Luminous Intensity

Amount of substance

Candela
Mol

Cd
mol

two supplementary units are also defined, viz., radian[rad] for plane angle
and steradian(sr) for solid angle.
Force

Dyne

Newton

Work

erg

Joule

Length
Light year= distance
traveled by light in
one year in vaccum .
1 Ly = 9.46*1015m
1 Parsec= 3.26ly
=2.06*1016m
1 Nautical mile or sea
mile
=
6020 ft.
1 micron = 1m =106
m.
1 Angestron (A0) =1015
m.

Mass
1 Quintol = 102kg
1 Metric ton =103kg
1
Atomic
mass
unit(amu) or
dalton
-27
=1.66*10 kg
1Slug =14.59 kg
1 Pound = 0.4537 kg
1
Chandrashekhar
limit = 1.4 times the
mass of the Sun
= 2.8*1030kg.

1
Newton=105dyn
e
1 Joule= 107erg
Time
1 Solar year = 86400
seconds.
1 year 365/2 solar
days.
1 Lunar month =27.3
solar days
Tropical year = It is
the year in which total
solar eclipse occurs.
Leap year = It is the
year in which the
month of February is
of 29 days.

Prefix Name

Symbol

yocto

Power-ofTen
10-24

zepto

10-21

atto
femto

a
f

10-18
10-15

pico
nano
micro
milli
centi
deci
[unity]
deka
hecto
kilo
mega
giga
tera
peta
exa
zetta
yotta

p
N

M
C
D
[none]
da
H
K
M
G
T
P
E
Z
Y

10-12
10-9
10-6
10-3
10-2
10-1
100
10+1
10+2
10+3
10+6
10+9
10+12
10+15
10+18
10+21
10+24

Mass, Speed, work, volume, time, power, energy etc. are scalars

Displacement, velocity, acceleration, force, momentum,impulse, torque etc.

vecotrs
Electric current though have direction, is a scalar quantity because it does
not obey the triangle law.
Moment of inertia, pressure, reflective index, and stress are tensor
quantities.
Displacement may be positive, negative or zero but distance is always
positive.
In general magnitude of displacement distance.

work done due to displacement caused by a force is a scalar quantity.

The dot product of vector quantities is always scalarwork done due to
displacement caused by a force is ascalar quantity. The dot product
of vector quantities is always scalar

Force and displacement are vector quantities (they have both magnitude
and direction) and the dot product of two vector quantites always gives
a scalar quantity.
Energy scalar

(i)
(ii)
(iii)

Potential Energy: The capacity of doing work developed in a body due to

its position or configuration is called its potential energy.
Example:
Energy of stretched or compressed spring
Energy of water collected at a height
Energy of spring in a watch.

Mechanical energy into electrical energy

Dynamo
Relation between Momentum and Kinetic Energy
K.E = P2/2m where p= momentum = mv
Ws. Wh, kwh are units of work and energy.
1 watt hour = 3600 Joule
1 kilowatt hour = 3.6 x 10^6 joule

(i)
(ii)
(iii)

1HP = 746 watt

Some examples of inertia:
When a car or a train starts suddenly, the passengers bends
backward.
When a running horse stops suddenly, the rider bends forward.
When a coat/ blanket beaten by a stick, the dust particles are removed

Principal of conservation of linear momentum: If no external force acts

on a system of bodies, the total linear momentum of the system of bodies
remains constant.
As a consequence, the total momentum of bodies after and before
collision remains the same.
Eg: rocket

(i)
(ii)
(iii)
(iv)

Newtons third law of motion: To every action, there is an opposite and

equal reaction.
Examples of third law:
Recoil of a gun
Motion of a rocket
Swimming
While drawing water from the well, if the string breaks up then man
drawing water falls back.

