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I

ROBINSON'S CLASS BOOKS.

ROBINSON'S THEORETICAL AND PRACTICAL ARITHMETIC.
"
KEY TO ARITHMETIC.
"

ELEMENTARY TREATISE ON ALGEBRA.

ALGEBRA, UNIVERSITY EDITION.

"

KEY TO ALGEBRA.

"

GEOMETRY.

"

SURVEYING AND NAVIGATION.

"

ASTRONOMY, UNIVERSITY EDITION.

"

ASTRONOMY.

"

CONCISE MATHEMATICAL OPERATIONS.

"

NATURAL PHILOSOPHY.

ROBINSON'S CLASS BOOKS.

ROBINSON'S THEORETICAL

AND PRACTICAL ARITHMETIC,

In which, in addition to the usual modes of operation, the science of numbers,

the Prussian canceling system, and other important abbreviations hold a
prominent place.

KEY TO ROBINSON'S ARITHMETIC.

ROBINSON'S

ELEMENTARY TREATISE ON ALGEBRA,

For beginners.
a

In

this work,

some Tory common subjects are presented in

new light.
From the author's experience

aiid strict attention to the preparation of suitable text-books, the public ore assured that they will find this a very desirable
fur the jilace it is designed to fill.

work

ROBINSON'S ALGEBRA, UNIVERSITY EDITION,

Being a full course of the science in a clearer and more concise form than any
other work of the kind heretofore published. It contains all the modern improvements, and develops the true spirit of the science, and is highly appreciated by tin: most important institutions of learning ia the Eastern States, as
well as in the Vt'est.

KEY TO ROBINSON'S ALGEBRA,

For the UPC of teachers, and for those who study without a teacher, containing, also, the Indeterminate and Diophantine analysis in concise form.

ROBINSON'S GEOMETRY,
Containing Plane and Spherical Trigonometry, Conic Sections, and the necessary
Logarithmic tables, for practical use.
Tliis look is designed to Rive the student a knowledge of Geometry, at once
theoretical, practical and efficient. The clearest methods of demonstration are
employed according to the nature of the proposition, whether it IHJ strictly
G'oni<'trical or Algebraical, or partaking of the combined character and power
of both. In short, the jipecial attention of all interested in mathematical
science is called to this work.

ROBINSON'S SURVEYING AND NAVIGATION.

A Treatise on Surveying and Navigation, uniting the theoretical, the practical,
and the educational features of these subjects. This work, in comparison with
former works on the same, subject, is greatly modernize*! and simplified. It
contains also many collateral subjects. Its style and manner is such as to
force itself upon the mind of thu learner.

ROBINSON'S

ELEMENTARY ASTRONOMY.

An

abridged edition of the above. 22S pages, in which practical astronomy

not included, designed for a classbook in schools.

is

ROBINSON'S ASTRONOMY, UNIVERSITY EDITION.

In this work, facts are not only stated, hut the manner of arrivi'tc- at these
facts is fully developed.
The suljeet of solar eclipses, both general and local, is more simple and
comprehensively treated than in any former work; and simplicity, conciseness,
and mathematical philosophy, are its distinctive characteristics.
Immediately after its publication it was adopted in the Normal Schools of
Massachusetts, the Albany Academy, and
the East.

many

other leading institutions in

ROBINSON'S CONCISE MATHEMATICAL OPERATIONS,

much additional matter. A
essentially practical, designed to give the learner a proper appreciation
of the utility of mathematics; embracins the gpms of Science, from common
Arithmetic through Algebra, Geometry, the Calculus, and Astronomy.
Being a sequel to the Author's Class Books, with

work

ROBINSON'S NATURAL PHILOSOPHY,

is more real philosophy than can be found in the
same number of pager, in any other book. Every principle is brought to the
mind in a clear and practical point of view. This volume contains many philosophical problems to exercise the learner, and gives him a definite understanding of the principles of the steam engine, and is the only book which contains

223 pages, in which there

full representation of the

magnetic telegraph.

I,
'

ELEMENTS

GEOMETRY,
PLANE AND SPHERICAL TRIGONOMETBY,
AND

CONIC SECTIONS.
BT

H.

N'.

ROBINSON,

A. M.,

AUTHOR OF A TREATISE ON ARITHMETIC, AN ELEMENTARY AND A UNIVERSITT

EDITION OF ALGEBRA, A WORK ON NATURAL PHILOSOPHY, AND TWO SEPARATE
WORKS ON ASTRONOMY.

SIXTH STANDARD EDITION.

CINCINNATI:
JACOB ERNST,

112

MAIN STREET.

1864.

Entered according to act of Congress in the year 1850, by

H. N.

ROBINSON,

In the Clerk's Office of the District Court of the United States, for the
District of Ohio.

TOEOTTFKD BY

A. C.

JAUKS,

PREF AOE.

AN

made in this volume, to bring the science of geometry,

comprehension of the learner and to accomplish _this
necessary to sweep away some of the rubbish and some of the
is

attempt

directly to the

end,

it is

redundancies which have seemed only to obstruct our progress and

becloud our vision.
All attempts to prove what is perfectly obvious to every one without
weakens the mind rather than strengthens it, and hence, we
have discarded all such propositions as the following " All right an"
gles are equal."
Any two sides of a triangle are greater than the
"
third side."
Parallel lines can never meet, however far they may be
" and some few others of
In almost every
like character.
produced
proof, only

on Geometry, the first, or one of the first propositions for de" That all
This proposition at
is,
right angles are equal"
once excites in the mind of the intelligent pupil, a mingled sensation
of disappointment and indignation, disappointment, because he expected to learn new truths
indignation, because he feels as if his
time and common sense are trifled with.
When he attempts the demonstration, he either has, or has not, a
correct idea of a right angle
if he has a correct idea, he cannot demontreatise

monstration

strate, or say

anything that can be called a demonstration

because

the proposition is all embraced in the definition of a right angle.

If he has not the correct idea of the term right angle, he must
obtain it before he can commence any demonstration ; so, in either
is worse than useless.
he comes to the proposition, that "

case, the proposition

When

Any two

sides of a

tri-

angle, are together, greater than a third side," and is carried through a
useless demonstration, he looks about in wonder and perplexity, to
discover

why

it

is

ities to arrive at

shortest distance

that he should be dragged through formal techical-

the perfectly axiomatic truth, that a straight line

between two points.

is

the

PREFACE.

iv

Where
however
parallel

is

far
is,

the logic of proving that parallel lines will never meet,

may be produced, when the very meaning of the term

they

that they cannot

prove what

is

meet

hence,

we

more

perfectly obvious, tend

say that

all

to confuse

attempts to

and weaken,

than to strengthen and enlighten.

Notwithstanding we have discarded such like propositions, we have
omitted none of the truths therein expressed ; for we have put them
either in the axioms or definitions,

and have made as complete a chain

of geometrical truths as are to be found in any other work.

At the same time, no attempt has been made to present

all

the

propositions in geometry ; we have taken such only as, united

and combined, will give the pupil complete power over the science,

known

and make his geometrical knowledge efficient, iisefid, and practical.

In the mathematical sciences, it is necessary to be more or less
technical, formal, and exact

but

we have made

efforts

not to be un-

We

have presumed that the reader will exercise his

own judgment in construing our language and in place of the preciseness of the professor, we have aimed to take the more wholesome and
pleasantly so.

elevated tone of the practical common-sense

man

of the world.

For

the sake of perspicuity and brevity, we have freely used the algebraic
language ; and the whole work supposes that the reader clearly compre-

hends simple equations, and is able to perform all ordinary operations

with them but this should be no objection to the use of this book for
;

no

on Geometry should be studied prior to Algebra, whatever be

the tone and style of the Geometry.
To most persons, Geometry is a very dry and uninteresting study; and
from the nature of the human mind it must be so, until the pupil catches
treatise

the spirit of the science; but as a general thing that spirit cannot be
infused until some essential advancements have been made ; hence,
the

ill

success of

many who undertake

this study.

It is essential that the teacher should

have a clear view of

all

these

that he should possess the true spirit himself ; and then he

will be able to animate, encourage, and assist the new beginner, until
particulars

the daylight of the science breaks in upon his mind.

It is of little use to commence Geometry unless the learner

mined

to

go through, at

least, so far, as to

is

deter-

understand Plane Trigonom-

The first propositions are ,only so many letters in the great

alphabet of science, and we must be able to put them together, before
we can really perceive their utility and power. These considerations
etry.

induced us to be very full and practical in the application of

Geometry,
and if a student can go through this book understandingly, we are sure
that his geometrical knowledge will be at once ample and efficient.

PREFACE.

With proper encouragement and proper instruction, the learner will

begin to discover the beauties of geometrical demonstrations, after
passing through the first three books, and when that discovery is made,
all

Yet the pupil should not stop there ;

the benefits of any science, we must have command over
To receive the benefits of any enterprise, we must carry

serious difficulties will be over.

for, to receive

that science.
it

through to completion, or be content to lose a part,

it is emphatically so with this science.
;

if

not the whole

of our labors

The

infinitesimal system has been used in demonstrations to a greater

this, than in most other works of like kind, and although the

extent in

method has been objected

to,

the objections are neither far-sighted nor

a rejection of this method necessarily rejects the

philosophical
ferential and integral calculus, and all works based upon them
;

unscientific

dif-

as

and unsound.

In plane and spherical trigonometry, great pains have been taken to

the theoretical beauties of those sciences, as well as their practi-

show

cal application, and for this end,

many

of

the demonstrations have

been given both analytically and geometrically.

sciences,

more examples are given

in this

In applying these

work than any other

that

have seen, and such questions and such problems have been chosen,
as to show the great power and utility of geometrical science.
In
I

confirmation of this,

we

refer the reader to the various astronomical

problems, and in particular to the one, giving general directions for

computing the beginning or end of a local solar eclipse.

Those only who pay particular attention to Geometry, will be able to

demonstrate the propositions proposed for exercises on pages 100104 ;
they are designed for amateurs in particular ; they are marks of attainment to which all may aspire, but as a general thing they will require

more time and attention than can be devoted to them in schools thereno attempt should be made to solve all of them, before passing on.
In conic sections we have not been as full as some other treatises,
especially in respect to the hyperbola, and the reason for our brevity
on that curve is, that it is of little or no practical utility ; it is merely
a curve of mathematical curiosity. The ellipse and parabola have important relations to astronomy, and projectile motions, and we have
;

fore,

taken particular care to demonstrate those properties essential to their

application, and further than this would exceed our design ; but we have
given this amply and fully ; yet this treatise is not designed to supersede the study of these curves again in Analytical Geometry, and if
the student understands the demonstrations here given, he will be
able to pursue analysis with great power and facility.

