSTRATION UNIT
1.0
2.0
OBJECTIVES
1.1
To determine the Reynolds Number (Re).
1.2
To determine the upper and lower critical velocities during the transitional
flow.
INTRODUCTION
The theory is named in honor of Osborne Reynolds, a British engineer who discovered the
variables that can be used as a criterion to distinguish between laminar and turbulent
flows. Reynolds number is widely used dimensionless parameters in fluid mechanics.
Reynolds number formula:
Re =
VL
DV
where,
Re =
V
=
L (D) =
v
=
=
=
Reynolds number
Fluid average velocity, (m/s)
characteristic length or diameter (m)
Kinematic viscosity (m2/s)
Density of the fluid (kg/m3)
Viscosity (kg/m-s)
Pipe Flow Conditions

For water flowing in pipe or circular conduits, D is the diameter of the pipe. For Reynolds
number less than 2100, the pipe flow will be laminar. For Reynolds number from 2100 to
4000 the pipe flow will be considered a transitional flow. Turbulence occurs when Reynolds
number is above 4000. The viscosity of the fluid also determines the characteristic of the
flow becoming laminar or turbulent. Fluid with higher viscosity resists transition to
turbulence. The viscosity of fluid is also dependant on temperature.
Laminar Flow
Laminar flow denotes a steady flow condition where all streamlines follow parallel paths,
there being no interaction (mixing) between shear planes. Under this condition the dye
observed will remain as a solid, straight and easily identifiable component of the flow.
Transitional Flow
Transitional flow is a mixture of laminar and turbulent flow with turbulence in the center of
the pipe, and laminar flow near the edges. Each of these flows behaves in different
manners in terms of their frictional energy loss while flowing, and have different equations
that predict their behavior.
27
Laboratory Module
Turbulent Flow
Turbulent flow denotes an unsteady flow condition where streamlines interact causing
shear plane collapse and mixing of the fluid. In this condition the dye observed will become
dispersed and mix with the water. The observed dye will not be identifiable at this point.
3.0
EQUIPMENTS
1
2
7
5
Figure 1: Unit Assembly of Osborne Reynolds Demonstration

A. Part Identifications List
1 Dye reservoir
2 Dye injector
3 Stilling tank
4 Observation tube
5 Water inlet valve
6 Bell mouth
7
8
Water outlet valve

Overflow tube
Laboratory Module
4.0
EXPERIMENTAL PROCEDURE
4.1
Lower the dye injector until it is just above the bell mouth inlet.
4.2
Open the inlet valve and allow water to enter stilling tank.
4.3
Ensure a small overflow spillage through the over flow tube to maintain a constant level.
4.4
Allow water to settle for a few minutes.
4.5
Open the flow control valve fractionally to let water flow through the visualizing tube.
4.6
Slowly adjust the dye control needle valve until a slow flow with dye injection is achieved.
4.7
Regulate the water inlet and outlet valve until a straight identifiable dye line is achieved.
The flow will be laminar.
4.8
Determine the flow rate by using a volumetric result.
4.9
Repeat the procedure to create a laminar flow, slowly increase the flow rate until the
laminar flow produce small disturbance or eddies. This will be lower critical velocity.
4.10
Determine the flow rate by using a volumetric result.
4.11
Repeat the experiment by first introducing a turbulent flow and slowly decrease flow rate
till the flow become transitional. This will be upper critical velocity.
27
Laboratory Module
5.0 RESULTS
Data: Table 1
Table 1
Laminar flow
Volume
100 mL
T1
T2
T3
Tavg
Q (L/s)
Lower Critical flow

Volume
100 mL
T1
T2
T3
Tavg
Q (L/s)
Transitional flow
Volume
100 mL
T1
T2
T3
Tavg
Q (L/s)
Turbulent flow
Volume
100 mL
T1
T2
T3
Tavg
Q (L/s)
Upper Critical flow

Volume
100 mL
T1
T2
T3
Tavg
Q (L/s)
Reynolds number
Kinematic viscosity
Pipe diameter
Mean velocity
Higher Critical velocity
Lower Critical velocity
Flow rate (change to)
(100 ml = 0.0001 m3)
If Re < 2300 is laminar flow

If 2300 < Re < 4000 is transitional flow
If Re > 4000 is turbulent flow
From,
Re = mean velocity x pipe diameter
Kinematic viscosity
Thus
Re =
UD
Q
U =
A
Q
D
Re = A
given,
Diameter (D) = 0.014 m
Area (A) = 0.000154 m2
Kinematic viscosity for 25C water = 0.89 x 10-6 m2/s
Show all your calculations in separate sheets.
Re
D
U
Ucrit
Ucrit
Q
(non-dimensional)
m2/s
m
m/sec
m/sec
m/sec
m3/s
6.0
Laboratory Module
DISCUSSION
(Include a discussion on the result noting trends in measured data, and comparing measurements with
theoretical predictions when possible. Include the physical interpretation of the result, the reasons on
deviations of your findings from expected results, your recommendations on further experimentation for
verifying your results, and your findings.)
7.0
CONCLUSION
(Based on data and discussion, make your overall conclusion)
8.0
QUESTIONS
8.1
What are laminar and turbulent flows?
8.2
The critical velocity at which laminar flow changes into turbulent flow depends on
which of the four quantities?
8.3
Write the general form of the Reynolds Number and give its units.
8.4
What will be the kinematic viscosity of water at 100C?
8.5
How is mean velocity related to Reynolds Number?
Laboratory Module
EXPERIMENT 2
FLOWMETER MEASUREMENT APPARATUS
1.0
2.0
OBJECTIVES
1.1
To obtain the flow rate by utilizing rotameter, venturi meter and orifice meter.
1.2
To determine the total head loss and loss coefficient when fluid flows through 90
degree elbow.
INTRODUCTION
Rotameter
The rotameter is a flow meter in which a rotating free float is the indicating element. Basically, a
rotameter consists of a transparent tapered vertical tube through which fluid flows upward.
Within the tube is placed a freely suspended float of pump-bob shape. When there is no flow,
the float rests on a stop at the bottom end. As flow commences, the float rises upward and
buoyancy forces on it are balanced by its weight. The float rises only a short distance if the rate
of flow is small, and vice versa. The points of equilibrium can be noted as a function of flow rate.
With a well-calibrated marked glass tube, the level of the float becomes a direct measure of flow
rate.
Scale
Tapered tube
Flow
Figure 1: The rotameter

Venturi Meter
The venturi meter consists of a venturi tube and a suitable differential pressure gauge. The
venturi tube has a converging portion, a throat and a diverging portion as shown in the Figure 2.
The function of the converging portion is to increase the velocity of the fluid and lower its static
pressure. A pressure difference between inlet and throat is thus developed, which pressure
difference is correlated with the rate of discharge. The diverging cone serves to change the area
of the stream back to the entrance area and convert velocity head into pressure head.
Laboratory Module
Throat
Inlet
Figure 2: Venturi Meter
Assuming incompressible flow and no frictional losses, from Bernoullis Equation
2
p1 v1
p
v
+
+ Z1 = 2 + 2 + Z 2
g 2 g
g 2 g
(1)
Use of the continuity Equation Q = A1V1 = A2V2, equation (1) becomes

2
p1 p 2
V A
+ Z 1 Z 2 = 2 1 2
2 g A1
g
(2)
Ideally,
A
Q = A2V2 = A2 1 2
A1
1 / 2
p1 p 2
+ Z 1 Z 2
2 g
1/ 2
(3)
However, in the case of real fluid flow, the flow rate will be expected to be less than that given by
equation (2) because of frictional effects and consequent head loss between the inlet and throat.
In metering practice, this non-ideality is accounted by insertion of an experimentally determined
coefficient, Cd that is termed as the coefficient of discharge. With Z1 = Z2 (elevation of the
centerline of the pipe) in this apparatus, equation (3) becomes
A
Q = C d A2 1 2
A1
1 2
p1 p 2
2 g
g
12
(4)
Since
P = gh
Then,
Actual flow rate,
A 2
Q = C d At 1 t
A
1 2
[2 g (h1 h2 )]1 2 m
(5)
where,
Cd
D2
D1
At
A
=
=
=
=
=
P1
P2
h1, h2
g
Coefficient of discharge (0.98)