Newton's Law of Gravitation: The force of gravitational attraction

between two point of bodies is directly proportional to their mass and
inversely proportional to the squire of the distance between them
G is approximately equal to 6.6741011 N m2 kg2
Acceleration due to gravity is independent of shape, size and
mass of the body.
Escape velocity at the Moon's surface is 2.4 km/s.
low escape velocity there is no atmosphere on the moon
Value of g decreases with height or depth from Earth surface.
g is maximum at poles.
g is minimum at equator.
g decreases due to rotation of Earth
g decreases if angular speed of Earth increases . Angular speed is the
rate at which an object changes its angle (measured) in radians.

If the angular speed of the earth becomes 17 times its present value, the
body present on the equator weightless.
(i)
(ii)
(iii)
(iv)
(v)

Weight of a body in a lift:

If lift is stationary or moving with uniform speed (either upward or
downward), the apparent weight of body is equal to its true weight.
If lift is going upward then apparent weight of a body is more than the
true weight.
If lift is going downward then apparent weight of a body is less than
the true weight.
If the cord of the lift is broken, it falls freely. In this situation the weight
of a body in the lift becomes zero. This is the situation of weightlessness.
While going down, if the acceleration of the lift is more than the
acceleration due to gravity, a body in the lift goes in the contact of the
ceiling of lift.

(i)
(ii)

(iii)

Keplers Laws of planetary motion:

All planets move around the sun in elliptical orbits, with the sun being
at rest at one focus of the orbit.
The position vector of the planet with sun at the origin sweeps out
equal area in equal time i.e. the areal velocity of planet around the sun
always remains constant.
A consequence of this law is that the speed of planet increases when
the planet is closer to the sun and decreases when the planet is far away
from the sun. Speed of a planet is maximum when it is at perigee and
minimum when it is at apogee.
The square of the period of revolution of a planet around the sun is
directly proportional to the cube of mean distance of the planet from the
sun.
If T is period of revolution and r is the mean distance of planet from the
sun, then T2 r3.
Clearly distant planets have larger period of revolution. The time
period of nearest
planet Mercury is 88 days, where as time period of farthest planet
Pluto is 247.7 years.

Orbital speed of a satellite is independent of its mass. Hence satellites of different

masses revolving in the orbit of same radius have same orbital speed.
(ii)
Orbital speed of a satellite depends upon the radius of orbit (Height of
the orbit from the surface of the earth). Greater the radius of orbit lesser will
be the orbital speed.
The orbital speed of satellite revolving near the surface of earth is 7.9
km/sec.

period of revolution = circumference of orbit / orbital speed

Period of revolution of a satellite depends upon the height of satellite from the
surface of the earth. Greater the heights more will be the period of
revolution.
(ii)
Period of revolution of a satellite is independent of its mass.
The period of revolution of satellite near the surface of the earth is 1
hour 24 minute (84 minute).

Geo-Stationary Satellite: If a satellite revolves in a equatorial plane in the

direction of the earth rotation i.e. from west to east with a period of
revolution equal to time period of rotation of earth on its own axis i.e. 24
hours, then satellite will appear stationary relative to earth. Such a satellite
is called Geo-Stationary Satellite. Such a satellite revolves around the earth
at a height of 36000 km. The orbit of Geo-Stationary satellite is called
parking orbit. Arther C. Clarck was the first to predict that a communication
satellite can be stationed in the geosynchronous orbit.
Geo-stationary satellite is used to telecast. TV programmes
from one part of the world to another weather forecasting, in
predictions of floods and droughts.
Time period of rotation of geo-stationary satellite is 24 h.
Geo-stationary satellite revolves around the Earth at a height
36000 km (approx).
Polar Satellite Revolves around the earth in polar orbit at a height
of 800km (app.) Time periods of these satellites is 84 min.
a polar satellite is a satellite that travels around the earth passing over
both poles with every orbit. Polar orbits are often used for earth-mapping,
earth observation, capturing the earth
Escape Velocity: Escape velocity is that minimum velocity with which a
body should be projected from the surface of the earth so as it goes out of
the gravitational field of the earth and never returns to the earth.
Escape velocity is independent of mass, shape and size of the body and
its direction of projection.
Escape velocity is also called second cosmic velocity.
For earth escape velocity = 11.2 km/sec.
For moon escape velocity = 2.4 km/sec.
Orbital speed of satellite V0 = gR and escape velocity Ve= 2gR
Where R is the radius of earth i.e. Ve= 2 V0 i.e escape velocity is 2 times
the orbital velocity.
Therefore if orbital velocity of a satellite is increased 2 times (increased by
41%), then the satellite will leave the orbit and escape

