PRACTICAL FIELD TRAINING & REPORT

SUBMISSION 4
SUBMITTED TO:
ENGR. ASAD ALI
SUBMITTED BY:
SAIF UR REHMAN
2012-bt-civil-39

WARNING OF LANDSLIDES
[Report]

MNS UET MULTAN

Introduction
Landslides are downslope movements of rock, debris or earth under the influence of gravity, which may
cover a wide range of spatial and temporal scales. Most landslides occur at steep slopes, but they can
also happen in low relief areas in connection with excavations by rivers or construction work. Land-slides
can be triggered by natural environmental changes or by human activities. Earthquakes, volcanic activity,
heavy rainfalls and changes of ground water level are typical natural triggering mechanisms for landslides,
which amplify the inherent weakness in rock or soil. Landslides may result in severe human casualties,
property losses and environmental degradation.
Landslide hazard mitigation strategies comprise a range of activities including hazard mapping and asassessment, real time monitoring and warning systems for active landslides, protective engineering
measures, development of public awareness, and emergency planning. Mitigation measures benefit from
the under-standing of landslide processes and triggering mechanisms which build on the knowledge of
geophysical and geological properties of the mass wastes and on models of slope deformation and of
failure processes. In general, the information on landslide properties and the understanding of the
processes is still inadequate.

Techniques for Landslide:

Monitoring of deformation of structures and ground surface displacements during landslides can be
accomplished by using different types of systems and techniques. These techniques and instrumentation
can be classified as remote sensing or satellite tech-niques, photogrammetric techniques, geodetic or
observational techniques, and geotechnical or instrumentation physical techniques. The choice of instruments and methods of measurement or the creation of a dedicated monitoring system depends upon
the different types of deformation that will affect the method of stability analysis and consequently the
whole deformation monitoring campaign.
1. Remote sensing or satellite techniques with space-derived information have significant potential
for landslide hazard assessment and for improved understanding of landslide processes. Similar
sensors and methods are of importance for seismic hazards and management of earth-quake
disasters
2. Photogrammetric techniques can be an effective tool for monitoring actively moving landslides
and for analyzing the velocity or strain-rate fields. These techniques allow the determination of
ground displacements over long periods of time, by comparing the corresponding sets of ae-rial
photographs.
3. Ground-based geodetic techniques make use of many instruments and methods of measurement
for absolute displacement computations. They are usually employed according to an episodic
monitoring program. In some cases, the geodetic sensors are put on control points and perform
the measurements during each repetition. In other cases, a sensor can permanently be put on an
observation point and perform measurements to targets on control points according to a computer-controlled program.
4. Satellite-based geodetic techniques make use of satellite positioning systems, such as the Global
Positioning System, GPS. There are a number of methodologies applied that can guarantee high
accuracy, continuous and reliable results.
5. Geotechnical techniques make use of sensors permanently working on or in the structure or region under consideration. They can operate on a 24-hour base and measure the change of
geometrical and/or physical characteristics of the de-forming item (relative deformation). They
can also use a telemetric system for real-time trans-mission of measurement data to a control
center.

Remote Sensing or Satellite Techniques for Landslide Monitoring

Remote sensing in the form of the photographic, scanning and processing system is one of the most
appropriate means of recording existing ground con-ditions, of essaying their potential for engineering
projects and also of evaluating the effect or potential effects on the environment.
Satellite images in the optical region with high spatial resolution are used for producing landslide
inventory maps and for mapping factors related to the occurrence of landslides such as surface
morphology, structural and lithological properties, land cover, and temporal changes of these factors. The
satellite data are used complementary to aerial photography or as substitute if no recent air photos are
available. In ad-dition, for hazard zonation at regional and national scales, satellite imagery is a more
economic database. Another advantage of satellite-based remote sensing is the capability of repeat
observations, which results in more frequent update of information on landslide characteristics than the
conventional data sources.
At the small scale of satellite imagery, only ex-tremely large landslides can be identified directly. The value
of satellite imagery is that the landslide susceptibility of an area can be determined indirectly from some
of the features that are identifiable at those scales. Regional physiography, geologic structure, and most
landforms as well as land-used practices and distribution of vegetation are evident on the satellite
imagery. These features in conjunction with the tonal patterns present on the imagery provide clues to
the type of surface materials present, the surface moisture conditions, and the possible presence of buried
val-leys. Correlating these factors to geology and topography and using local experience in region make it
possible to rate the susceptibility of various areas to sliding.
The combination of aerial photography and infra-red imagery provides a more accurate and complete
portrayal of terrain conditions than that obtained from either system alone. Infrared imagery provides
types of information that is valuable for evaluating existing landslide and landslide - susceptible terrain,
like sur-face and near - surface moisture and drainage condi-tions, indication of the presence of massive
bedrock or bedrock at shallow depths, distinction between loose materials that are present on steep
slopes and are susceptible to landslides etc.
Another important application of Earth observation data is the generation of digital elevation models
(DEMs), which is basic information for the characterization of slopes and for numerical modeling of mass
waste processes. Data sources are optical stereo images with high spatial resolution and InSAR offers the
advantage of cloud penetration, which is an advantage for landslides occurring during adverse weather
or in connection with volcanic eruptions.
The use of laser scanning for large scale (i.e., greater than a few meters in range) ground-based
measurement operations is still at the research and development stage for terrestrial monitoring.