Throat diameter (16 mm)
Inlet diameter (26 mm)
Throat area (2.011 x 10-4 m2)
Inlet area (5.309 x 10-4 m2)
=
=
=
=
=
Density of water (1000 kg/m3)

Inlet pressure (Pa)
Throat pressure (Pa)
Manometer readings (m)
9.81 m/s2
Laboratory Module
Orifice Meter
The orifice for use as a metering device in a pipeline consists of a concentric square-edged
circular hole in a thin plate, which is clamped between the flanges of the pipe as shown in the
Figure 3.
Vena contracta
A2
A1
Figure 3: Orifice meter
Pressure connections for attaching separate pressure gauges are made at holes in the pipe
walls on both side of the orifice plate. The downstream pressure tap is placed at the minimum
pressure position, which is assumed to be at the vena contracta. The centre of the inlet pressure
tap is located between one-half and two pipe diameters from the upstream side of the orifice
plate, usually a distance of one pipe diameter is employed. Equation (4) for the venturi meter
can also be applied to the orifice meter where
A
Actual flow rate, Q = C d A2 1 2
A1
1 2
p1 p 2
2 g
g
12
(6)
The coefficient of discharge, Cd in the case of the orifice meter will be different from that for the
case of a venturi meter.
At 2
Q = C d At 1
A
1 2
[2 g (h6 h7 )]1 2 m
where,
Cd
D7
D6
At
A
(h6 h7)
=
=
=
=
=
=
Coefficient of discharge (0.63)

Orifice diameter (16 mm)
Orifice upstream diameter (26 mm)
Orifice area (2.011 x 10-4 m2)
Orifice upstream area (5.309 x 10-4 m2)
Pressure difference across orifice (m)
(7)
Laboratory Module
90o elbow
Figure 4 shows fluid flowing in a pipeline where there is some pipe fitting such as bend or valve,
and change in pipe diameter. Included in the figure is the variation of piezometric head along the
pipe run, as would be shown by numerous pressure tappings at the pipe wall.
2
1
V12 / 2g
V
2g
HH
hh
2
V
V222 / 2g
2g
VV1 1
VV2 2
Figure 4: Piezometric head along a pipeline

If the upstream and downstream lines of linear friction gradient are extrapolated to the plane of
fitting, a loss of piezometric head, h, due to the fitting is found. By introducing the velocity
heads in the upstream and downstream runs of pipe, total head loss, H can be determined in
which
2
H = h +
V1
V
2
2g 2g
(8)
Energy losses are proportional to the velocity head of the fluid as it flows around an elbow,
through an enlargement or contraction of the flow section, or through a valve. Experimental
values for energy losses are usually expressed in terms of a dimensionless loss coefficient K,
where
K=
H
2
V1 / 2 g
or
(9)
V2 / 2 g
For results of better accuracy, long sections of straight pipe are required to establish with
certainty the relative positions of the linear sections of the piezometric lines. However, in a
compact apparatus as described, only two piezometers are used, one placed upstream and the
other downstream of the fitting, at sufficient distances as to avoid severe disturbances. These
piezometers measure the piezometric head loss, h between the tapping. Thus
h = h'h f
(10)
2
L V
h f = 4 f
D 2 g
where;
hf =
f
L
D
V
=
=
=
=
Laboratory Module
Friction head loss which would be incurred in fully developed flow along the run of
pipe between the piezometer tappings.
Friction factor
Distance between the piezometer, measured along the pipe center line
Pipe diameter
Average velocity of fluid flow in pipe.
The friction head loss is estimated by choosing a suitable value of friction factor, f for fully
developed flow along a smooth pipe. The method used here to determine the friction factor is
the Prandtl equation;
1
f
= 4 log Re
f 0.4
(11)
Typical values derived from this equation are tabulated in the table below:
Re, x 104
F, x 10-3
0.5
9.27
1.0
7.73
1.5
6.96
2.0
6.48
2.5
6.14
3.0
5.88
3.5
5.67
In determination of the fraction factor, f, it is sufficient to establish the value of f at just one
typical flow rate, as about the middle of the range of measurement due to the fact that f varies
only slowly with Re, and the friction loss is generally fairly small in relation to the measured
value of h.
Characteristic of flow through elbow and at changes in diameter
Figure 5 shows flow round a 90o elbow which has a constant circular cross section.
Figure 5: 90o Elbow

The value of loss coefficient K is dependent on the ratio of the bend radius, R to the pipe inside
diameter D. As this ratio increase, the value of K will decrease and vice versa.
H = K v 2 / 2 g
(12)
Where, K = Coefficient of losses, v = velocity of flow and g = 9.81 m/s2
10
3.0
Laboratory Module
EQUIPMENTS
1
6
2
3
7
4
9
Figure 6: Part Identification Diagram for the flow meter

1 Manometer Tubes
2 Discharge Valve
3 Water Outlet
4 Water Supply
5 Staddle Valve
6 Rotameter
7
8
9
11
90 Elbow
Orifice
Venturi
4.0
Laboratory Module
General Start-up Procedure

4.1
Fully close the flow control valve of the hydraulic bench and fully open the discharge
valve.
4.2
Ensure that discharge hose is properly directed to sump tank (made of fibreglass)
before starting up the system. Also ensure that collection tank drain valve is left OPEN
to allow flow discharge back into sump tank.
4.3
Once step (4.2) is completed start up the pump supply in the hydraulic bench. Open
the bench valve slowly. At this point, you will see water flowing from hydraulic bench
through to the flow apparatus and discharge into the collection tank of hydraulic bench
and then drained back into sump tank.
4.4
Proceed to fully open the flow control valve. When the flow in the pipe is steady and
there is no trapped air bubbles, start to close the bench valve in order to reduce the
flow to the maximum measurable flow rate.
4.5
The water level in the manometer board will display different level of water heights. (If
the water level in the manometer board is too high where it is out of visible point,
adjust the water level by using the staddle valve. With the maximum measurable flow
rate, retain maximum readings on manometer).
4.6
At this point, slowly reduce the flow by controlling the flow discharge valve of the
apparatus, you may also close this discharge valve totally.
4.7
The water level in the manometer board will begin to level into a straight level. This
level maybe at the lower or higher end of the manometer board range. (Take note that
the pump from the hydraulic bench is at this time, still supplying water at a certain
pressure in the system).
4.8
Also be on the lookout for Trapped Bubbles in the glass tube or plastic transfer tube.
To remove it you can either slowly press the plastic tube to push the bubbles up or
lightly tab the glass tube to release the bubbles upwards.
To obtain the flow rate by utilizing rotameter, venturi meter and orifice meter.
4.9
When the flow in the pipe is steady and there is no trapped bubble, start to close the
bench valve to reduce the flow to the maximum measurable flow rate.
4.10
Use the air bleed screw, adjust water level in the manometer board. Retain maximum
readings on manometers with the maximum measurable flow rate.
4.11
Note readings on manometers (A - H), rotameter and measured flow rate.
4.12
Repeat 4.9 for different flow rates. The flow rates can be adjusted by utilizing both
bench valve and discharge valve.
12
Laboratory Module
To determine the total head loss and loss coefficient when fluid flows through 90
degree elbow.
4.13
Note readings on manometers (I and J) and measured flow rate.
4.14
Repeated 4.11 for different flow rates. The flow rates can be adjusted by utilizing both
bench valve and discharge valve.
4.15
Complete the tables below.
4.16
Plot graph H against v2 for 90 degree elbow to determine the coefficient of losses.
2g
Note:
Probe A and C for venturi calculation
Probe G and H for orifice calculation
Probe I and J for 90 degree elbow calculation
All other probe readings are for viewing of pressure curve ONLY.
13
5.0
Laboratory Module
RESULTS
Data: Table 1, 2
Table 1: Manometer readings and flow rate calculation
Manometer reading (mm)
A
Rotameter
(L/min)
H
Vol
(L)
Time
(min)
Flow rate,
Q (L/min)
Flow rate calculated using the