CONTENTS.

PLANE GEOMETRY.

BOOK

I.

rt.
9

General Principles,

Theorems

in reference to right lines

and angles,

BOOK

15

II.
42
43

Proportion,

The

definition of the

term

ratio,

BOOK
Theorems mostly in

relation to the circle

BOOK
Problems

III.
and to the measure of angles,.

78

BOOK

V.

of polygons and circles,

Exercises in geometrical investigation,

Problems requiring the aid of algebra for their solution,

BOOK
On

90
100
103

VI.
109

the intersection of planes,

BOOK
Solid Geometry,

61

IV.

geometrical constructions,

The measurement

. .

VII.
118

CONTENTS.

viii

PLANE TRIGONOMETEY.
p*s*.

Elementary principles ............................................. 136

On the computation of sines and tangents, ..... ..................... 144
Application of Plane Trigonometry ................................. 156
Explanation of the tables, ......................................... 157
Oblique angled Trigonometry, ..................................... 163
.

Application of Trigonometry to the measuring of bights and distances,.

168

principles, ............................................

176

SPHERICAL TRIGONOMETRY.
Elementary

Napier's circular parts, ............................................ 186

Oblique angled Spherical Trigonometry, ............................. 187

Application solution of right angled spherical triangles, ............... 196
Solution of oblique angled spherical triangles, ........................ 203
Application of Spherical Trigonometry to Astronomical Problems, ...... 207
How to manage a local Solar Eclipse, ................................ 212
Miscellaneous Astronomical Examples, .................. ............ 215
Lunar Observations, ......... ..................................... 216

Appendix

to

Trigonometry, ....................................... 217

CONIC SECTIONS.
The Ellipse, ..................................................... 227
The Parabola.................................................... 247
The Hyperbola .................................................. 263

GEOMETRY,
DEFINITIONS.
1

GEOMETRY is the

tances, positions,
2.

science that estimates and compares dis-

and magnitudes.

A Point is position,

not magnitude, and on paper

sented by a visible dot, thus

3.
Line is length, only..

it is

repre-

6.

A
The extremities of a line are points.
A Right Line has the same direction in every part.
A Curved Line is continually changing direction.
A Broken or Crooked Line changes direction at intervals.

7.

An

4.
5.

its

its

Angle

is

the difference in the direction of two lines.

Two lines drawn from the same point, and in the same
and the same line.
To make an angle apparent, the two lines must
meet in a point, as AB, and AC, which meet

at the

point A.

direction, are

one

B
Two lines, not having the same direction, and not
meeting in a point as AB, and CD, still have an
angle existing between them equal to the difference in
and to make the angle apparent,
;
take any point in one of the lines, as C, and oonto lie in the same direction as AB. Then
ceive
their direction

CH

the difference in the directions of

CD

and

CH

sures the angle ; or measures th* difference in the

directions of
and CD.

AB

mea-

GEOMETRY.

10

Angles are measured by the number of degrees of a

8.

circle

included between the two lines which form

the angle at the center of the circle. Thus,
the portion of the circle between the lines

CA

and

CB

measures the angle

center of the circle.

vided into

360, and

Every

at the

circle is di-

the greater the

num-

degrees between any two lines

from
the center, the greater the
running

ber of

angle.

Angles are more

indefinitely distinguished

by Acute,

Obtuse, and

right angles.

9.
Right Angle is formed by one line
meeting another so as to make equal angles
with the other line.

One

line so inclined to

be perpendicular

another

is

said to

to another.

10.

An

Acute Angle

is

less

1 1.

An

OUuse Angle

is

greater than a

than a right

right angle.

12.

A.

as

An angle is named by a letter at its vertex,

When two or more angles have their ver-

tices at the

same

point, $his

method

will not

be

sufficiently definite.

Thus, when several lines as

AB, AO, AD,

meet at the point A, several angles are

formed and to define the one formed by the two
lines AB and A C, we must say the angle CAB,
all

or

BA C.

letters,

To

express the angle requires three

at the vertex

and the middle one must be

of the angle.

The angle

DA and A C. The
two lines DA and AB.
lines

-4

DAG the angle made by the two

DAB is the angle made by the

angle

is

DEFINITIONS.
Two

13.

may

Parallel lines
lines, as

CD

and making equal angles with a

lines similarly situated

third line, all being in the

same

be either right

but at present

we

11

plane, are parallel.

lines, as

A B,

or curved

are only considering right

lines.

same absolute

Rectilinear parallels have the

direction

and, conversely, lines having the same absolute direction, are parallel.
Two parallel lines cannot be drawn from the same point ; for to fulfill the con-

any attempt to draw them would run them into the same
and thus make one line. Conversely, then, two parallel lines cannot
meet in a point, however far they may be produced.

dition of parallelism,

direction,

14. Superficies are either

A Plane Superficies,
may

way

every
it

points,

will

Plane or Curved.

or a Plane,

touch

it

is

that with which a right line

the line touch the plane in two

Or,
in every point ; but, if not, it is curved.

coincide.

15. Plane figures are

if

bounded

either

by

right lines or curves.

Plane figures that are bounded by right

16.

lines

have names

according to the number of their sides, or of their angles ; for

they have as many sides as angles ; the least number being three.

it

17.
figure of three sides and angles is called a triangle ; and
receives particular denominations from the relations of its sides

and angles.
18.

An

Equilateral

Triangle

has three equal

sides.

19.

An

Equiangular Triangle has three equal

angles.

Every Equilateral Triangle

20.

An Isosceles

21.

22.

23.
24.
25.

is

also Equiangular.

Triangle has two equal sides.

Right Angled Triangle has one right angle.

An
An

A
A

Obtuse Angled Triangle has one obtuse angle.

Acute Angled Triangle has all its three angles acute.
Quadrilateral figure has four sides and four angles.
Parallelogram is a quadrilateral which has its opposite

sides parallel,

and

it

may

take the

name

of rectangle, square, rhom-

boid, or rhombus, according to the relation of its sides

26.
its

A Rectangle

is

a parallelogram, having

angles right angles.

and angles.

GEOME TRY.

12

27.

Square has

all its

sides equal,

and

all its

angles right angles.

A Rhomboid is an

28.

oblique angled

parallelogram.

29.

A Rhombus

30.

Trapezium

31.

Trapezoid

an equilateral rhomboid.

is

is

any irregular quadrilateral.

is

a quadrilateral which has two

opposite

sides parallel.

32.

figure

of five sides

called a

is

Hexagon ; of eight, an Octagon, &c.

general called Polygons.
33. Diagonals are lines joining
adjacent.
34. Polygons

may be

but

Pentagon
all

of six, a

these figures are in

any two angles of a polygon not

similar without being

the angles and the number of

sides equal, and the length of the sides and
the size of the figures unequal.

equal

that

is,

A Perimeter of

35.

any figure

is

the

sum

The

of

all its sides.

Altitude of any figure is the perpendicular distance from

or
any side,
any angle, to the opposite side or angle.
37.
Circle is a figure bounded by one
36.

uniform curved
within

drawn
point

is

it,

line,

and a

from which

all

certain point

straight

to the curve are equal,

called the center.

and

lines

this

DEFINITIONS.

13

EXPLANATION OF TERMS.
1.

A Postulate is

2.

An Axiom

is

a position taken ; a fact that must be admitted.

a self-evident truth ; not only too simple to

require, but too simple to admit, of demonstration,

3.
Proposition is something which is either proposed to be
done, or to be demonstrated, and is either a problem or a theorem.

A Problem
A Theorem
A Lemma

4.
5.
6.

is
is

something proposed to be done.

something proposed to be demonstrated.

something which

is

what

in order to render

follows

is

premised, or demonstrated,

more

easy.
Corollary is a consequent truth gamed immediately from
preceding truth or demonstration.

7.

some

8.

Scholium

going before

is

a remark or observation

made upon something

it.

POSTULATES.
1
Let it be granted that a straight line can be drawn from any
one point to any other point.
2. That a straight line can be produced to
any distance, or ter.

minated at any point.

3.
That a circle can be drawn from any center, at any
that center.
from
tance

dis-

AXIOMS.
1

Things which are equal

to the

same thing are equal

to

each other.

2.

When

3.

Wlien equals are taken from equals the remainders are equal.
When equals are added to unequals the wholes are unequal.

4.

equals are added to equals the wholes are equal.

5.

When equals are taken from unequals the remainders are unequal.

6.

Things which are double of

equal
7.
8.

9.

to

the

same

thing, or equal things, are

each other.

Things which are halves of the same thing are equal.

Every whole is equal to all Us parts taken together.
Things which coincide, or fill the same space, are identical, or

mutually equal in all their parts.

10. All rig Id angles are equal to one another.
\ 1
Two straight lines cannot inclose a space.
.

12.

13.

Tlie whole is greater

straight line is the shortest distance between two points.

than

its

part.

GEOMETRY.

14

ABBREVIATIONS.
The common

algebraical signs will

demonstrations will sometimes be

be used

in this

made through

the

work, and

medium

of

equations ; and it is so necessary that the student in Geometry

should understand some of the more simple operations of Algebra,
that we suppose he is acquainted with the use of the signs.
As
the words circle, angle, triangle, hypothesis, axiom, are constantly
occurring in a course of Geometry, we shall abbreviate them as
follows

Addition

is

expressed

Subtraction
Multiplication

Equality
Greater than

Less than

Thus

"
"
"
"
"

.....

by
"
"

An

X.

....=.

"
"

>.
<\

"

B is greater than A, is written

B is less than A, "

be expressed by
"
"
A triangle by "
"
The word hypothesis
"
Axiom is expressed
"
"
Theorem
"
"
Corollary
"
"
Let a

-f-.

....
".....

circle

angle by

o.

j
(

.....
.

A-

n 7-)

(ax.)

(th.)

(Cor.)

Perpendicular

When the difference of two quantities is expressed, without knowing which

lowing symbol,

is

the greater,
.

we use
.

the

fol.

?/)

BOOK

15

I.

BOOK
THEOREM

I.
1.

one line meets another, the stim of the two angles which it
makes on the same side of the other line, is equal to two right angles.