The acceleration due to gravity at the moon is one-sixth that of

the Earth. So, the weight of a person on the surface of the moon
will be 1/6 of his actual weight on the Earth.
The Earth rotates on its axis from West to East. This rotation
makes the Sun and the stars appear to be moving across the sky
from East to West
The period of revolution of satellite revolving near the surface of
earth is 1 hour 24 minutes
Heat is that form of energy which flows from one body to other body due to
difference in temperature between the bodied. The amount of heat
contained in a body depends upon the mass of the body.
if 4.186 joule of work is performed, 1 calorie of heat is
consumed.
C.G.S Unit: Calorie = It is amount of heat required to raise temperature of
1 g of pure water through 1oC.
International Calorie: It is amount of heat required to raise temperature of
1 g of pure water from 14.5oC to 15.5oC.
FPS Unit: B.Th.U. ( British Thermal Unit) = It is amount of heat required to
raise the temperature of 1 pound of pure water through 1 oF.
1 B.Th.U. = 252 calorie
1 Therm = 105 B.Th.U.

1 calorie = 4.186 joule

1 pound calorie = 453.6 calorie

Freezing point of mercury is -39oC.

measure temperature below this temperature, alcohol thermometer is
used. F.P. of alcohol is -115oC.
Mercury Thermometer: from 30oC to 350oC
Pyrometer:
When a body is at high temperature, it glows brightly and the

radiation emitted by the body is directly proportional to the fourth power of

absolute temperature of the body. Radiation pyrometer measures the
temperature of a body by measuring the radiation emitted by the body.
This thermometer is not put in contact with the body. But it can not
measure temperature below 800C because at low temperature emission
of radiation is very small and can not be detected.
Specific heat capacity of a material is the amount of heat required to raise
the temperature of unit mass of substance through 1. Its SI unit is joule /
kilogram Kelvin (j/ kg. k)

One calorie of heat is required to raise the temperature of 1 gram of water

through 1 C. Hence specific heat capacity of water is 1 cal / gram C.
1 calorie / gram C = 4200 joule / kg Kelvin
Clouds floating due to low temparature
Cryogeniesstudy of low temp materialsspace applications
Thermal Expansion
When a body is heated its length, surface area and volume increase. The
increase in length, area and volume with the increase in temperature are
measured in terms of coefficient of linear expansion or linear expansivity
(), coefficient of superficial expansion or superficial expansivity () and
coefficient of cubical expansion or cubical expansivity ().
::=1:2:3
= 2 and = 3

Anomalous expansion of water : Almost every liquid expands with the

increase in temperature. But when temperature of water is increased from
0C to 4C, its volume decreases. If the temperature is' increased above
4C, its volume starts increasing. Clearly density of water is maximum at
4C
Earths atmosphere is heated by convection.
Satellitte is heated by radiation
Radiation : In this method transfer of heat takes place with the speed of
light without affecting the intervening medium due to Electromagnetic
waves
Nights are cooler in deserts than plains..because sand radiates more heat
Clear nights are cooler than cloudy because of radiation
Newton's law of cooling : The rate of loss of heat by a body is directly
proportional to the difference in temperature between the body and the
surrounding. Convenction
Newton's Law of Cooling. states that the hotter an object is, the faster it
cools.
Hollow sphere, cube, circular platesame material, heated upt o same
tempsphere cools fast..more surface area
Radiator convenction
Tempavg kinetic enegy of molecule.
Kirchhoffs law signifies that good absorbers are good emitter.
If a shining metal ball with some black spot on its on its surface is heated to
its high temperature and seen in dark, the shining ball becomes dull but the
black spots shines brilliantly because black spot absorbs radiation during
heating and emit in dark.