Bernoulli's Equation (L/min)
Venturi
14
Orifice
Laboratory Module
Table 2: Determination of the loss coefficient when fluid flows through a 90 degree elbow.
Differential Piezometer
Head, h' (mm)
Elbow (hI-hJ)
Flowrate,
Q(L/min)
V
(m/s)
V2/2g
(mm)
hf
(mm)
H
(mm)

Plot graph using Excel
6.0
DISCUSSION
theoretical predictions when possible. Include the physical interpretation of the result, the reasons for
7.0
CONCLUSION
8.0
QUESTIONS
8.1
Which are the terms in the Bernoullis Equation denote pressure head, velocity
head elevation head and piezometric head?
8.2
What does Coefficient of discharge (Cd) mean?
8.3
What is vena contracta?
8.4
Give any two differences between Venturi and Orifice meter.
8.5
How does the pressure and velocity of water change at the throat of the conduit
shown below? Represent it using a graph.
P&V
Flow rate
27
Laboratory Module
EXPERIMENT 3
SERIAL / PARALLEL PUMP TEST UNIT
1.0
2.0
OBJECTIVES
1.1
To demonstrate the basic operation and characteristic of centrifugal pumps.
1.2
To differentiate the flowrate, pressure head and efficiency of a single pump and
of two identical pumps that are run in series or parallel.
INTRODUCTION
Pumps are used in almost all aspects of industry and engineering from feeds to reactors or
distillation columns in chemical engineering to pumping storm water in civil and environmental.
They are an integral part of engineering and an understanding of how they work is important
for an engineer. The centrifugal pump is one of the most widely used pumps for transferring
liquids. This is because centrifugal pumps are very quiet in comparison to other pumps. They
have a relatively low operating and maintenance costs. They take up little floor space and
create a uniform, non-pulsating flow.
Theory of pumps
Pumps are devices that transfer mechanical energy from a prime mover into fluid energy to
produce the flow of liquids. There are two broad classifications of pumps: positive
displacement and dynamic.
Dynamic pumps
Dynamic pumps add energy to the fluid by the action of rotating blade, which increases the
velocity of the fluid. Figure 1 shows the construction features of a centrifugal pump, the most
commonly used type of dynamic pump
Figure 1: Construction features of a centrifugal pump
16
Laboratory Module
Horizontal single stage centrifugal pump (P1)

Centrifugal pumps have two major components:
1. The impeller consists of a number of curved blades (also called vanes) attached in a
regular pattern to one side of a circular hub plate that is connected to the rotating
driveshaft.
2. The housing (also called casing) is a stationary shell that enclosed the impeller and
supports the rotating drive shaft via a bearing.
A centrifugal pump operates as follows. When the prime mover rotates the driveshaft and
hence the impeller fluid is drawn in axially through the center opening (called the eye) of the
housing. The fluid then makes a 900 turn and flows radially outward. As energy is added to the
fluid by the rotating blades (centrifugal action and actual blade force), the pressure and
velocity increase until the fluid reaches the outer tip of the impeller. The fluid then enters the
volute-shaped housing whose increased flow area causes the velocity to decrease. This action
results in decrease in kinetic energy and an accompanying increase in pressure.
The volute-shaped housing also provides a continuous increase in flow area in the direction of
flow to produce a uniform velocity as the fluid travels around the outer portion of housing and
discharge opening. Although centrifugal pumps provide smooth, continuous flow, their flow
rate (also called discharge) is reduced as the external resistance is increased. In fact, by
closing a system valve (thereby creating theoretically infinite external system resistance) even
while the pump is running at design speed, it is possible to stop pump output flow completely.
In such a case, no harm occurs to the pump unless this no-flow condition occurs over
extended period with resulting excessive fluid temperature build up. Thus pressure relief
valves are not needed. The tips of the impeller blade merely shear through the liquid, and the
rotational speed maintains a fluid pressure corresponding to the centrifugal force established.
Figure 2 shows the cutaway of a centrifugal pump.
Figure 2: The cutaway of a centrifugal pump
17
Laboratory Module
Pump Head versus Flowrate Curves for Centrifugal Pumps

Figure 3 shows pump head versus flowrate curves for a centrifugal pump. The solid curve
shows the rate for water, whereas the dashed curve is for a more viscous fluid such as oil.
Using fluid having higher viscosity than water results in a smaller flowrate at a given pump
head. If the fluid has a viscosity greater than 300 times that of water, the performance of a
centrifugal pump deteriorates enough that a positive displacement pump is usually
recommended.
Figure 3: Pump head versus flowrate curves for centrifugal pump for water and for a more
viscous liquid.
The maximum head produced by a centrifugal pump is called pump shutoff head because an
external system valve is closed and there is no flow. As the external system resistance
decrease (which occurs when a system valve is opened more fully), the flowrate increases at
the expense of reduced pump head. Because the output flowrate changes significantly with
external system resistance, centrifugal pumps are rarely used in fluid power systems. Zero
pump head exists if the pump discharge port were opened to the atmosphere, such as when
filling nearby open tank with water. The open tank represents essentially zero resistance to
flow for the pump.
Centrifugal pumps are desirable for pumping stations used for delivering water to homes and
factories. The demand for water may go to near zero during the evening and reach a peak
during the daytime, but a centrifugal pump can readily handle these large changes in water
demand. Since there is a great deal of clearance between the impeller and housing,
centrifugal pumps are not self priming, unlike positive displacement pumps. Thus if a liquid
being pumped from a reservoir located below a centrifugal pump, priming is required. Priming
is the pre-filling of the pump housing and inlet pipe with the liquid so that the pump can initially
draw the liquid and pump effectively. Priming is required because there is too much clearance
between the pump inlet and outlet ports to seal against atmospheric pressure. Thus the
displacement of a centrifugal pump is not positive where the same volume of liquid would be
delivered per revolution of the driveshaft.
The lack of positive internal seal against leakage means that the centrifugal pump is not forced
to produce flow when there is a very large system resistance to flow. As system resistance
decrease, less of the fluid at the discharge port slips back into the clearance spaces between
the impeller and housing, resulting in an increase in flow. Slippage occurs because the fluid
follows the path of least resistance.
18
Laboratory Module
Performance Characteristic Curves for Centrifugal Pumps.

When Centrifugal Pump manufacturers test their pumps, they typically produce (for a given
geometry and speed) performance curves of head, overall efficiency, and input shaft power
versus flow rate of the specified fluid. Flowrate increases from zero, the efficiency increases
from zero until it reaches maximum, and then it decreases as the maximum flowrate is
approached. The point where the maximum efficiency occurs is the best efficiency point
(BEP), and the corresponding flow rate is the design flow rate. When selecting a pump for a
given application, it is usually desirable to use a pump that will operate near its efficient point.
Maximum efficiency values for centrifugal pumps typically range from 60% to 80%.
Centrifugal pump connected in Parallel
If a single pump does not provide enough flowrate for a given application, connecting two
pumps in parallel as shown in Figure 4, can rectify the problem. The effective two-pump
performance curve is obtained by adding the flowrates of each pump at the same head. As
shown, when two pumps are connected in parallel, the operating points shift from A to B,
providing not only increased flowrate as required but also greater head. Figure 4 shows
identical pumps, but the pumps do not have to be the same.
Figure 4: Two centrifugal pumps connected in parallel.