When

Let

AB

meet

CD;

then we are

to de-

monstrate that the two angles

ABD-f-ABC=

two right angles.

does not incline
If

on either side

AB

of

CD

and the angle

AEDAEG,

then

these angles are right angles by definition 9.

But if these angles are unequal; conceive the dotted line,

BE,

side ; then
point B, so as not to incline on either
are
the
and
right angles ;
angles
by the definition,
same
make
the
the
but
sum, or fill the
angles CBA-{-ABD

drawn from the

EED

GEE

same angular
fore,

space, as the

CBA+ABD=two

Cor.

Hence,

two angles

right angles.

CBE

and
*
E.
D.
Q.

EED /

there-

the angles which can be made at any point

of lines on the same side of the right line CD,

all

B, by any number
are, when taken all together, equal to two right angles.
Cor. 2.

And, as

side of the line

all

CD

the angles that can be made on the other

are also equal to two right angles, therefore

all

the angles that can be made quite round a point B, by any

of lines, are equal to four right angles.

number

Cor. 3.

Hence,

also, the

whole circumference

of a circle, being the sum of the measures of all

the angles that can be made about the center

the measure of four right angles ;

consequently, a semicircle, or 180 degrees, is
the measure of two right angles ; and a quadrant, or 90
degrees,
the measure of one right angle.

F, (def. 8),

The

is

initials

of a Latin phrase,

meaning

" which was

to be

demonstrated"

GEOMETRY.

16

THEOREM

2.

If one straight line meets two other straight lines at a common point,
forming two angles, which together make two right angles, the two

and

straight lines are one

same Urn.

the

AB meets the two lines DB

and BC at the common point B,
If

DBA-\-ABQ

and the two angles

=two

we are

right angles, then

demonstrate that

DB

to

BC form

and

one and the same straight line.

If
and
are not in the

DB

same

line,

BO

DB

produce

E, making a continued

ABD-\-ABE=ZR
ABD-\-ABC=2R
ABE AB 0=0

Butby(hy.)

By

subtraction

That

is,

CBE is zero

the angle

BO falls

or

to

line

DE

then

(th. 1) the angles

by

(2

R indicates two

right angles.)

DBC

and

is

a continued line

on BE.

Q. E.

THEOREM

D.

3.

If two straight lines intersect each other, the opposite vertical angles
are equal.
If

AB

and

E, we are

at

to

AEG equals its

AED = CEB.
As

AEB is

CD

each other

intersect

demonstrate that the angle

DEB, and

opposite angle

a right

EA

line,

actly in the opposite direction

EG is opposite in

is

direction from

EA

and

direction

between

between

EB and ED;

or

ex-

EB ; and for the same reason

ED ; therefore, the difference in

from

EC

equal to the difference in direction

In
by (def. 7), the angle
is

AECDEB.
AED= OEB. Q. E. D.

same manner we can show that the angle

Otherwise : Let AEC=z, AED=y, and

the

to

show

that

x=z

AB is

As

we

have, by (th. 1),

.
.
Also,

By
By

subtraction,

transposition,

a right

line,

DEBx
and

x-{-y=2R
z-\-y=2R
x

2=0
x=z

Q. E.

D.

DE

; then
falls

we are

upon

it,

BOOK

17

I.

THE O REM

4.

If a straight line falls across two parallel straight lines, the sum of
the two ittierior angles on the same side of the crossing line is equal to
(wo right angles.

Let

AB

them

that the

be two paral-

EF running

we are

then

CD

and

and

lel lines,

angle

across

demonstrate

to

BGH-f GHD=2R.

Because GB and HD are

parallel,

they are equally inclined to the line

EF,

or have the

same

difference of

direction from that line

Therefore

of these equals add the _J

J FGB= J OHD. To

FGB+B GH= GHD-\-BGH.

Then
But by

(th.

the

that

right angles

first

member

of this equation

the two interior angles

is,

together equal to two right angles.

is

equal to two

BGH are

G-HD and

D.

Q, E.

THEOREM
If a

each

BGH.

5.

straight line falls across two parallel straight lines, the interior

alternate angles are equal ;

and

also the opposite exterior angles.

AB

the supposition that

and CD are parallel, (see
falls across them, we are to demonstrate
and
figure),

On

last

EF

By

J A GH= the alternate J GHD.

A GF=EHD ; or FGB= CHE.

1st.

That the

2d.

That

the definition of parallel lines

we have

FGB=GHD
But

FGB=AGff (th.

3)

AGH=GHD (ax. 1) Q. E. D.
But GHD=CHE (th. 3);
FGB=GHD.
J
Hence

2d.

The

fore, FGB^= CHE.

Q.
equal to EHD.

In the same manner

If a straight
crossing line.

that

there-

A GF

is

E. D.

THEOREM
angles are equal

we prove

line falls across

to the interior

6.

two parallel straight

opposite angles on the

lines, the exterior

same

side

of

the

GEOMETRY.

18

AB

If

CD

and

them, then

And

For

Also

AGF=CHG
AGH=FGB

the two interior angles

on

must

lines
angles, the two straight

the

D.

7.

and makes

two other straight Urns,

straight line falls across

sum of
Let

Q. E.

we prove

THEOREM

GHD

3)

(th.

FGB=GHD (ax. 1)
that A QF= CHG.

Hence
In the same manner

If a

EF crosses

and

are parallel, (see last figure),

FGB**
are to prove that the exterior

we

same

side equal

to

the

two right

be parallel.

EF be the line falling across

AB and CD, making the

the lines

BGH-}-GHD=io two

two angles
ano-les
rio-ht
o
o

then we are to demoif-

AB

that

strate

and

CD

must be

parallel.

As
meets

EA

EF
it,

is a
right line, and
the two angles (th. 1)

FGB+BGH=2R
By

(hy.)

By

subtraction,

GHD-\-BGH=2R

FGBGHD=Q. That there

GB and HD from the same line

is

is,

ence in the direction of

when

there

is

no difference

lines are parallel

therefore,

in the direction of lines

AB and CD are parallel.

no

differ-

EF;

but

(def. 13) the

Q. E.

D.

THEOREM

8.

Parallel lines can never meet, however far they

If the lines

AB and CD

distance on either side of

and

if

tion

may

be produced.

(see last figure) should meet at any

there form an angle ;

EF, they would

they formed an angle they would not run in the same direcand not running in the same direction, they would not be
but by (hy.) they are parallel

parallel

meet.

Q. E. D.

therefore they cannot

BOOK

19

I.

THEOREM
straight lines are parallel to

If two

9.
a

third, they are parallel to

each other.
If

CD

AB

EF, and
EF, then we

parallel to

is

also parallel to

are to show that

AB

is

parallel to

CD.
Because

AB and JEFare parallel,

they make equal angles with the

and because
line ffG (def. 13, 2)
;

CD

and

EF are parallel,

those two lines

make equal

angles with

the line HG-.

AB

and CD, making equal angles with another line that

across them, they are therefore parallel (def. 7).
Q. E. D.

Hence
falls

THEOREM
If two angles have

their sides parallel, the

Let the two angles be

DBF; AC

10.

parallel to

two angles unll be equal.

and

DB, and

AH parallel to BF.
On

that

hypothesis

prove that the angle

Produce

DB,

if

we are

to

A=DBF.
necessary, to

meet Aff'm G,

Then

Also

_}DF=_\DGff
jA=_)DGff

DBF=A

Therefore
Scholium.
parallel to

DBF;

When

BF

that

is,

(th.

6)

(th. 6)

(ax. 1)

Q. E. D.

AH extends in the opposite direction,

but the angle then

equal to FBG-.

is

it

is still

the supplemental angle to

GEOMETRY.

20

THEOREM
If any side of a triangle

sum of

the

is

angles

11.

be produced, the exterior angle is equal to

the two interior opposite angles ;

and

the

sum of

the three

two rigid angles.

to

equal

AB G be any triangle. ProAB to D. Then we are to

that the angle CBD= _) A

Let

duce
show

+the

angle

also, that

B conceive BE
A C;

From

the an-

drawn

parallel to

EBD= _j A
CBE=A

Then
By(th. 5)

By

But

6)

C=A+

C Q. E.
j
of these equals add the angle

addition

To each

(th.

(alternate angles).

D.

CBA, and we have

CBD+ CBA=A+ C+ CBA

CBD+CBA=2R

Therefore

A-\- C-\-

(th. 1)

CBA=2JR

(ax. 1 )
the three angles of the triangle are, together, equal to
two right angles and this triangle represents any triangle therefore, the sum of the three angles of any triangle is equal to two

That

is,

right angles.
Cor.

As

Q. E.

D.

any triangle is equal to the sum

and opposite angles, therefore it is greater than

the exterior angle of

of the two interior

either cine of them.

Cor. 2. If two angles in one triangle be equal to two angles in

another triangle, the third angles will also be equal, (ax. 3), and

the two triangles equiangular.

Cor. 3. If one angle in one triangle

another, the

be equal

sums of the remaining angles will

Cor. 4. If one angle of a triangle be right, the

two
will

one angle in

sum

of the other

be equal to a right angle, and each of them singly

be acute, or less than a right angle.

will also

Cor. 5.
less

to

also be equal (ax. 3).

The two

least angles of

than a right
angle.

every triangle are acute, or each

BOOK

I.

THEOREM
In any quadrangle

the

sum of

all the

21

12.
four inward angles

is

equal

to four right angles.

AEGD be

Let

a quadrangle

then the

of the four inward angles A-\-B-\- C-\-D

to four right angles.

is

sum
equal

Let the diagonal

C be drawn, dividing the
two
into
triangles, ABC, ADC;
quadrangle
then, because the sum of the three angles of each of these
equal to two right angles (th. 11),
angles
sum of all the angles of both triangles which
is

it

follows

tri-

that the

make up the

four

angles of the quadrangle, must be equal to four right angles (ax. 2).

Q. E.

D.

Cor.

will also

Hence

three of the angles be right angles, the fourth

if

be a right angle.

And

Cor. 2.

the

if

two right angles, the

to

sum of two of the four angles be equal to

sum of the remaining two will also be equal

two right angles.

SCHOLIUM.
In any figure bounded by
interior angles

is

equal

right lines

to twice

as

many

and

angles, the

sum of all

the

right angles as the figure has

sides, less four right angles.

Let
the

ABCDE

sum

of

all its

B-{-C-}-D-\-E,

many

be any figure; then

inward angles, A-\-

is

equal to twice as

right angles, wanting four, as

the figure has sides.