Fusion : The process by which a substance is changed from solid state to

liquid state is called fusion. Fusion takes place at a fixed temperature called
melting point (M.P.)
Freezing :The process by which a substance is changed from liquid
state to solid state is called freezing. Freezing takes at a fixed temperature
called freezing point (F.P.)
For a substance M.P = F.P.
M.P. of a substance changes with the change in pressure. Melting point of
substances which contracts in the process of fusion (as ice) decreases with
the increase in pressure. Melting point of substances which expands in the
process of fusion (as wax) increases with the increase in pressure.
With the addition of impurity (as salt in ice), melting point of substance
decreases.
Evaporation causes cooling. This is why water in a earth pot cooled in
summer.
Boiling point of a liquid increases with the increase in pressure.
Boiling point of a liquid increases with the addition of impurity.
The amount of heat required to change the state of unit mass of substance
at constant temperature is called latent heat.
Q = mL.
S.I. unit of latent heat is joule / kilogram
Sublimation : Sublimation is the process of conversion of a solid directly
into vapour.
Sublimation takes place when boiling point is less than melting point.
Sublimation is shown by camphor or ice in vacuum.
Hoar Frost : Hoar frost is just the reverse process of sublimation i.e. it the
process of direct conversion of vapour into solid.

 Steam produces more severe burn than water at same temperature

because internal energy of steam is more than that of water at same
temperature
Relative humidity is measured by Hygrometer.
Relative humiditymincreases with the increase of temperature.
Air conditioning : For healthy and favourable atmosphere of humanbeing, the conditions are as follows
(i) Temperature : From 23C to 25C.
(ii) Relative humidity : From 60% to 65%.
(iii) Speed of air : from 0.75 meter/minute to 2.5 meter/minute.
lf carbon dioxide is suddenly expanded, it is changed into dry ice. This is
an example of adiabatic process

Sound waves are longitudinal mechanical waves.

Transverse Wave: If the particle of the medium vibrates perpendicular to
the direction of propagation of wave, the wave is called transverse wave.
Waves on strings under tension, waves on the surface of water are
examples of transverse wave
Non-Mechanical wave or Electromagnetic wave: The waves which do
not require medium for propagation i.e. which can propagate even through
the vacuum are called non mechanical wave.
Light, heat are the examples of non-mechanical wave. In fact all the
electromagnetic waves are non-mechanical.
All the electromagnetic wave consists of photon.
The wavelength range of electromagnetic wave is 10 -14 to 104.

(i)

Properties of electromagnetic wave:

They are neutral.

(ii)
They propagate as transverse wave.
(iii)
They propagate with the velocity of light.
(iv)
They contain energy and momentum.
(v)
Their concept was introduced by Maxwell.
Following waves are not electromagnetic.
(i)
Cathode rays
(ii)
Canal rays
(iii)
rays
(iv)
rays
(v)
Sound wave
(vi)
Ultrasound wave

Some Important Electromagnetic Wave

Electromagnetic
Discovere Wavelength
Waves
r
(in meter)
-Rays
Henery
10-14 to 10-10
Becqueral
X- Rays
W.
10-10to 10-8
Rontgen
Ultra-Voilet rays
Ritter
10-8 to 10-7
Visible radiation
Newton
3.9 x 10-7to 7.8 x
10-7
Infra-red rays
Hershel
7.8 x 10-7 to 7.8 x
10-3
Short radio waves or Heinrich
10-3 to 1
Hertz
Hertzian
waves
Long Radio Waves
Marcony
1 to 104

Frequency
range
1020 to 1018
1018 to 1016
1016 to 1014
1014 to 1012
1012 to 1010
1010 to 108
108 to 106

Electromagnetic waves of wavelength range 10-3 m to 10-2 m are called

microwaves.
Wavelength: Wavelength is the distance between any two nearest particle
of the medium, vibrating in the same phase

In transverse wave distance between two consecutive crests or troughs

and in longitudinal wave, distance between two consecutive compressions
or rarefaction is equal to wavelength
Velocity of wave = frequency x wavelength or, v = n.