Centrifugal pump connected in series
If a single pump does not provide enough head for a given application, two pumps connected
in series, as shown in Figure 5, can be a remedy. The effective two-pump performance curve
is obtained by adding the head of each pump at the same flowrate. The operating point shifts
from A to B, thereby providing not only increased head as required but also greater flow.
Figure 5 shows identical pumps, but the pumps do not have to be the same.
19
Laboratory Module
Figure 5: Two centrifugal pumps connected in series
FORMULA FOR CALCULATION OF VARIABLES

Horizontal Single Stage Centrifugal Pump
The overall efficiency of the pump is defined as the ratio of power output of the pump to the
power input to the pump.
Overall Efficiency
overall = POWER fluid x 100%

POWER electrical
Weight of water lifted H
1000
=
Shaft power of the pump
100%
Power (electrical), Pfluid = in kW

Power (fluid), Pfluid = gQHmwater
Gravitational Acceleration (g), g = 9.81 m/s2
Volumetric flow rate (m3/s) Q = (Flow in LPM)
60 000
Manometric head (Hm) Hm = Hdischarge(Total head at output) - Hsuction(Total head at input)
Water Density (kg/m3) water = 1000 kg/m3 (At normal pressure & temperature)
Po V02
Pi V12
Hm =
+
+ Z 0
+
+ Z 1
g 2 g
g 2 g
20
3.0
Laboratory Module
EQUIPMENTS
2, V5
1
4, PI3
7
4, PI4
4, PI2
5, PT3
5, PT4
11
10
4, PI1
5, PT2
6, P2
12
6, P1
5, PT1
Figure 6. Part Identification Diagram for the flow meter

A.
1
2
3
4
5
6
B.
1.
2.
Part Identifications List

Collection tank
7
Pressure indicator (%)
Control valves, V1, V2, V3, V4, V5, V6
8
Motor speed (RPM)
Turbine flow meter, FT1
9
Pressure selector
Pressure indicator, PI1, PI2, PI3, PI4
10 Motor power (W)
Pressure transmitter, PT1, PT2, PT3, PT4 11 Water flow (LPM)
Pump, P1, P2
12 Speed controller
Specifications
Pumps: 2 units of Horizontal Single Stage Centrifugal Pump (P1), and (P2)
Pressure Transmitter: (PT1, 0 1.6 Bar (Abs)), (PT2, 0 6 Bar (Abs)), (PT3, 0 6 Bar
(Abs)), (PT4, 0 6Bar (Abs))
3. Circulation Tank, Transparent PVC
4. Digital indicator: 4 digital indicator for displaying of flow rate, Pump head, Power and Speed
5. Electrical: 415 VAC, 3-phase, 50Hz
21
4.0
Laboratory Module

4.1
Fill the circulation tank with water such that output pipe is submerged in water.
4.2
Ensure V5 is fully closed and speed controller in maximum position.
4.3
Switch on the main power supply.
4.4
Turn on the main switch on the control panel. Ensure all digital indicators illuminate.
4.5
Turn on the computer and activate the data acquisition software.
4.6
Check for following valve position.

Pump Operation
Running Pump
Open Valve
Single
Pump 1, P1
1,4
Close
Valve
2,3
Serial
Parallel
Both Pump, P1 & P2

Both Pump, P1 & P2
1,3
1,2,4
2,4
3
4.7
Turn on pump and slowly open V5 until maximum flow rate is achieved. Follow the
experimental procedure to determine the desired flow rate.
4.8
Use the Pump Speed Selector switch to monitor the pump speed.
4.9
Use the Pressure Selector switch to monitor the pressure in the pipe.
4.10
Turn the Pump Speed controller clockwise to increase pump speed or anti-clockwise
to decrease the pump speed.
Important
Never operate the pumps when there is no liquid in the pipeline. It will cause serious damage
to the pumps.
Do not operate pump above and below its limit operation flow rate as given below:
ORIENTATION
Single
Series
Parallel
MINIMUM
FLOWRATE (LPM)
20
20
40
22
MAXIMUM
FLOWRATE (LPM)
90
90
180
Laboratory Module
General Shut-down Procedures

4.11
Turn off the pump.
4.12
Make sure valve V5 is in fully closed position.
4.13
Turn off the main switch on the control panel.
4.14
Shut down the computer.
4.15
Switch off the main power supply.
Single pump operation with variable flow rate

4.16
Follow the basic procedure given from 4.1 to 4.10.
4.17
Ensure that all setting follows the equipment set up.

Equipment Set Up:
Fully close valve
Fully open valve
Variable parameter
Pump ON
2&3
1&4
Valve 5
Pump 1
4.18
Slowly open valve V5 until the flow rate reaches 20 LPM.
4.19
Observe the pressure reading on the pressure indicator. Record flow rate and
pressure value when stable condition is achieved.
4.20
Repeat observation by increasing the flow rate with increment by 10 LPM until the flow
rate reaches 90 LPM.
Series pump operation with variable flow rate

4.21
Follow the above procedure (4.16 - 4.20) except for the experimental setup given
below.
Equipment Set Up:
Fully close valve
Fully open valve
Variable parameter
Pump ON
2,4
1,3
Valve 5
Both Pump
Parallel pump operation with variable flow rate

4.22
Follow the above procedure (4.16 - 4.20) except for the experimental setup given and
slowly open valve V5 until the flow rate reaches 40 LPM. Repeat observation by
increasing the flow rate with increment by 20 LPM until the flow rate reaches 180
LPM.)
Equipment Set Up:
Fully close valve
3
Fully open valve

1, 2 & 4
23
Variable parameter
Valve 5
Pump ON
Both Pump
Laboratory Module
6.0 RESULTS
Data: Table 1, 2 and 3
Table 1: Single pump operation with variable flow rate
FT1 (LPM)
SPEED (RPM)
PT1 (%)
PT2 (%)
20
30
40
50
60
70
80
90
Draw the performance curve with flow rate (X-axis) and Pressure (Y-axis)
24
POWER
(WATT)
PT2 - PT1
(Bar(abs))
Laboratory Module
Table 2: Series pump operation with variable flow rate

FT1
(LPM)
SPEED1
(RPM)
SPEED2
(RPM)
PT1
(%)
PT3
(%)
20
30
40
50
60
70
80
90
25
PT4
(%)
POWER
(WATT)
(PT4-PT1)
(Bar(abs))
Laboratory Module
Table 3: Parallel pump operation with variable flow rate

FT1
(LPM)
SPEED1
(RPM)
SPEED2
(RPM)
PT1
(%)
PT2
(%)
20
30
40
50
60
70
80
90
Draw all the curves in a single graph sheet to compare the performance curves.
26
PT4
(%)
POWER
(WATT)
(PT2-PT1)
Bar(abs))
6.0
Laboratory Module
DISCUSSION
(Include a discussion on the result noting trends in measured data, and comparing measurements
with theoretical predictions when possible. Include the physical interpretation of the results, the
reasons on deviations for your findings from expected results, your recommendations on further
experimentation for verifying your results, and your findings.)
7.0
CONCLUSION
8.0
QUESTIONS
8.1
What are the main parts of a centrifugal pump? Give two benefits of using
centrifugal pumps.
8.2
Define pressure and give any five units of pressure.
8.3
What do you understand by the term pump head?
8.4
Calculate the overall efficiency of the centrifugal pump (o) using the
equations given above. Data: Q = 300 LPM, Hm = 5 m and power = 0.415
kW.
27
Laboratory Module
EXPERIMENT 4
BERNOULLIS THEOREM DEMONSTRATION
1.0
2.0
OBJECTIVES
1.1
To determine the discharge coefficient of the venturi meter.
1.2
To measure flow rate with venturi meter.
1.3
To demonstrate Bernoullis Theorem.
INTRODUCTION
Bernoullis Law
Bernoullis Law states that if a non-viscous fluid is flowing along a pipe of varying cross
section, then the pressure is lower at the constrictions where the velocity is higher, and the
pressure is higher where the pipe opens out and the fluid stagnates. This is expressed with
the following equation.
p V2
+
+ z = h = constant
g 2g
(1)
where,
P Fluid static pressure at the cross section,
Density of the moving fluid,
g Acceleration due to gravity,
V Mean velocity of fluid flow at the cross section,
z Elevation head of the centre at the cross section with respect to the datum,
h* - Total (stagnation) head.
p
= Pressure Head
g
V2
= velocity head, hv
2g
where,
z = Elevation head
h* = Total head (sum of all the terms)
z = 0 (since the centre line of the cross section lie on the same horizontal plane).
Therefore equation 1 becomes,
p V2
+
= h * = constant
g 2g
(2)
This represents the total head at the cross section.
28
Laboratory Module
Derivation of Bernoullis equation using streamline coordinates

Eulers equation for steady flow along a streamline is given by,
1p
v
z
g
=V
s
s
s
(3)
If a fluid particle moves a distance ds along a streamline,
p
ds = dP (change in pressure)
s
z
ds = dz (change in elevation)
s
v
ds = dv (change in velocity)
s
After multiplying equation (3) by s , we get
+ gz + Vv = 0
(4)
Integrating equation (4)
+ gz + Vv =
p
+ gz +
constant
V2
= constant
2
(5)
For the case where flow is incompressible, is constant and equation (5) becomes,
p V2
+
+ z = constant
g 2g
(6)
Equation (6) is the Bernoullis equation.