For, from any point P, within

draw
gon

lines

into as

PA,

PB

many

it,

PC,

&c., to all the angles, dividing the polyNow the sum of the
triangles as it has sides.
t

three angles of each of these triangles, is equal to two right angles

therefore the sum of the angles of all the triangles is
(th. 11) ;
as many right angles as the figure has sides.
to
twice
But
equal
the

sum

of these angles contains the

sum

of four right angles about

GEOMETRY.

23

the point
: take these
away, and the sum of the interior angles
of the figure is equal to twice as many right angles as the figure
has sides less four right angles. Q. E. D.

From this principle we can deduce the following rule

sum of the interior angles of any right-lined figure

to find the

RULE. Subtract 2 from

remainder by
if

Thus,
(2s

4)

the

number of

sides,

and multiply

the

product will be the number of right angles.

the sides be represented by s, then the rule gives

nor

and

2,

is

the

the rule varied in case of a re-

entrant angle, as represented at

in the figure

abed

Draw

the dotted lines from the angle d to the

several opposite angles, making as many triangles
e

f.

as the figure has sides, less two, and each triangle

:
hence the rule.

has two right angles

THEOREM
Two

triangles which have two sides,

one, equal to the two sides

13.

and

the included angle in the

and included angle

in the other, are ideMical,

or equal in all respects.

ABC

In two As,

and

DEF,

AB=DE,

that

the supposition

on

and

_j A= J D, we
BC must=EF, the
j B= JE, and the J C= J F.

AC=DF,

and the

are to prove that

Conceive the

A ABC cut out of the

the paper, taken up, and placed on

in such a manner that the
the
shall fall on
point
on the line
the point D, and the line
; then the point
will fall on the point E, because the lines are equal.
Now,

A DEF

AB

DE

as the

DF, and

A= J

fall

on

D,

the line

DF;

A C must take the same direction as

line A C=DF, the point C will

and as the

B being on and C on F, BCmust be exactly on EF,

two
straight lines would enclose a space ax. 12), and
(otherwise,
BC=EF, and the two magnitudes exactly fill the same space
therefore, the two As are identical, (ax. 9), and the angle B=E,

fall

on F.

and

C=F.

Q. E.

D.

BOOK

THEOREM
When
to

equal

two triangles have a side

ABC

on

14.

and two

a side and two adjacent angles in

are equal in all respects.

In two AS, as

the

supposition

adjacent angles in the one,

the other, the two triangles

DEF,

and

that

23

I.

BC=EF,

B=E, and C=F, we are

AB=DE, AC=DF, and
A=D.

the angle
to

prove

that

the angle

Conceive the

A ABC taken up
A DEF so that

and placed on the

EF

BC

shall exactly coincide with its equal side

the side
;
is
will
then because the angle
equal to the angle E, the line
and because
take the direction of ED, and fall exactly upon it

BA

the angle

is

CA

equal to the angle F, the line

will

take the

upon it and the two lines BA

and CA esactly coinciding with the two lines ED and FD, the
and the two magnitudes exactly fill the
point A will fall on D,
direction of

FD, and

same space

therefore,~by (ax. 9) they are identical, and

and the
jD. Q. E. D.

AC=DF,

ED,

fall

exactly

AB=

A=

THE O RE M
If two sides of a triangle are equal,

tlie

15.
angles opposite to these sides

will be equal.

Let

ABC be the triangle and on the suppoA C= CB, we are to prove that the
;

sition that

A=B.

angle
Conceive the angle C divided into two equal
angles by the line CD; then we have two As,

ADC and
and
and

CD
CD

CBD, which have

BCD

the angle

A, opposite

AC
CB

equal to

of the other

B, opposite
JB. Q. E. D.

angle

the two sides,

of the one, equal to the two sides,

of the other
and the included angle

to

CD
CD of

to

A CD, of the one,

AD=BD, and

therefore (th. 13),

of the one triangle,

the

other triangle

is
:

equal to the
that

is,

_j

GEOMETRY.

24

BCD

CD and
1. As the two
are in all respects
triangles
vertical
an isosceles
bisects
the
of
the
line
which,
angle
equal,
also bisects the base, and falls perpendicular on the base.
Cor.

Scholium.
Any other point as well as C may be taken in the
and
;
perpendicular DC, and lines drawn to the extremities
such lines will be equal, as we can prove by theorem 13; hence,

we may announce

this truth
That if a perpendicular be drawn
middle of a line, any 'point in the perpendicular is at equal
distance from tJie two extremities.

from

the

THEOREM

16.

The greater side of every triangle has the greater angle opposite to it
Let ABC be the A; and on the supposition
is
that
greater than AB, we are to prove that

AC

ABC

the angle
is
From
greater than the J C.
the greater of the two sides
C, take AD, equal
the less, and join BD; thus making two
to

AB

As

triangles of the original triangle.

AB=AD,

ADB= the J ABD (th. 15).

But the J ADB the exterior angle of the A BDC, and there*

the _J

is

ABD greater than

AB C greater than C.

fore greater than C : that is, the _]

C.
Much more, then, is the angle

is

THEOREM

the angle

Q. E.

D.

17.

triangles have two sides of the one equal to two sides of the
other, each to each, and an angle opposite one of the equal sides in each
triangle equal, then will the two triangles be equal.

If two

Let

ABC be

one triangle and

AD C the other in which AD=AB,

BC=DC, and the angles opposite BC and D C equal,

angle ABC=ADC, and AC be a converse side.

then will the

Place the two A's so that the given angles

come together at A, and lie on the oppo-

will

site sides of

the line

A C.

AB=AD, ABD is an isosthe line A C which bisects the

Then because
celes

A, and

angle

BD(i\\.

is

perpendicular to

BD

and bisects

scholium),

D C must
BC=
therefore, AC

two A's

ABC, ADC; and

Now B C and

15, cor. 1).

terminate in the same point C, because

DC

(th.

common
the

are identical.

two cases

is

Q. E.

D.

There are, in fact,

theorem, because
and DC=DE, giving two pair of A's.

Scholium.

BC=BE,

A's

15,

to the

in this

BOOK

THEOREM
The

difference

25

I.

18.

of any two sides of a triangle

than the

is less

thv,

side.

Let

is

ABC

AE;

than

less

A, and
to

let

AC

be greater

prove that

AC AB

BC.

than

As a

be the

then we are

straight line is the shortest distance be-

tween two

points,

Therefore,

From

AB+BC> AC.

these

unequals subtract the equals

and we have B C
A C AB. (ax.

ABAB,

>

THEOREM
When

5).

Q. E.

D.

19.

two triangles have all three of the sides in one

triangle equal
in the other, each to each, the two
triangles will be identical

to all three

and have equal angles

opposite equal sides.

ABC

In two triangles, as
and
on
the
that
the
ABD,
supposition
side

AB of the one =AB of the

AC=AD, and BC=BD,

other,

we are

to

demonstrate that the angle

AGB=the angle ADB,

BAD, and ABC=ABD.

BAC=

Conceive the two triangles to be joined together

equal sides, and draw the line CD.
CD, because the side
Then, in the triangle

AC

AD by (hy.), the angle ACD

by their

equal to the angle

In like manner, in the triangle BCD, the angle
is
the angle BDC, because the side
equal to
is

then, the angle

ACD

being equal to the angle

BCD

equal to

ADC (th. 15).

BCD

BC

is

longest

is

BD.

ADC,

equal to

Hence,
and the

to the angle BDC, by equal additions the sum of

angle
the two angles ACD, BCD, is equal to the sum of the two ADC,
is equal to the whole
(&TL. 2) ; that is, the whole angle

BDC

ACB

angle BDA

26

GEOMETRY.

Since then the two sides,

AC, CB,

are equal to the two sides

AD, DB,
by (hy.), and their contained angles ACB,
also
the
two triangles ABC, ABD, are identical
ADB,
equal,
other
and
have
their
angles equal, the angle BAG to the
(th. 13),
each

BAD,

angle

to each,

and the angle

ABC to the

angle

THEOREM
there be two triangles

If

the two sides

of the

other,

Q. E.

D.

A.

which have the two sides of the one equal

each

to each,

the third sides will be unequal,

triangle which

ABD.

and

and

to

the included angles unequal,

the greater side will belong to the

has the greater included angle.

ABC be one A, and ACD

A- Let AB and A C of
one A be equal to AD and

Let

the other

the

AC

of the

angle

BA C greater than

DA C

then

BC

the base

base

we are

the angle
prove that

to

greater than the

is

CD.

Conceive the two

be common

will

But the

A-

other

to

AS

them.

joined together so that the shorter sides

is an isosceles
As

AB=AD, ABD

BAD. This
draw a line bisecting
O
O the angle
the
must
and
will
not
meet
because
line
meet BC,
J BA C is
CD,
BD
to
than
the
and
be
J DAC,
greater
perpendicular
(th. 15).
From E, where the perpendicular meets BC, draw ED.
from the vertex

....

Now
Add

to

each

EC,

then

BE=ED (th. 15,

BC=ED+EC

But DE-\-EC'is greater than

Therefore

scholium).

DC;

C> DC.

THEOREM

Q. E.

D.

20.

A perpciidlcidar is the shortest line that can be drawn from any point
to

the

strut fjlt line ;

same

and

if other lines be draien

straight line, the greater will be at

the perpendicular ;

on otfosite

and

from

the

same point

to

a greater distance from

lines at equal distances from the perpendicular,

sides, are equal.

BOOK
A

Let
line

lines:

and

be any point without the

be the perpenand let

AB
A C, AD, and AE oblique
then, if EG is less than BD,

DE;

dicular

27

I.

BC=BE, we are to show,

That AB is less than AC.
AC less than AD. 3d. AC=AE.

1st,

2d.

In the triangle

ABO

is

ABC, asAB

a right angle

is

then, as

perpendicular by (hy.),the angle

requires the other two angles of

it

the triangle (th. 11) to make another right angle, the angle ACB,
is less than a
right angle ; and as the greater side is always oppo-

AB

AC

AC

is any line
is less than
the greater angle,
; and as
of
drawn
from
is
least
line
therefore
the
AB,
differing
any

site

AB

from A.