(i)
(ii)
(iii)
(iv)
(v)
(i)
(ii)
(iii)
(iv)
(v)

Characteristic of Simple Harmonic Motion

When a particle executing SHM passes through the mean position:
No force acts on the particle.
Acceleration of the particle is zero.
Velocity is maximum.
Kinetic energy is maximum.
Potential energy is zero.
When a particle executing SHM is at the extreme end, then:
Acceleration of the particle is maximum.
Restoring force acting on particle maximum.
Velocity of particle is zero.
Kinetic energy of particle is zero.
Potential energy is maximum.

Time period of oscillation of a simple pendulum is given as

T = 2l/g

(i)
(ii)
(iii)

Elastic constant is of three types:

Youngs modulus of elasticity Y = Longitudinal stress/ Longitudinal
strain
Bulk modulus of elasticity K = Volume stress/ Volume strain
Rigidity modulus () Tangential (or shear) stress/ shear strain

Viscosity is the property of liquid and gas both.

The viscosity of liquid is due to cohesive force between its molecules.
The viscosity of gas is due to diffusion of molecules from one layer to
other layer.

 Viscosity of gases is much less than that of liquid. There is no viscosity in

solids.
Viscosity of an ideal liquid is zero.
With rise in temperature, viscosity of liquid decreases and that for gases
increases.
Viscosity of fluid is measured by its coefficient of viscosity. Its SI unit is
decapoise ( kg/ms) or Pascal second. It is generally denoted by .

Terminal Velocity: When a body falls in a viscous medium, its velocity first
increases and finally becomes constant. This constant velocity is called
Terminal velocity.
In this situation, weight of body is equal to sum of viscous force and force
of buoyancy i.e. the net force on the body is zero.
Terminal velocity of a spherical body falling in a viscous medium is
proportional to the squire of radius of body.

The property of the surface of a liquid that allows it to resist an external

force, due to the cohesive nature of its molecules. The cohesive forces
between liquid molecules are responsible for the phenomenon known
as surface tension
Surface tension of liquid decreases with the increase of temperature and
becomes zero at critical temperature

Small insects such as the water strider can walk on water because their
weight is not enough to penetrate the surface. Floating a needle: A
carefully placed small needle can be made to float on the surface of water
even though it is several times as dense as water
1) Dew drops: Have you noticed the drops of water on the leaves in your
garden in the early morning

2) water dropletes , rain droplets are examples of suface tension.

3) Relative density = density of material / density of water at 4 o C
4) Since, relative density is a ratio so it is unit less.
5)
6) Relative density is measured by Hydrometer.
7) The density of sea water is more than that of normal water. This
explains why it is easier to swim in sea water.
8) When ice floats in water its 1/10 the part remains outside the
water.
9) If ice floating in water in a vessel melts; the level of water in water
does not change.
10)
Purity of milk is measured by lactometer.
mercury column of 76 cm length at 0o C at 45o latitude at sea-level
1 bar = 105 N/m2
Atmospheric pressure 1 atm = 1.01x105 N/m2 = 760 torr
Atmospheric pressure decreases with altitude (Height from earth
surface). This is why (i) it is difficult to cook on mountains (ii) The fountain
pen of a passenger leaks in aeroplane at height.
Atmospheric pressure is measured by barometer. With the help of
barometer, weather forecast can be made.
Sudden fall in barometer reading is indication of storm.
Slow fall in barometer reading is indication of rain.
Slow rise in barometer reading is the indication of clear weather.
Hydraulic lift, Hydraulic press, Hydraulic break works on Pascal law.
The melting point of a substance which expands on fusion increases with the
increases in pressure, for example Wax.
(ii)
The melting point of a substance which contracts on fusion decreases
with the increases in temperature, for example - ice.
(iii)
Boiling point of all substances increases with the increases in
pressure.