Following are the assumptions made in the derivation of Bernoullis equation.
(a)
(b)
(c)
(d)
The flow is steady

The flow is incompressible
The fluid is ideal, i.e. viscosity is zero
The flow is irrotational, i.e. flow along a streamline.
29
Laboratory Module
Measurement of static, stagnation and dynamic pressures

There is no pressure variation normal to straight streamlines. This fact makes it possible to
measure the static pressure in a flowing fluid using a wall pressure tapping placed in a
region where the flow streamlines are straight as shown in Figure 1. The pressure tap is a
small hole, drilled carefully in the wall, with its axis perpendicular to the surface. If the hole
is perpendicular to the duct and free from burrs, accurate measurements of static pressure
can be made by connecting the tap to a suitable measuring instrument.
Flow
streamlines
Pressure tap
Figure 1: Wall pressure tapping for measuring static pressure
In a fluid stream far from a wall, or where streamlines are curved, accurate static pressure
measurements can be made by careful use of a static pressure probe as shown in Figure
2. Such probes are designed so that the measuring holes are placed correctly with respect
to the probe tip and stem to avoid erroneous results. Measuring section must be aligned
with the local flow direction.
Small holes
Fluid flow
Stem
To manometer or pressure
gauge
Figure 2: Measurement of static pressure using probes
Stagnation pressure is obtained when a flowing fluid is decelerated to zero speed by a
frictionless process. In incompressible flow, Bernoullis equation can be used to relate
changes in speed and pressure along a streamline for such a process. Neglecting
elevation differences, equation (5) becomes:
V2
= constant
2
(7)
30
Laboratory Module
If the static pressure (p) at a point in the flow where the speed is V, then the stagnation
pressure (p0), where the stagnation speed, V0 is zero, may be computed from the following
equation.
0
p0
V02
p V2
= +
2
2
Therefore,
p0 = p +
1
V 2
2
(8)
Equation (8) is a mathematical statement of stagnation pressure, valid for incompressible

flow. The term V generally is the dynamic pressure. Solving the dynamic pressure
gives:
V=
2( p0 p)
(9)
Thus, if the stagnation pressure and the static pressure could be measured at a point,
Equation (9) would give the local flow speed.
Stagnation pressure is measured in the laboratory using a probe with a hole that faces
directly upstream as shown in Figure 3. Such a probe is called a stagnation pressure probe
(hypodermic probe) or Pitot tube. The measuring section must be aligned with the local
flow direction.
Fluid flow
Small hole
Stem
To manometer or pressure
gauge
Figure 3: Measurement of stagnation pressure using probe
Two possible experimental setups are shown below. In Figure 4 the static pressure
corresponding to point A is read from the wall static pressure tap. The stagnation pressure
is measured directly at A by the total head tube, as shown. (The stem of the total head
tube is placed downstream from the measurement location to minimize disturbance of the
local flow)
31
Flow
Laboratory Module
Total head tube
p0
Figure 4: Measurement of static and stagnation pressures

Two probes often are combined, as in the Pitot-static tube shown in Figure 5. The inner
tube is used to measure the stagnation pressure at point B, while the static pressure at C
is sensed using the tapping on the wall. In flow fields where the static pressure variation in
the streamwise direction is small, the Pitot-static tube may be used to infer the speed at
point B in the flow by assuming pB = pC and using Equation (9). (Note that when pB pC,
this procedure will give erroneous results)
Small holes
flow
B
C
Stem
p
p0
Figure 5: Simultaneous measurement of static and stagnation pressures
Bernoulli equation applies only for incompressible flow (Mach number, Ma 0.3).
Note:
Ma =
u
c-u
(10)
where,
u = fluid velocity and c = sonic velocity
Pressure Varies Along the Pipe
A number of factors can cause for pressure to vary along the pipe such as:
a)
b)
c)
d)
e)
Friction from the pipes inner surface,

The diameter of the pipe; if it is small the pressure is lower because the velocity is
increased (Bernoullis Theory),
Density of the fluid in the pipe,
The height of the pipe at which the pipe stands or the height at which the flow
through i.e. gravity,
Turbulence of the fluid
32
Laboratory Module
Venturi Meter
The venturi meter consists of a venturi tube and differential pressure gauge. The venturi
tube has a converging portion, a throat and a diverging portion as shown in the Figure 6.
The function of the converging portion is to increase the velocity of the fluid and lower its
static pressure. A pressure difference between inlet and throat is thus developed; the
pressure difference is correlated with the rate of discharge. The diverging cone serves to
change the area of the stream back to the entrance area and convert velocity head into
pressure head.
Throat
Inlet
Discharge
Figure 6: The Venturi Tube

Assuming incompressible flow and no frictional losses, from Bernoullis Equation
2
p1
v
p
v
+ 1 + Z1 = 2 + 2 + Z 2
2g
2g
(11)
Using continuity Equation Q = A1V1 = A2V2, equation (11) becomes
p1 p 2
+ Z1 Z 2 =
2
V2 A2
1
2 g A1
(12)
Ideally,
A 2
Qi = A2V2 = A2 1 2
A1
1 / 2
p1 p2
+ Z1 Z 2
2 g
1/ 2
(13)
However, in the case of real fluid flow, the flow rate will be expected to be less than that
given by equation (13) because of frictional effects and consequent head loss between
inlet and throat. Therefore,
A
Qa = C d A2 1 2
A1
1 / 2
p1 p 2
+ Z 1 Z 2
2 g
33
1/ 2
(14)
Laboratory Module
Non-ideality of flow rate is accounted by insertion of an experimentally determined

discharge coefficient, Cd that is termed as the coefficient of discharge. With Z1 = Z2 in this
apparatus, the discharge coefficient is determined as follow:
Cd =
Qa
Qi
(15)
Discharge coefficient, Cd usually lies in the range between 0.9 and 0.99.
3.0
EQUIPMENTS
8
3
2
4
7
9
Figure 7: Unit Assembly of Bernoullis Theorem Demonstration

1 Manometer Tubes
2 Test section
3 Water inlet
4 Unions
5 Air bleed screw
6 Flow control valve
7
8
9
34
Gland nut
Hypodermic probe
Adjustable feet
4.0
Laboratory Module
General Start-up Procedures

4.1
Ensure that the clear acrylic test section is installed with the converging section
upstream. Check that the unions are tighten (hand tight only). If necessary to
dismantle the test section then the total pressure probe must be withdrawn fully
(but not pulled out of its guide in the downstream coupling) before releasing the
couplings.
4.2
Locate the apparatus on the flat top of the bench.
4.3
Attach a spirit level to baseboard and level the unit on top of the bench by adjusting
the feet.
4.4
Fill water into the volumetric tank of the hydraulic bench until approximately 90%
full.
4.5
Connect the flexible inlet tube using the quick release coupling in the bed of the
channel.
4.6
Connect a flexible hose to the outlet and make sure that it is directed into the
channel.
4.7
Partially open the outlet flow control valve at the Bernoullis Theorem
Demonstration unit.
4.8
Fully close the bench flow control valve, V1 then switch on the pump.
4.9
Gradually open V1 and allow the piping to fill with water until all air has been
expelled from the system.
4.10
Check for Trapped Bubbles in the glass tube or plastic transfer tube. Remove
them from the system for better accuracy.
Note:
To remove air bubbles, you will have to bleed the air out as follows:
a)
Use a pen or screw driver to press the air bleed valve at the top right side of
manometer board.
b)
Press air bleed valve lightly to allow fluid and trapped air to escape out. (Take care
or you will wet yourself or the premise).
c)
Allow sufficient time for bleeding until all bubbles escape.
4.11
At this point, you will see water flowing into the venturi and discharge into the
collection tank of hydraulic bench.
4.12
Increase the water flow rate. When the flow in the pipe is steady and there is no
trapped bubble, start to close the discharge valve to reduce the flow to the
maximum measurable flow rate.
4.13
You will see that water level in the manometer tubes will begin to display different
level of water heights. If the water level in the manometer board is too low where it
is out of visible point, open V1 to increase the static pressure. If the water level is
too high, open the outlet control valve to lower the static pressure.
(Note: The water level can be adjusted facilitate by the air bleed valve.)
35
Laboratory Module
4.14
Adjust V1 and outlet control valve to obtain a flow through the test section and
observe that the static pressure profile along the converging and diverging sections
is indicated on its respective manometers. The total head pressure along the
venture tube can be measured by traversing the hypodermic tube.
(Note: The manometer tube connected to the tapping adjacent to the outlet flow
control valve is used as a datum when setting up equivalent conditions for flow
through test section.)
4.15
The actual flow of water can be measured using the volumetric tank with a stop
watch.
Discharge Coefficient Determination