A CD

ACB

As

1
make two right
and
the two angles
)
(th.
is
CB less than a right angle, therefore
greater
than a right angle ; consequently, the _J
is less than a
right

2d.

angles, and

angle

A CD

and, therefore, in the

A C is less

AD.
AS ABC

D
A ACD, AD

is

greater than

AC,

3d. In the

and the angles

at

and

ABE, AB

B, right angles

is

common, and

CBBE,

by (th. 15)

A C=AE.

therefore,

Q. E.

THEOREM
The

or

than

D.

21.

opposite sides, and. the opposite angles of

any parallelogram,

are equal to each other.

Let

ABDC be

a parallelogram.

Then we

AB=CD, AC=BD, the anthe

and
A=D,
angle ACD=ABD.
gle
Draw a diagonal, as CB ; then, because
AB and CD are parallel, the alternate anare to show that

ABC and BCD (th. 5) are equal. For the' same reason, as
AC and BD are parallel, the angles A CB and CBD are equal.
gles

Now,

in the

two triangles

ABCandBCD,

the side

CB

and

The

J ACB= j CBD

and

j BCD=_1ABC

(1)

(2)

is

common,

GEOMETRY.
Therefore, the third angle A= the third angle D (th.

28

the two AS are equal in

(th. 13)
the
equal angles are equal
opposite

all
;

respects; that

or,

and by

11),

the sides

is,

AB= CD, and A CBD.

ACD

By adding equations (1) and (2), (ax. 2), we have the angle
the angle
; therefore, the opposite sides, <fec.
Q. E. D.

ABD

Cor.

As

the

sum

of

all

equal to four right angles,

D;

opposite angle
angle,

and

Cor. 2.

all

if,

the angles of the quadrilateral is

to the
is
always

and the angle

therefore,

is

a right angle,

is

also a right

the angles are right angles.

As

the angle

ABD,

same sum as the angles of the

added

to the angle

A ACB ;

jacent angles of a parallelogram make two right angles

corresponds with the 4th point of theorem 1 2.

THEO
If

the opposite sides

parallel,

and

the figure is

RE M

gives the
two ad-

A,

therefore, the
;

and

this

22.

of a quadrilateral are equal, they are also

a parallelogram.

ABDC

Let
represent any quadrilateral,
and on the supposition that A C=^BD, and
CD, we are to prove that AC is parallel

AB=

BD, and AB parallel to CD.

Draw the diagonal CB ; then we have two
triangles ABC, and CDB, which have the common

to

AC of the one=D of the other, and AB of

the

side

CB ;

one= CD

and

of the

therefore by (th. 19) the two AS are equal, and the angles
equal, to which the equal sides are opposite ; that is, the angled CB
=the angle CBD, and these are alternate angles and, therefore,
is
by (th. 5),
parallel to BD; and because the angle

other

ABC

AC

BCD,

AB

Q. E.

D.

is

parallel to

CD, and

the figure

is

a parallelogram.

and also in (th. 21), we proved that the two AS

which make up the parallelogram are equal and the same would
be true if we drew the diagonal from A to D; and in general we may
Cor. In this,

say, that the diagonal of

any parallelogram

bisects the

parallelogram.

BOOK

29

I.

THEOREM
The

23.

which join the corresponding extremities of two equal and

lines

parallel straight lines, are themselves equal

figure thus formed

On

is

AE

the supposition that

last figure),

and that

we

parallel ;

and

the

are to show that

is equal and parallel to CD

(see
AC will be equal and parallel to BD

make

the figure a parallelogram.

and
are parallel,
then because

will

GB;

Join

and

a parallelogram.

and CE joins
CD
AE
ABC and BCD are equal, and the side
CB common to the two AS ABC and CDB ;

them, the alternate angles

AB=CD,
therefore

BD, the
to

BD;

and

by

(th. 13) the

two triangles are equal

that

is,

AC=

A C is also parallel
angle A=D, and A CB= CBD; hence,
and the

figure

is

a parallelogram.

THEOREM

Q. E. D.

24.

Parallelograms on the same base, and between the same parallels,

are equal in surface.

ABEC and ABFD be

Let

two par-

allelograms on the same base AE, and

and
between the same parallel lines

AE

CD;

then,

we are

to

show

that these two

parallelograms are equal.

and
are equal, because
Now

FD

CE

they are each equal to

if from the whole line
will

(th.

AE (th. 21 );

and

CD we take, in succession, CE and FD, there

ED

EB=

AF=BD

remain (ax. 3)
OF; but
CA, and
have
hence
we
two
CAF
and
As,
EED, which have
21)
;

the three sides of the one equal to the three corresponding sides of
the other, each to each ; and therefore by (th.
the two As

CAF and EED are

the

CAF,

19)

If from the

equal.

the parallelogram

AEDF

whole figure we take away

remains and if from the
;

EED be

whole figure the other triangle

will remain
that
ogram

ABEC

is,

taken away, the parallelfrom the same quantity, if

equals are taken (ax. 3), equals will be left; or the parallelogram

ABDF=ABEC.

Q. E.

D.

GEOMETRY.

30

THEOREM

25.

Triangles on the same base, and between the same parallels, are equal
(in respect to area or surface).

Let the two AS"

have the same base
the same parallels

we

are to

show

ABE

ABF

and

AB, and between

AB

and

CD ;

then

that they are equal in

surface.

From

parallel to

BE ;

draw a dotted line, BD,

and from A draw a dotted

AF ;

and produce

the parallelogram
But the
is

line

A C,

parallel to

C and D;

necessary, to

then

ABCE

ABFD=i\iQ

parallelogram
(th. 24).
half the parallelogram ABCE, and the
half the parallelogram
but halves of equals are

A ABE

ABF

EF both ways, if

is

ABDF;

equal (ax. 7)

therefore the

A ABE=i\ie A ABF.

THEOREM

Q. E.

D.

26.

Parallelograms on equal loses, and between the same parallels, are

equal in area.

AB CD, and EFGH, be two parallelograms on equal bases, AB and

Let

the same parallels ;

then we are to show that they are equal

EF, and between

in area.

As

A-B=EF=HG ;

but lines which join equal and parallel

themselves equal and parallel (th. 23) therefore, if
be joined, the figure ABGHis a parallelogram to

lines, are

and

BG

(th.

24)

AH

= ABCD

and

if

we

ograms HEFO and

between the same

turn the whole figure over, the two parallelstand on the same base, HG, and

HGBA, will
parallels

consequently (ax. 1)

therefore,

ABCD=EFG-H.

HGEF=HGBA ;
Q. E.

and

D.

Cor. Triangles on equal bases, and between the same parallels,

is half of the
are equal ; for, join
and EQ, the
paris half of the equal parallelogram
C; and the
allelogram

A ABD

BD

FH;

therefore, the

A EFG

A ABD=i\& A EFG- (ax.

7).

BOOK

I.

THEOREM

31

27.

If a triangle and a parallelogram be upon the same or equal bases, and

between the same parallels, the triangle will be half

ABC be

t/te

parallelogram.

AEDE

a parallelA, and
and
between
same
on
the
base
AB,
ogram,
the same parallels then we are to show that

Let

A ABC

the

half of ABDE.
to the parallelothe diagonal
and
then, because the two AS
is

EB

Draw
gram

ABC

base, and between the

the

A ABE

same

parallels,

ABE are on the same

they are equal

(th.

ABDE

25)

but

half the parallelogram

(cor. to the 22) ;
is half of the same
parallelogram (ax. 7).

is

A ABC

therefore the

Q. E. D.

THEOREM

28.

The complementary parallelograms of any parallelogram which are

about

its

Let
its

diagonal, are equal to each, other.

A C be

diagonal

the

a parallelogram, and

BD

take any point, as E, in

diagonal, and from it draw lines

its sides
thus forming four

parallel to

parallelograms.

We

are

now

to

show

that the comple-

mentary parallelograms AE

By

corollary to

DBG.

and EC,

are equal.

theorem 22 we learn that the

Also by the same (cor.) a=b, and

addition

Now
(a-f-c),

from the whole

\ADB

take the

sides

sum

A DBC take the

AE and EC are equal

THEOREM
The

therefore

by

a-}-c=b-\-d.

and from the whole

and the remainders

c=d;

of the two

equal

(ax. 3).

sum
Q. E.

AS

(b-\-d),

D.

29.

of a parallelogram will inclose the greatest space when

Hie angles are right angles.

GEOMETRY.

32

ABDC

Let

be a right angled
ABba an ob-

parallelogram, and

lique angled parallelogram of equal

sides to the other

show

then we are to

that the right angled parallelogram

ABDC

is

greater than the

ABba.

other,

We

Aa=AC.

take

pendicular A C,

Then

Aa

than

is less

AE,

because the per-

AE

equal Aa, is less than any oblique line

the
therefore
line ab is between the two
and
(th. 20)
parallels
CF. The parallelogram
; because they are on
or

its

AB

ABD C=ABFE

the

same base AB, and between the same

the parallelogram
therefore,

ABFE,

ABba
or

its

but
parallels (th. 24)
but part of the parallelogram
;
C, is greater than ABba ; but
equal
;

ABFE

is

ABD

the parallelogram ABba has the same length of sides,

respectively,
as the parallelogram
; therefore the side, &c.
Q. E. D.
Cor. It is evident, then, that the area of the parallelogram

ABDC

ABba

will become less and less as its angles become more and
more oblique and greater and greater as its angles become nearer
;

and nearer

to right angles.

Scholium. All parallelograms (indeed

to square units for their

all

figures) are referred

measurement, and the unit may be taken

at

pleasure
may be an inch, a foot, a yard, a rod, a mile, <fec.,
and propriety may dictate. For example,
as
convenience
according
is measured by the number of linear
the parallelogram
;

it

ABDC

units in

CD, multiplied
will

into the

be the square imits

number
in

of linear units in

ABDC ;

for conceive

A C;
CD

the

com-

product
posed of any number of equal parts say five and each part some
unit of linear measure, and A C composed of three such units,
and from each point of division on CD draw
lines parallel to

AC;

and from each point of

AC

draw

lines parallel to

division

AB ;

on

then

it is

as obvious as an

parallelogram will contain

units

and

CD

or

axiom that the

5X3=15

square

in general the areas of right

angled parallelograms are

found by multiplying the base by the altitude.
;

Right angled parallelograms are called rectangles (def. 26), and

the altitude of any parallelogram, whether right angled or not, is
the perpendicular distance between

its

opposite sides.

BOOK

THEOREM

30.