It should also be stressed that remote sensing is only an aid to engineering investigations, proving
information which is complementary to that obtained from other observation techniques, field
measurements, site visits and existing sources of data such as maps and projects reports.

Photogrammetric techniques for landslide monitoring:

Photogrammetric techniques have been extensively used in determining ground movements in ground
subsidence studies in mining areas, and terrestrial photogrammetry has been used in monitoring of
engineering structures. The main advantages of using photogrammetry is the reduced time of fieldwork;
simultaneous three-dimensional coordinates; and in principle an unlimited number of points can be
monitored. The accuracy of photogrammetric point position determination has been much improved in
last years, which makes it attractive for high accuracy deformation measurements.
Aerial photographs present an overall perspective of a large area and boundaries of existing slides can
readily be delineated on aerial photographs. Surface and near-surface drainage channels can be traced.
Important relations in drainage, topography and other natural and man-made elements that seldom are
co-related properly on the ground become obvious on photographs. Furthermore, soil and rock
formations can be seen and evaluated in their undisturbed state. Recent photographs can be compared
with old ones to examine the progressive development of slides and aerial photographs can be studied at
any time, in any place and person.
Terrestrial photogrammetry and ground-based photography is also being used for local-scale land-slide
monitoring. Sites that are too steep or too small to be confidently viewed from the air lend themselves to
study on the ground, albeit at a distance. Terrestrial photogrammetry can effectively be used at unsafe or
inaccessible sites, as road cuttings and landslides.
As with aerial photographs, the image can be measured photogrammetrically, to yield quantitative data,
or interpreted for geotechnical information, or both. The technique has advantages over conventional
surveying methods if site access or time available to complete the survey is limited, or when changes need
to be monitored over a long period of time. In terries-trial techniques photographs can be taken over a
period of time to record changes in the landscape in a more or less convenient way. This is not the case,
though, with aerial photographs where temporal coverage is difficult to be achieved in a cost-effective
way.

Ground-based geodetic techniques for landslide monitoring:

Conventional ground-based geodetic techniques have been used for deformation monitoring of
structures and landslides. Two basic methods for the design of a deformation survey can be used:
1. A horizontal or vertical control network is established in the area under investigation with control points
located in the deforming region.
2. Total station instruments are used to measure angles and distances to target-prisms located on the
moving mass.
In both cases the aim is the computation of target-point coordinates and/or heights for each
measurement epoch. From the comparison of these coordi-nates/heights, after all proper statistical and
reliability tests, the horizontal and/or vertical displacement vec-tors of each control point can be
determined.

Satellite-based geodetic techniques for landslide monitoring:

The Global Positioning System (GPS) can be used as an alternative surveying tool to assist in geotechnical
evaluations of steep slopes by providing 3D coordi-nate time series of displacements at discrete points on
the sliding surface (fig. 5). Current GPS positioning techniques for monitoring applications typically include the use of either episodic technique for small-scale projects or continuous monitoring for regional
scale projects. Each of these techniques has associated trade-offs between system installation and
maintenance costs, and the quality of the resulting coordinate time-series.
GPS positioning is based on measuring the transit time of radio signals emitted by orbiting satellites. For
a receiver to compute its stand-alone position, it must be in view of at least four satellites. Code Phase
Positioning is widely used in navigation and low accuracy tracking applications, and relies on the
measurement of the modulated GPS signal code phase, which ex-hibits a resolution of about 1m. The
measurement is affected by several perturbations, which bring the achievable accuracy to about 5-10m.
The accuracy of GPS relative positioning depends on the distribution (positional geometry) of the
observed satellites and on the quality of the observations.

Geotechnical techniques for landslide monitoring:

Geotechnical sensors are used extensively in the monitoring of structures. These sensors are often placed
within the structure and out of sight, however they are never out of mind. During construction of the
structure geotechnical sensors of the desired type are carefully chosen and placed at strategic locations
to ensure that adequate information is provided to verify design parameters, evaluate the performance
of new technologies used in construction, verify and control the construction process and for subsequent
deformation monitoring.
Geotechnical sensors provide measurements that are often essential in deformation monitoring. An adadditional sensor category that completes the portfolio of deformation monitoring sensors, that provide
their own analyzable measurements or measurements to calibrate additional sensors, is meteorological
sensors. The principal techniques/instrumentation will be briefly discussed below.

Conclusions:
Earth observation satellites and remote sensing are able to provide significant information for mapping
the extent and properties of landslides. Some of the techniques, for example the use of the new very highresolution optical satellite data for landslide inventory monitoring and hazard assessment, need to be
further developed. The powerful InSAR tools, which provide accurate topography and motion maps and
thus can make significant contributions to the assessment and mitigation of landslide hazards, are ready
for transfer to operations.

References:

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Bandelas, A. and Savvaidis P. (1990). Deformation Meas-urements of Technical Works and
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