4.16
Perform the General Start-up Procedures (4.1 - 4.15)
4.17
Withdraw the hypodermic tube from the test section.
4.18
Adjust the discharge valve to the maximum measurable flow rate of the venturi.
This is achieved when manometer tube 1 and 3 give the maximum observable
water head difference.
(Note: Refer to the venturi specification for the designed flow rate.)
4.19
After the level stabilizes, measure the water flow rate using volumetric method and
record the manometers reading.
4.20
Repeat step 4.19 with at least three decreasing flow rates by regulating the venturi
discharge valve.
4.21
Obtain the actual flow rate, Qa from the volumetric flow measurement method.
4.22
Calculate the ideal flow rate, Qi from the head difference between h1 and h3 using
Equation (13).
4.23
Plot Qa Vs Qi and obtain the discharge coefficient, Cd which is the slope.
36
Laboratory Module
Flow Rate Measurement with Venturi Meter

4.24
Adjust the discharge valve to a high measurable flow rate.
4.25
After the level stabilizes, measure the water flow rate using volumetric method and
record the manometers reading.
4.26
Repeat step 4.25 with three other decreasing flow rates by regulating the venturi
discharge valve.
4.27
Calculate the venturi meter flow rate of each data by applying the discharge coefficient
obtained.
4.28
Compare the volumetric flow rate with venturi meter flow rate.
Bernoullis Theorem Demonstration

4.29
Adjust the discharge valve to a high measurable flow rate.
4.30
After the level stabilizes, measure the water flow rate using volumetric method.
4.31
Gently slide the hypodermic tube (total head measuring) connected to manometer #G,
so that its end reaches the cross section of the Venturi tube (Figure 7) at #A. Wait for
some time and note down the readings from manometer #G and #A. The reading
shown by manometer #G is the sum of the static head and velocity heads, i.e. the total
(or stagnation) head (h*), because the hypodermic tube is held against the flow of fluid
forcing it to a stop (zero velocity). The reading in manometer #A measures just the
pressure head (hi) because it is connected to the Venturi tube pressure tap, which
does not obstruct the flow, thus measuring the flow static pressure.
4.32
Repeat step 5 for other cross sections (#B, #C, #D, #E and #F).
4.33
Repeat step 3 to 6 with three other decreasing flow rates by regulating the venturi
discharge valve.
4.34
Calculate the velocity, ViB using the Bernoullis equation where;
4.35
Calculate the velocity, ViC using the continuity equation where ViC = Qav / Ai
4.36
Determined the difference between two calculated velocities.
37
ViB = 2 g (h 8 h i )
Laboratory Module
Figure 8: Venturi Meter Drawing
38
5.0
Laboratory Module
RESULTS
Data: Table 1, 2, 3
Table 1: Discharge Coefficient, Cd Determination
Water Head (mm)
Qa
(LPM)
A
Qi = A2V2 = A2 1 2
A1
A
Qi = A2 1 2
A1
Throat dia, D3 (mm)
Inlet dia, D1 (mm)
Throat area, A2 (m2)
Inlet area, A1 (m2)
g (m/s2)
(kg/m3)
1 m3/s
=
=
=
=
=
=
=
1 / 2
p1 p 2
+ Z 1 Z 2
2 g
hA-hC
Qi
(m)
(LPM)
1/ 2
1 / 2
[2 g (hA hc )]1 / 2
m3/s
16
26
2.01 x 10-4
5.31 x 10-4
9.81
1000
60000 LPM
Draw graph with Qi (X-axis) and Qa (Y-axis) and determine the slope, which is Cd
39
Laboratory Module
Table 2: Flow Rate Measurement with Venturi meter
Water Head (mm)
Qa
(LPM)
A 2
Qac = C d A2 1 2
A1
hA-hC
E
(m)
Calc.
Qac
(LPM)
Error (%)
(Qac-Qa)/Qac
1 / 2
[2 g (hA hC )]1 / 2
m3/s
Table 3: Comparison of velocity profiles using Bernoulli & Continuity equation

Cross
Section
i
Using Bernoulli equation

h*=hG
(mm)
hi
(mm)
ViB =
[2*g*(h* - hi )]
(m/s)
A
B
C
D
E
F
Volume
20
Average Time
Min
Flow rate (Qav)
LPM
40
Using Continuity
equation
Ai =
ViC =
Di2 / 4
Qav / Ai
(m2)
(m/s)
Difference
ViB-ViC
(m/s)
Cross
Section
Laboratory Module
Using Bernoulli equation

H*=hG
(mm)
hi
(mm)
ViB =
[2*g*(h* - hi )]
(m/s)
Using Continuity
equation
Ai =
ViC =
Di2 / 4
Qav / Ai
(m2)
(m/s)
Difference
ViB-ViC
(m/s)
A
B
C
D
E
F
Volume
15
Average Time
Min
Flow rate (Qav)
LPM
6.0
DISCUSSION
(Include a discussion on the resulst noting trends in measured data, and comparing measurements with
theoretical predictions when possible. Include the physical interpretation of the result, the reasons for
7.0
CONCLUSION
8.0
QUESTIONS
8.1
Define compressible and incompressible flow and give an example for each
type of flow.
8.2
List the measuring devices that use Bernoullis equation.
8.3
What are the main assumptions made in the derivation of Bernoullis equation?
8.4
Water is flowing through a pipe of 5 cm diameter under a pressure of 29.43 x

104 N/m2 and with mean velocity of 2 m/s. Find the pressure head, velocity
head and the total head of the water at a cross-section, which is 5 m above the
datum line.
Data: = 1000 kg/m3, g = 9.81 m/s2
41
Laboratory Module
EXPERIMENT 5
FLOW OVER WEIRS
1.0
2.0
OBJECTIVES
1.1
To demonstrate the flow characteristics over a rectangular notch and a (V)

notch.
1.2
To determine the discharge coefficients.
INTRODUCTION
Flow over Weirs

Investigations of weir flows aim at studying the relation between the discharge coefficient and
the parameters influencing the flow.
Weirs are hydraulic structures consisting of an obstruction placed across a water channel with
a specially shaped opening or notch. The weir structure will increase the water level, which
will be measured. Two types of weirs are widely used: Rectangular shape opening and (V)
notch.
Stilling baffle is used to ensure minimum turbulence. The stilling baffle will act as a reservoir to
collect water volume and slowly disperse the water from the opening at the bottom of the
stilling baffle.
Discharge over a rectangular notch or weir
The rectangular weir is able to measure higher flows than the v-notch weir and over a wider
operating range.
Consider rectangular notch or weir provided in a channel carrying water as shown in Figure 1.
Figure 1: Rectangular weir

where,
H = head of water over the crest
L = length of the notch or weir.
42
Laboratory Module
For finding the discharge of water flowing over the weir or notch, consider an elementary
horizontal strip of water of thickness dh and length L at a depth h form the free surface of
water as shown in Figure 2.
dh
L
Figure 2: Section at crest
Area of the strip = L x dh

Using Bernoullis equation,
V22
V2
+H h 1 +H
2g
2g
or V2 ( h)
2 gh + V12
Upstream velocity is considered negligible. Therefore V1 reduces to zero.