The area of any plane triangle

is measured by the product of its base

half its altitude ; or half the base into the altitude.

into

Let

ABC represent any triangle, AE

AD at right angles to AE its alti-

its

base, and

tude
is

equal

AD

On

we are

then

to the

to

show

product of

that the area

AB

of

ABC

into one half

of

AE

or the half of
into AD.
construct the rectangle

AB

rectangle
the area

ABED;

and the area of

AB into AD (scholium to th. 29)

A ABC one half this rectangle (th.

measured by

is

of the

27)

D.

THEOREM
The area of a

but

is

Q. E.

therefore, &c.

this

31.

is measured by the half sum of its parallel

perpendicular distance between them.

trapezoid

sides, multiplied into the

Let ABD C represent any trapezoid,

and draw the diagonal BC, which divides it into two triangles, ABC and

BCD: CD
angle,

is

the base of one

AB may be

and

the base of the other

tri-

considered as

EF

and

is

common

the

altitude of the

two

triangles.

Now by

CDXEF;
by
to

the last theorem the area of the triangle

and the area of the

addition, the area of the

$( A + CJ) ) X EF

Q- E

be two lines, one

therefore,

two AS, or of the trapezoid,

-

is

equal

D>

THEOREM
If there

CDB is=

A ABC=%ABXEF;

of which

32.

is divided into

any number of

parts, the rectangle contained by the two lines is equal to the several
rectangles contained by the undivided line,
the divided line.

and

the several parts

of

34

GEOMETRY.
Let AB be one line, and AD the other
;

and suppose

AB divided into any number

of parts at the points E, F, G, &c.

the whole rectangle of the two lines

which

is

measured by AB

into

then

is

AH,

AD;

and

AE

AL

is measured
the rectangle
into
by
AD; and the rectangle EKis measured by EF'mto EL, which is
into
and so of all the other partial rectangles ;
equal to

EF

AD;

and the truth of the proposition

is

as obvious as that a whole

is

equal to the sum of all its parts and requires no other demonstration than an explanation of exactly what is meant
by the words
;

of the text.

THEOREM
If a

straight line be divided into

whole line

is

sum of

equal to the

33.

any two parts,

the squares

of

tlie

square of the

the two parts,

and

twice the rectangle contained by the parts.

Let

AB be

any

parts at the point

line divided into

any two

then we are to show

on AB is equal to the sum of

AC and CB, and twice the rec-

that the square

the squares

AC

tangle of

On
ceive

on

into

describe the square (or conThrough the

described) AD.

it

point

BD;

and take

AB,
As

CB.

AB

conceive

CH

and

CM

drawn

parallel to

HKN

draw
BH=BC; and through
parallel to
on
is the
direct
construction.
CB, by
square

AB=BD,

CB=BDBH;

CB=BH,

and
or

AC=HD.

sides of a parallelogram

therefore (ax. 1),

therefore,

But

by

subtraction,

AB

NK=AG,

being opposite
and for the same reason

NK=KM

NK equal to a square on A C.

NM

KM=HD;

and the figure

is a
square on
But the whole square on AB is com-

posed of the two squares CH, NM, and the two complements or recin length, and
tangles AKfind KD; and each of these is

AC

in

width

and each has

for its

measure A C

into

BC

CB;

therefore the

2
whole square on AB is equal to A C 2
+2A CX CB.
This may be proved algebraically, thus

+BC

Q. E.

D.

BOOK

35

I.

Let w represent any whole right line divided into any two parts
a and b; then we shall have the equation

w=a
By

Scholium.

-\-b

w*=a*-\-b

squaring

Q. E.

-{- 2ab.

2
a=b, then w?=4a which shows

If

of any whole line

is

it.

34.

of two lines

the difference

the two lines, diminished

squares of

that the square

four times the square of half of

THEOREM
The square on

D.

is

equal

to the

sum of

the

by twice the rectangles contained by

the lines.

AB represent the greater line, B C a

and AC their difference.

Let

lesser line,

We
is

are

now

to

show

sum of

equal to the

BC, diminished by twice

by AB into BC.

On

BL described

MG

duce

As
or

GE

is

and pro-

to JT.

therefore,

AB.

equal (AC-\- CB), or

is

AB

in length,

and

CB

in

width

by addition,

GC+ CL),

Therefore the rectangle

;

and

is

measured by

AB

BC.

Also

= CB;
CB

the square

AC describe the square ACGM ;

and on

GC=A C, and CL= CB;

GL,

into

KG
and

AF to be de-

square
conceive

CB

and on

on

the rectangle contained

AB conceive the

scribed

on

AB

that the square

the squares

AH=AB, and A M=A C ; therefore by subtraction MH

and as MK=AB, the rectangle HK is AB in length, and

in width,

and

GE and

it

measured by

is

ZT-/T,

rectangles
Now the

squares

on

AHFELC;

and from

this

away the two rectangles

only will

remain

that

AB

may be

and

BC

CB ; and
2ABXBC.

into

make

the

the two

whole figure

figure, or these two squares, take

and GE, and the square on
C

whole

HK

is,

AC*=AB*+BC
This

AB

are together equal to

2ABXBC.

proved algebraically, thus

Q. E.

D.

GEOMETRY.

36

Let a represent one line, b another and lesser

then we must have this equation
;

difference

d=a
By

squaring

difference

of

-j-5

their

2ab.

AE be one

sum and

line,

and

35.

of any two

the squares

tangle contained by the

Let

and d

=a

THEOREM
The

line,

difference

AG

lines is equal to the rec-

of the

lines.

the other, and

AM;

then
on them describe the squares AD,
and on
the difference of the squares on
is the two
and FC. We are now
rectangles

AB

EF

show

to

that the

be expressed

The
for

its

by

measure of these rectangles

(AB-f-AC)

into

(AB

EF

may

AC).

has ED, or its equal AB,

rectangle
length ; the other has MO, or its equal

A C,

for its length

two together (if we conceive them put between the

same parallel lines) will have (AB-\-AC) for the length; and
the common width is CB, which is equal to (AB A C); theretherefore, the

AE A *=(AB+A C) X (ABA C).

1

fore,

proved algebraically thus

Put a to represent one line, and b another
This

is

Then
and

is

a-f-6

their

sum, and a

(a-B)x(a

5)=a

36.

described on the hypotenuse of

equal to

sum of

ilie

the squares

any right angled triangle

on the other two sides,

ABC

represent any right angled

angle, the right angle at B.
We are to show that the square on

tri-

AC

sum of two
equal
other on BC.
to the

squares ; one

on AB,

is

the

Conceive the three squares, AD, AT, and

described on the three sides.
Through

BM,

the point B,

and produce
Produce

draw
it

to

BNE perpendicular to A C,
meet the

AF to meet

line

Q. E. D.

b\

The square
Let

D.

b their difference

THEOREM
is

Q. E.

OI in K,

Q-I in H.

If

ML be

BOOK
it

produced,

37

I.

IBLK will

meet the point K, and

will

angled parallelogram

for its

angles right angles.

The angle
right angle

BAH,

angle

BA G

the remaining angle,

GAH.

ABC;

AGH

a right angle, and the angle

and from these equals

maining angle
angle

is

The angle

AB=A&;

and

if

and

we

NAH

subtract the

is

all its

also a

common

BA C,
# is

must be equal to the rea right angle, equal to the

therefore, the

AH=AC.

But
are equal, and
Now the two parallelograms,

two

AC=AF;

AE

=AF.

be a right

opposite sides are parallel,

ABC

and

therefore

AH

As

and AJfare equal, be-

cause they are upon equal bases, and between the same parallels,

FH

and^^(th.

26).

But the square AI, and the parallelogram AKare equal, because
they are on the same base, AB, and between the same parallels,
AB and OK; therefore the square AI, and the parallelogram

AE,

being both equal to the same parallelogram

1
In the same manner we
).

to each other (ax.

BM

AK, are equal

may prove the

square
equal to the rectangle ND; therefore, by addition,
and BM, are equal to the two parallelograms
the two squares
and ND, or to the square AD.
Q. E. D.

AI

AE

sides AB and BC may vary, while AC

AB may be equal to BC ; then the point ^V
would be in the middle of A C. When AB is very near the length
of AC, and BC very small, then the point N falls very near to C.
Now, as the parallelograms AE and ND (while AC remains

The two

Scholium.

remains constant.

unchanged) depend

for their relative

magnitudes on the position of

AE

ND

the point N, on the line

must be to the area
C, the area
as the line
to
that
the
is,
;
square on AB, must be to the

AN NC

square on

BC, as

tlte

line

AN to the line

NC.

ANOTHER DEMONSTRATION OF THEOREM 36.

Let

ABC

be a right angled triangle,

right angled at ./I.

BC, h

Call

AB,

a,

then we are to show that

AC, b, and
d2 -{-b 2 =h 3
.

AB to D, making BD=AC;
and produce A G to E, making CE=AB
then AD=AJ; and each of these lines
(a
Produce

is

-\-b),

and the whole square Affis the square

of (a-f-6), and

by

(th.

33)

is

a'-H

-f-2a.

GEOMETRY.

38

From

draw BQ-

at right angles, the

CB ;

at right angles to

same

line

CB ;

and from

BO

then

and

C draw CF

CF

must be

We must now prove that, the four triangles

parallel,
in the square AH are all equal, and that CGBF is the square on
CB. As the two angles CBA and CBD make two right angles,
and join FO.

and CBCfis a right angle by construction, therefore the

CBA and GBD make one right angle. But CBA and

(th. 11),

two angles

A CB (cor. 4, th.

11) are also equal to a right angle and from these

the angle
CB.
equals take the angle CBA, and the angle
But the angle
the angle D; both right angles, and
was
;

OBD =

A=

BD

ABC

and GBD,
made equal to AC; therefore, the two triangles,
having a side and two angles equal, are in all respects equal, and
CB=Bff. In the same manner we prove
and therefore CO- is a square on CB, and the four triangles are each equal

BG=GF;

to

ABC,

and each triangle has for

is ab, and the four

of two of these

Now

Also

transposition

From

Cor.

is

=a -}-b
=a +5

subtraction

By
By

measure \ob.

its

The measure

2ab.

A2
.

D.

Q. E.

we may have
2
a2 =5 ;or, (A+a)

this equation

A2

THEOREM

(h

37.

In any obtuse angled triangle the square of the side opposite

than the sum of squares on the other two

the obtuse angle is greater

by twice the rectangle of the base, and the distance of the per-

sides,

pendicular from the obtuse angle.

ABC

Let
angled

at

be any obtuse angled

B.

A,

obtuse

Bjepresent the side opposite

by > opposite
by a ; and opposite C by
let
i\ii$
be
a
(and
general form of notation)
b

also

perpendicular by p, and
we are to show that & 2 =a 2 -f-

represent the

DB by x.
By

(th.

Also

Now
36)

^-Ka-hr)
/>*+

=c

(1)
2

(2)

B O O K

transposition

=a +c
2

This equation

Sinolium.

39

we have

equation (1), and subtracting (2),

By expanding

By

is

true,

D.

Q. E.

+2a#.

whatever be the value of

x,

and x may be of any value less than CD. When x is very small,
B is very near D, and the line c is very near in position and value

When x=0,

to^.

becomes p, and the angle

and the equation becomes

right angle,

ABC

becomes a

-f-c

corresponding

to (th. 36).

THEOREM

38.

In any triangle, the square of a side opposite an acute angle is less

than the square of the base, and the other side, by twice the rectangle of
the base,

Lvt

and

ABC,

the distance

of

the perpendicular from the acute angle.

eith-

er figure, represent

any triangle
acute

the

CB

angle,

the base, and

AD

the

perpen-

dicular, which falls

either without or

on the base.

Then we

= CB +AC 2CBX CD.

are to prove that

AB?

As in (th. 37), put AB=c, AC=b, CBa, BD=x, AD=p;

and when the perpendicular falls without the base, as in the first
x.
figure, CDa-{-x; when it falls on the base, CD=a
Considering the

first figure,

the following equations

and by the aid of

;,

+(a+.r)

p>+x*=c
By expanding

=6

(1)
2
( )

(1), and subtracting (2),

c

"%.

we have

a 2 to both members, and transposing

2
2
2a 2 -f 2;r ) =4 2
c
(

By

transposing

we have

a 2 +2a*=& 2

By adding

(th. 36),

the

2
,

+a

vinculum, and resolving

it

have

r=a

-r-6

we have

2a(fi-f-#).

Q. E. D.

into

factors,

GEOMETRY.

40

we have

Considering the other figure,

(1)
(2)

By
By

=6

2a#

a?

subtraction

2
adding a to both members, and transposing
2
2
2
2
2ax
c +2a
-f-a

=6 +a

2a(a

THEOREM
If in any triangle a

line be

Q. E.

a:).

of

ABC

Let

that

be a triangle,
Then we are

its

base

to

prove

M.

2AM +2CM =AC +AB

2

AD

Draw

base, and

call

it

AB=c, CJB=2a;

DJS=a

=a-\-x, and

by

(th.

2
.

2/7

2m +2a
2

Therefore

CD

then

AM=m.

Put

+(+s) =&
2

4-2a;
2

(1)
(2)

+2a 2 =6 +c
+c 2

2
.

four sides of
Let

Q. E.

draw

its

We

now

to

A C and BD.
show,

=EC, DE=EB.

2d.

=AB

4-BC

1st.

That

+DC +AD

2
.

That AE
AC +BD
2

bisect

sum of

be any parallelogram, and

diagonals

are

to the

=m

D.

40.

the parallelogram.

ABCD

But j9 2 +a; 2

their squares is equal

The two diagonals of any parallelogram

sum of

squares

the

THEOREM
the

sum of the

36) we have the two following equations

2

middle of

AC=b,
CM=a, and

x.

addition

to the

to

p*+(a-zy=--c*

By

D.

Put

MD=x ;

MB=a. Make
Now

p.
then

we have

perpendicular

this line, togetJier with twice the

square of half the side bisected, will be equal to the

of the other two sides.

bisected in

39.

drawn from any angle

the opposite side, twice the square

each other;

the squares

of

and

all the

BOOK
41
Tlie two triangles ABE and DEQ are equal, because AB
ts=DC, the angle ABE = the alternate angle EDO, and the vertical
angles at E are equal therefore, AE, the side opposite the angle
ABE, equal to EC, the side opposite the equal angle EDC
I.

1.

is

EB, the remaining side of the one

remaining side of the other triangle.
also

2.

As

AD

a triangle whose base

is

have, by (th. 39),

AC

ED,

the

bisected in E,

we

equal to

(1)

whose base, A C, is bisected in E, we have

2
2^LE'M-2 E ,B =ABM- BC
(2)

triangle

r2

By

is

2AE +2JSD =AD +J)C

2

As -45 C is a

is

adding equations (1) and (2), and observing that

EB*=ED*, we have

But four times the square of the half of a line is equal to the
2
square of the whole (scholium to th. 33); therefore 4AJZ =AC*t
and 4J3D 2 =DB*; and by making the

+J)

=AJ)

-}-J)

'

substitutions

&+AB*+B C*.

we have
Q. E. D.

GEOMETRY

42

BOOK

II.

PROPORTION,
THE word Proportion has different shades of meaning, according to the subject to which it is applied thus, when we say that a
person, a building, or a vessel is well proportioned, we mean nothing
:

more than that the different parts of the person or thing bear that
general relation to each other which corresponds to our taste and
ideas of beauty or utility, but in a more concise and geometrical
sense,

Proportion is the numerical relation which one quantity bears to

another of the same kind.

DEFINITIONS AND EXPLANATIONS.

In Geometry, the
face

to

To

the numerical relation which

find

another,

1st.

A solid to a solid.

3d.

surface.

between which proportion can

A line to a line. 2d. A sur-

quantitities

exist, are of three kinds, only.

we must

refer

If a quantity, as

them both

to the

one quantity bears to

same standard of measure.

A, be contained exactly

a certain number of times

in another

quan-

is said to measure
tity, B, the quantity
the quantity B; and if the same quantity,
A, be contained exactly a certain number
is also
of times in another quantity, C,

measure of the quantity C, and

a
common measure of the quanit is called
B
and
titles
C; and the quantities B and

said to be a

p
'

'

'

'

'

will, evidently, bear the same relation to each other that the
numbers do which represent the multiple that each quantity is of

the

common measure A.

Thus,
times,

if

and

contain

A three

times,

and

contain

being equimultiples of the quantity

also three

A,

will

be

BOOK
equal to each other
tain

and

if

43

II.

contain

three times, and

con-

and G will be the

four times, the proportion between
as the proportion between the numbers 3 and 4.

same

a quantity, D, be contained as often in another quanin B, and as often in another quantity,

if

Again,
tity,

A is contained

E, as

to F, or the proportion
F, as A is contained in G, the ratio of
between them, will be the same as the proportion between B and
C; and in that case, the quantities B, C, JE, and F, are said to be
a relation which is commonly expressed
proportional quantities
;

B C::E:F.

thus,

To

find the numerical relation that any quantity, as A, has to

other
by
quantity of the same kind as B, we simply divide
any
the
and
A,
quotient may appear in the form of a fraction, thus

73

Now

this fraction, or the value of this quotient, is

always a

and B.
numeral, whatever quantities may be expressed by
To find the numerical relation between JD and E, we simply
divide

E by D,

or write

which denotes the division

same quotient as when we divided

find the

and

if

we

JE

by A, then we may

write

B-D
A~E
If

B contains A three

we have

times,

and

just supposed, equation (

m
(

'

D contains JE three

times, as

nothing more than saying

) is

that

3=3
When we

divide one quantity by another to find their numerical

relation, the quotient thus obtained is called the ratio.

When

the ratio between two quantities is the

same as

the ratio between

two other quantities, the four quantities constitute a proportion.

On

N. B.

this single definition rests the

whole subject of geo-

metrical proportion.

On

this definition, if

A, and

we suppose

that

B is

D the same number of times E, then

A to B as E to D;
is

is

Or more

concisely

J3=JS:

JD.

any numbei of times

The

signs

meaning equal

ratio.

GEOMETRY.
manifest, that if E
greater than A, D will be greater

44

Now
than

is

it is

A=E,

If

jB.

A
relation B
or ratio

then

B=D,

<fec., <fec.

and whatever

relation

same ratio B will be of D; and whatever

the same relation JD will be of E.
This shows

is

of E, the

is

of -4,

means may be changed, or made to change places.

A
.
D, which is the former proOr,
portion with the middle terms or means changed.
that the

The first and

third of four

E=B

magnitudes are called the antecedents

the second and fourth, the consequents.

simple relation or ratio exists between any two magnitudes of
the same kind ; but a proportion, in the full sense of the term,

must

consist of four quantities.

When

the two middle quantities are equal, as,

A B=B
:

then the three quantities, A, B, and C, are said to be continued

and B is said to be the mean proportional between
proportionals
A and C; and is said to be the third proportional to A and B.
;

A B=

is said to be the
In the proportion
C : D, the last
fourth proportional to A, B, and C.
may be called the first proBy the same rule of expression,
third
the
and
the
for either one can be
;
second,
portional,
:

found when the other three are given, as

we

shall subsequently

explain.

When

quantities

have the same constant

other, they are said to

Thus: the numbers

portion

be
1,

from one

to the

2,

4,

8,

16,

<fcc.,

are in continued pro-

the constant ratio from term to term being 2.

THEOREM
there be two

Jf

ratio

in continued proportion,

1.

magnitudes which have a common measure, x, so

magnitude may be expressed by mx, the second by nx and

two other magnitudes which have a common measure, y, so that the

that the first

first

mon

be expressed by my, the second by ny ; that is, the two commeasures x and y having the same equimultiples,
and n, to

may

make up

the

magnitudes ; then the four magnitudes will be in geome-

trical proportion.

Or

...

mx:nx=my:ny

BOOK
For the

ratio

my and ny

mx and nx

between

_ =m

is

??3?

is

mx

same

the

II.

45
72

=_
m

and the

ratio

by the

ratio; therefore,

between

definition

my

If

Scholium.
proportional

we change

D.

Q. E.

of proportion, these magnitudes are proportional.

the means, the magnitudes are

still

but the ratio between the terms of comparison

is

different.

Thus

The
the

between

ratio

3d and 4th

is

nx
magnitudes
nitudes, the

mx my=nx

the 1st

ny.

and 2d,

is,

=^;

the ratio between

the same ratio as between the other two

=-,
x

but as in this latter case

!_^

mx

numeral value of the

we compare

different

mag-

ratio is different.

But we cannot change the means, unless we then consider the

magnitudes existing only in their numeral relations. To whatever
the magnitudes may refer, whether to lines, surfaces, or solids, the
ratio

is

always a mere numeral

equal,

we may

shown

hereafter.