Theoretical velocity of water flowing through strip =
2 gh
The discharge dQ, through strip,

dQ = Cd x Area of strip x Theoretical velocity
= Cd x L x dh x
2 gh
Where, Cd is the Co-efficient of discharge. The total discharge, Q for the whole notch or weir is
determined by integrating the above equation between the limits 0 and H.
H
= C d L 2 g h1 / 2 dh
0
2
= Cd L 2g H 3 / 2
3
Dimensions of the rectangular weir used are given in Figure 3.
B, 30mm
89mm
Figure 3: Dimensions of the rectangular weir used in the experiment

3
Q = Cd
2
B 2g H 2
3
Where,
Cd = Coefficient of discharge, B = Width of notch, H = Head above bottom of notch, Q = Flow
rate. Q H relationship be describe by an empirical formula Q = kHn. Theoretical values of n =
1.5, Cd = 0.62
43
Laboratory Module
Discharge over a triangular notch or weir

The V-notch weir is a notch with a V opening. V notch weir typically used to measure low
flows within a narrow operating range. Theoretical values of n = 2.5, Cd = 0.58-61.
The expression for the discharge over a triangular notch or weir is given below.
H = Head of water above the V-notch
= Angle of notch
Consider a horizontal strip of water of thickness dh at a depth of h from the free surface of
water as shown in Figure 4.
h
A
dh
H
Figure 4: The triangular notch
tan
AC
AC
=
OC (H h )
AC = (H h ) tan
Width of the strip = AB = 2AC = 2(H h ) tan

Area of the strip = 2(H h ) tan
x dh
Theoretical velocity of water flowing through strip =

Therefore discharge, dQ through the strip is,
dQ
= Cd x Area of strip x Theoretical velocity

=
Cd x 2(H h ) tan
x dh x
2 gh
Total discharge,
Q =
2C d tan
2 g (H h )h1 / 2 dh
0
8
C d tan 2 g H 5 / 2
Q =
15
2
44
2 gh
Laboratory Module
90
50mm
8
Q = Cd
2 g tan H 2
15
2
5
where,
Cd = Coefficient of discharge,
= Half the enclosed angle the V,
H = Head above bottom of notch
3.0
EQUIPMENTS
2
1
5
3
4
8
Figure 5: Unit Assembly of Flow Over Weirs Demonstration

1 Stilling Baffle
2 Vernier
3 Hook
4 Weir plate (V or rectangular)
5 Hydraulic Bench
6 Flow control valve
7
8
45
Water channel
Sump tank
4.0
Laboratory Module
Basic weirs experiment procedures

4.1
Level the weir apparatus on the hydraulic bench and install the rectangular notch weir.
4.2
Slowly open the hydraulic bench flow control valve to admit water to the channel until
the water discharges over the weir plate. Ensure that the water level is even with the
crest of the weir.
Close flow control valve and allow water level to stabilize.
4.3
4.4
Set the Vernier Gauge to a datum reading using the top of the hook. Position the
gauge about half way between the notch plate and stilling baffle.
4.5
Admit water to the channel. Adjust the water flow by using the hydraulic bench flow
control valve to obtain heads (H).
4.6
Wait for water flow condition to stabilize, take heads readings in every increasing of
about 1 cm.
4.7
Repeat step 4.4 and 4.5 for different flow rate.
4.8
Take readings of volume and time using the volumetric tank to determine flow rate.
4.9
After finishing with rectangular notch, replace it with V-notch.
4.10
Tabulates results (volumes, times and heads).
V-notch weirs experiment procedures

4.11
Slowly open the hydraulic bench flow control valve to admit water to the channel until
the water discharges over the weir plate.
4.12
Close flow control valve and allow water level to stabilize.
4.13
Set the Vernier Gauge to a datum reading using the top of the hook. Position the
gauge about half way between the notch plate and stilling baffle.
4.14
Admit water to the channel. Adjust the water flow by using the hydraulic bench flow
control valve to obtain heads (H).
4.15
Wait for water flow condition to stabilize, take heads readings in every increasing of
about 1 cm.
4.16
Repeat step 4.14 and 4.15 for different flow rate.
4.17
Take readings of volume and time using the volumetric tank to determine flow rate.
4.18
Tabulates results (volumes, times and heads).
46
5.0
Laboratory Module
RESULTS
Q (m3/s)
H (m)
Log H
H3/2
Log Q
Cd
Rectangular
Notch
Table 1: Discharge coefficient, Cd determination for a rectangular notch

Plot Log H (water height, m) - Log Q (Flow rate, m3/s) graph.
Determine the slope (n) and intercept (k) from the graph.
Determine the equation for each weir, by substituting in your slope, n, and your yintercept,
k, into the following equation:
Q = k Hn
k = Q/Hn
k = Cd
2
B 2g
3
Determine the Cd from the above equation.

Plot H3/2 or H5/2 (for V notch) - Q graph.
Determine the Cd from the slope. (Slope = Cd x k)
Similarly perform calculations to determine Cd for 90 notch.
Compare the theoretical values of Cd obtained from experiment and from the graph and give
reasons for the variations.
Q (m3/s)
H (m)
H5/2
Cd
Vee Notch
Table 2: Discharge coefficient, Cd determination for a Vee notch

47
6.0
Laboratory Module
DISCUSSION
7.0
CONCLUSION
8.0
QUESTIONS
8.1
Define notch, weir, nappe and crest.
8.2
Give any two advantages of triangular notch or weir over rectangular notch or
weir.
8.3
What does coefficient of discharge, Cd mean? Is it constant for this notch?
8.4
Find the discharge over a triangular notch of angle 60 when the head over the
V-notch is 0.3 m. Assume Cd = 0.6.
48
Laboratory Module
EXPERIMENT 6
IMPACT OF JET APPARATUS
1.0
2.0
OBJECTIVES
1.1
To investigate the reaction force produced by the impact of a jet of water on to

various target vanes.
1.2
To experimentally determine the force required to keep a target at a datum

level while it is subjected to the impact of a water jet.
1.3
To compare the experimentally measured force with the theoretically calculated

force.
INTRODUCTION
General Analysis
When a jet of water flowing with a steady velocity strikes a solid surface, it is deflected to flow
along the surface. Unlike the impact of solid bodies, there is no rebound and unless the flow is
highly turbulent, there will be no splashing. If friction is neglected by assuming an inviscid
fluid, and it is also assumed that there are no losses due to shocks, then the magnitude of the
water velocity is unchanged, the pressure exerted by the water on the solid surface will
everywhere be at right angles to the surface.
Newtons second law of motion states that a mass that is accelerated requires a force that is
equal to the product of the mass and acceleration. In fluid mechanics, whenever fluid are
forced to go through a restriction or change direction. The analogy to Newtons second law in
fluid mechanics is known as the momentum equation.
Figure 1: Impact of a Jet
49
Laboratory Module
Consider a jet of water which impacts on to a target surface causing the direction of the jet to
be changed through and angle as shown in Figure 1. In the absence of friction, the
magnitude of the velocity across the surface is equal to the incident velocity Vi. The impulse
force exerted on the target will be equal and opposite to the force which acts on the water to
impart the change in direction.
Applying Newtons Second law in the direction of the incident jet
Force =
=
- Fx
=
=
=
=
Mass x acceleration
mass flowrate x change in velocity
m V
m (Vx out V x in)
m (Vi cos Vi)
mVi ( 1 cos )
But,
m = Q
Therefore,
- F = Q Vi (1 cos )
Dividing through by QVi which is the incident momentum,
F
Q& Vi
(1 cos )
Application to Impact of Jet Apparatus

In each case it is assumed that there is no splashing or rebound of the water from the surface
so that the exit angle is parallel to the exit angle of the target.
a)
Effect of height
The jet velocity can be calculated from the measured flow rate and the nozzle exit area.
Vn =
Q&
A
However, as the nozzle is below the target, the impact velocity will be less than the nozzle
velocity due to interchanges between potential energy and kinetic energy.
Applying the Bernoulli equation between nozzle and plate:
Pn
P
Vn2
+ Z n = i
+
2g
Vi 2
+ Zi
+
2g
Since the jet is open to the atmosphere,
Pn
and
Pi

= 0
Zn Zi = h
50
Laboratory Module
Therefore,
Vi 2 = Vn2 2 gh
Where h is the height of target above the nozzle exit.
b)
Impact on Normal Plane Target
For the normal plane target is 90. Therefore cos = 0
F
Q& Vi
c)
= 1 cos
= 1
Impact on Conical and 30 Plate Target
The cone semi-angle is 120. Therefore cos = 0.5
F
Q& Vi
d)
= 1 cos
= 0.5
Impact on Semi-Spherical Target
The target exit angle is 180. Therefore cos = - 1
F
Q& Vi
= 1 cos
= 2
By using the above equation, we can compare the theoretical and experimental force value of
target with different angles.
Theoretically
F = mg
Experimentally,
F = Q& Vi (1 cos )
51
Laboratory Module
3.0 EQUIPMENTS
1
5
2
3
6
Figure 2: Impact of Jet Apparatus

A. Part Identification List
1 Weight carrier
2 Brass weight
3 Weight platform
4 Water supply connection
A) Flat target
B) Conical target
5
6
7
8
Pointer
Interchangeable target vane
Interchangeable nozzle
Drain holes in base
C) Semi-spherical target
Figure 3: Interchangeable Target Vane
52
D) 600 plate target
4.0
Laboratory Module

4.1
Locate the apparatus on top of the Hydraulic Bench with the left hand support feed of
the Impact of Jets Apparatus located on the two left hand locating pegs of the
Hydraulic Bench so that the apparatus straddles the weir channel.
4.2.
Attach a spirit level to baseboard and level the unit on top of the bench by adjusting
the feet.
4.3.
Connect the feed tube from the Hydraulic Bench to the base of the Impact of Jets
Apparatus by using a hose.
4.4.
Fill water into the volumetric tank of the hydraulic bench until approximately 90% full.
4.5.
Fully close the bench flow control valve, V1 then switch on the pump.
4.6.
Gradually open V1 and allow the piping to fill with water until all air has been expelled
from the system.
4.7.
The actual flow of water is measured using the volumetric tank with a stopwatch.
Determination of Reaction Force

4.8
Position the weight carrier on the weight platform.
4.9
Adjust the spring tension adjuster to a distance of 20 mm between the nozzle and the
target by first pressing the spring until it touches the nozzle. Then, move the pointer so
that it is aligned to the weight platform.
4.10
Release the spring and adjust the distance between the weight platform and the
pointer to 20 mm, then record this value as h. Move the pointer so that it is aligned to
the weight platform that is floating in mid position.
4.11
Start the pump and establish the water flow by steadily opening the bench regulating
valve until it is fully open.
4.12
The vane will now be deflected by the impact of the jet. Add weights onto the weight
carrier until the weight platform is again floating in mid position.
4.13
Measure the flow rate and record the result on the test sheet, together with the
corresponding value of weight on the tray. Observe the form of the deflected jet and
note its shape.
4.14
Reduce the weight on the weight carrier in steps and maintain balance of weight
platform by regulating the flow rate in about eight or ten even steps, each time
recording the value of flow rate and weight on the weight carrier.
4.15
Close the control valve and switch off the pump.
4.16
Repeat the experiment with different target vanes and nozzles.
53
Laboratory Module
5.0
RESULTS
5.1
Record the results for different target vanes and nozzles.
5.2
Calculate the flow rate and the nozzle exit velocity. Correct the nozzle velocity for the
height of the target above the nozzle to obtain the impact velocity.
5.3
Calculate the experimental force and the theoretical force, then compare.
Nozzle Size: 5 mm (0.005 m)

Target: Semi-spherical
Nozzle Area: 1.963 x 10-5 m2
Weight
(g)
200
150
100
70
Volume
(L)
Exit Velocity,
Vn (m/s)
H (mm)
T1
Time (s)
T2
Impact
Velocity, Vi
(m/s)
T3
Experimental
Force (N)
Average
Time (s)
Theoretical
Force (N)
Flow Rate, Q
(m3/s)
Error (%)
Perform similar calculations for other target shapes and nozzle size 8 mm.
Note: Please show all your calculations in separate sheets.
6.0
DISCUSSION
(Include a discussion on the result noting trends in measure data, and comparing measurements with
verifying your results, and your findings)
7.0
CONCLUSION
54
8.0
Laboratory Module
QUESTIONS
8.1
Based on the experimental results, describe effect of the different nozzle sizes
and target vanes type.
8.2
Define force and give any three units of force.
8.3
From the experimental results, explain the factors that may give the difference
between experimental and theoretical result.
8.4
From the calculation for nozzle size of 8mm and conical target, plot a graph of
experimental versus theoretical force and calculate the slope.
8.5
Find the force exerted by a jet of water of diameter 75 mm on a stationary flat

plate, when the jet strikes the plate normally with a velocity of 20 m/s. (F =
AV2)
55

HYdraulics Lab

Uploaded by

Document Information

Copyright

Available Formats

Share this document

Share or Embed Document

Sharing Options

Did you find this document useful?

Is this content inappropriate?

Copyright:

Available Formats

HYdraulics Lab

Uploaded by

Copyright:

Available Formats

EAT 202/3 Fundamental of Fluid Flow

To determine the Reynolds Number (Re).

Pipe Flow Conditions

EAT 202/3 Fundamental of Fluid Flow

Figure 1: Unit Assembly of Osborne Reynolds Demonstration

Water outlet valve

EAT 202/3 Fundamental of Fluid Flow

Allow water to settle for a few minutes.

Determine the flow rate by using a volumetric result.

Determine the flow rate by using a volumetric result.

EAT 202/3 Fundamental of Fluid Flow

Lower Critical flow

Upper Critical flow

If Re < 2300 is laminar flow

EAT 202/3 Fundamental of Fluid Flow

(Based on data and discussion, make your overall conclusion)

What are laminar and turbulent flows?

What will be the kinematic viscosity of water at 100C?

How is mean velocity related to Reynolds Number?

EAT 202/3 Fundamental of Fluid Flow

Figure 1: The rotameter

EAT 202/3 Fundamental of Fluid Flow

Use of the continuity Equation Q = A1V1 = A2V2, equation (1) becomes

Coefficient of discharge (0.98)

Density of water (1000 kg/m3)

EAT 202/3 Fundamental of Fluid Flow

Figure 3: Orifice meter

Coefficient of discharge (0.63)

EAT 202/3 Fundamental of Fluid Flow

Figure 4: Piezometric head along a pipeline

EAT 202/3 Fundamental of Fluid Flow

Figure 5: 90o Elbow

Where, K = Coefficient of losses, v = velocity of flow and g = 9.81 m/s2

EAT 202/3 Fundamental of Fluid Flow

Figure 6: Part Identification Diagram for the flow meter

EAT 202/3 Fundamental of Fluid Flow

General Start-up Procedure

Note readings on manometers (A - H), rotameter and measured flow rate.

EAT 202/3 Fundamental of Fluid Flow

Note readings on manometers (I and J) and measured flow rate.

Complete the tables below.

EAT 202/3 Fundamental of Fluid Flow

Flow rate calculated using the

EAT 202/3 Fundamental of Fluid Flow

Show all your calculations in separate sheets.

(Based on data and discussion, make your overall conclusion)

What does Coefficient of discharge (Cd) mean?

What is vena contracta?

Give any two differences between Venturi and Orifice meter.

EAT 202/3 Fundamental of Fluid Flow

To demonstrate the basic operation and characteristic of centrifugal pumps.

Figure 1: Construction features of a centrifugal pump

EAT 202/3 Fundamental of Fluid Flow

Horizontal single stage centrifugal pump (P1)

Figure 2: The cutaway of a centrifugal pump

EAT 202/3 Fundamental of Fluid Flow

Pump Head versus Flowrate Curves for Centrifugal Pumps

EAT 202/3 Fundamental of Fluid Flow

Performance Characteristic Curves for Centrifugal Pumps.

Figure 4: Two centrifugal pumps connected in parallel.

EAT 202/3 Fundamental of Fluid Flow

Figure 5: Two centrifugal pumps connected in series

FORMULA FOR CALCULATION OF VARIABLES

overall = POWER fluid x 100%