N. B. The
couplet,

first

and the

therefore,

increase or decrease

them

when two

ratios stand

at pleasure, as will be

two terms of a proportion are called the finl

two are called the second couplet.

last

THEOREM
When four magnitudes
the extremes is equal to the

2.

are in geometrical proportion, the product of

product of the means.

Let the four magnitudes be represented by A, B, C, and D.

Then
Some numeral

Let that

ratio

A:B=C:D.

relation, or ratio,

must

be represented by r; that

exist
is,

between

and B.

B must equal rA.

But, by the definition of proportion, the same relation must exist

C and as between and B; or D=rC.

between

Then by

substitution

we have

A:rA0:rC.
The product

ArC;

of the extremes

obviously the same.

is

rCA, and

Q. E. D.

that of the

means

is

GEOMETRY.

46

THEOREM
If

magnitudes be continued proportionals, the product of the

equal to the square of the means.

three

extremes

3.

is

Let A, B, and

G represent

Then

A B=B

the three magnitudes

by the definition of proportion.
But by theorem 2 (book 2), the product of the extremes is equal
Z
that is,
to the product of the means
Q. E. D.
.

C,

AX C=B

THEOREM

4.

Equimultiples of any two magnitudes have the same ratio as the

magnitudes themselves ; and the magnitudes and their equimultiples

may therefore form a proportion.

Let

B represent the

and

magnitudes, and

mA

and

mB

their

equimultiples.

A:B=mA:mB
For the ratio of A to B
-, and of mA to mB
A
Then

is

same

ratio

therefore, &c.

r
is

^.-,
mA
A

Q. E. D.

THEOREM

5.

quantities be proportional, they will be proportional

If four

the

when

taken inversely.
If

A B=mA
:

For

mB, then

B A=mB mA ;
:

in either case, the product of the extremes

;

therefore, &c.

Q. E.

Magnitudes which are proportional

proportional
If

and

A B=P Q ?

the law of proportion

A,so.

to the

Then we

same proportionals, are

are to prove that

A:Ba:b.

a:b=P:Q$
r>

By

6.

each other.
:

THEOREM
to

and means are

is the same

or the ratio between the couplets

manifestly equal

f\

-^=^-

BOOK
i

7?

Therefore,

by

A B=a :b

Q.

JE.

D.

-/I

may be

This principle

Cor.

or
^-=-,
Ci

(ax. 1)

47

II.

extended through any number of

proportionals.

THEOREM
If any number of
antecedents will be to

sum of

to the

quantities be proportional, then

And
And

sum of

consequent as the

its

any one of

the

all the antecedents is

all the consequents.

...

Let

7.

to

show

A:B=C:2
C';D

E:F=G-:H
&c.=&c.

Then we are

that

A B= C+JS+G
:

A B

as

by A,

will

produce

D;

If

plied
will

C D,

<fec.

D+F+H,

Ac.

then some factor, whole or fractional, multi-

produce
that

and the same

the proportions

is,

factor multiplied
)

by B,

become

A B=mA mB
:

= nA nB
= pA :pB
:

&c,,

But,

For the

&c.

B=mA-\-nA-\-pA, &c mB-\-nB-\-pB, &c.

:

ratio

(m+n+p)B
A-r=V-

(m-\-n-\-p)A

Now

as

Therefore,

mA=0, nAJ, pA=G, &c.

A B= C+JB+ Q D-\-F-\-H.
:

THEOREM

Q.E.D.

8.

If four magnitudes constitute a proportion, the first will be to the

the first and second, as the third is to the sum of the third and

sum of
fourth.

By

hypothesis,

A'.A+B::

C:

A B
:

C:D;

C+2.

B
By

the given proportion,

-7=-^.

then

we

are to prove that

GEOMETRY.

48

Add

we have

a fraction,
its

them

unity -to both members, and reducing

T\

that

A: A
.

ol

equation into

C+D.

C:

it,

and we

sum of

the first

In place of adding unity, subtract

Or

form

we have

A-.A+B::
N. B.

this

Throwing

TT~-

equivalent proportional form,

to the

fl

find

shall

CD

B:: C:

A'.BA:: C:DC.

THEOREM
If four magnitudes
is to their difference,

9.

be proportional, the

sum of

as the

and fourth

the third

and second
is to

their

difference.

Admitting that

A B

A+B
From

AB

same hypothesis,

the

D, we are

C+D

to

CD

prove that

3 gives

th.

A A+B ::C: C+D

:

And

A:AB::C:CD

Changing the means (which will not affect the product of tht
extremes and means, and of course will not destroy proportionality),

and we have

A: C::A+B:
A: C::AB:
Now, by

A+B

(th. 2),

Changing the means,

A+B

CD

C+D AB CD
AB C+D CD
:

THEOREM

10.

be proportional, like

If four magnitudes
same

C+D

powers or roots of

the

will be proportional.

Admitting

A B

D, we are
1

An :Bn
By the hypothesis,

C* D n
A=C

and

A*

Raising

equation to the wth power, and

A*

C*

.#":

show

to

that

'

both members of this

BOOK
Changing

each member,

An B C D
A = C an(i
the

its

taking

Now by

the

first

i_

i_

O D

::

we have

A B

n
:

Converting this equa-

part of this theorem,

TO

nth root

\_

we have

equivalent proportion,

A:

we have

-j^

B
tion into

49
n

this to the proportion

Resuming again the equation

of

II.

m
n

power whatever, and n representing any

representing any

root.

THEOREM

11.

If four magnitudes be proportional, also four others, their compound, or product of term by term, will form a proportion.
Admitting that

And

We

are to

X: Y:

show that

C :D

M N
:

AX: BY:

MG ND
:

From

the

From

the second,

first

X =-WM

Multiply these equations,

Or
AX:
The same would be true
.

5- =-j-

proportion,

member by member, and

BY:
in

MC ND
:

any number of proportions.

THEOREM

12.

Taking the tame hypothesis as in (th.ll), we propose to show, thai

a proportion may be formed by dividing one proportion by the other,
term by term.

By hypothesis,
And
5

...
.

C D
X:Y::M\N

A B
:

GEOMETRY.
AD=BC
Multiply extremes and means,

(1)

And

(2)

50

NX=MY

Divide (1) by (2), and

-=X

=X-y.

Convert these four terms, which make two equal products, into
a proportion, and we shall have

E[_C_

A_

By comparing this with the given proportions, we find it composed of the quotients of the several terms of the first proportion,
divided by the corresponding term of the second.

THEOREM

13-

*/.
lO'/j.let
Iffour magnitudes be proportional, we may multiply the
cm
or the second couplet, the antecedents or the consequents, or divide
t.'.

by the same factor,

Suppose

and

the results will be proportional in every case.

C D
AD=BC
MAD MR C

A B

Multiply extremes and means, and

by M, and

Multiply this equation

Now,
term or

MA

in this last equation,

factor, or

,MD may

member, we may take

may be

(1)

considered as a single
So, in the second

be so considered.

MB as one factor,

MC.

or

Hence, we

may

convert this equation into a proportion in four different ways.

Thus, as

Or
Or
Or
If

as

as

as

we resume

number, M,

MA MB
:

:D

\\MC\MD
MC D

A \B
MA B
:

A\MB\\C\MD

the original equation (1), and divide it by any

it, we can have, by the same

in place of multiplying

course of reasoning,

0:D

4^-vM
MM
M'

'''M

A-

"

'M'

'

:D

C'
'

BOOK

THEOREM
If
third,

51

II.

14.

three magnitudes are in continued proportion, the first is to the

as the square of

tJie

first is to the

square of the second.

Let A, B, and C, represent three proportionals.

Then we

show

are to

that

A C=A B
Z

AC=&

By(th. 3)
Multiply this equation

the numeral value of

by

This equation gives the following proportion

A C=A* B3
:

THEOREM

A, then we have

Q. E.

D.

15.

If any one of the four magnitudes which form a proportion, be

effaced or unknown, it can be restored by means of the other three.

A B= C D

Let

un-

A B= C x
B is the same as between C and x.
the
ratio
A and B by r ; and as r is always
between
Represent
numeral, whatever quantitities are represented by A and JS,
That

The

represent a proportion, and suppose

then represent it by x
:

known

is

ratio

therefore,

the same

-j-

or

-^=r;

name

When A
by

between

and

and

x=rC;

which shows that x or

D must be

of

as C.

and

are not commensurable, the ratio

x=;
A

third terms divided

or, in

by the

is

expressed

numbers, the product of the second and

first, will

give the fourth, which

is

rule of three in arithmetic.

In short, as

AD=BC,

EC
4=-jj-,

B==

AD C= AD
-(T>
-jj->

and

CB
2)=.

the

ME TRY

G E

52

THEOREM

16.

Parallelograms, and also triangles, having the same or equal

tudes, are to one another as their bases.

Let a represent the number of

and part

of a unit in

EC, and

b the

alti-

units,

num-

ber of units and part of a unit in BD.

Also let p represent the units and parts

Now
of a unit in the perpendicular, AB.
book 1), the parallelogram ABCJE=pa,

ABDF=pb ;

and

themselves,

as

by (scholium to th. 29
and the parallelogram
must be proportional to

magnitudes

ABCE ABDFpa

But

ABCE ABDF=a
:

1.

As

(th.

4 book 2)

we have

Therefore (th. 6 book 2),

Cor

pb

b=pa pb

Q. E. D.

b.

on the same base and altitude as parallel-

triangles

ograms are halves of parallelograms and as the halves of quanare in the same proportion as their wholes
therefore
;

tities

The

.A BPC

A BQD=a

b.

When

parallelograms and triangles have the same or

equal basis, they will be to each other as their altitudes for the
Cor. 2.

proportion

ABCE: ABDF=pa

and when a becomes equal

Then
Or

to b

:pb, as

above,

and p, and

is

always true;

different,

ABCE: ABDF=Pa :pa

ABCE:ABDF--=P :p, that

is,

as their

perpendicular altitudes.

THEOREM
Lines drawn parallel

to the

17.

base of a triangle, cut ike sides of the

triangle proportionally.

ABC

Let

draw
then

be

any

DE parallel to
we are

to

show

triangle,

the base
that

AD DB=AE EC.
D C and BE. The triangle
:

Join

and

BC ;

DEB = the A DEC,

are on the same base,

tween the same

because they
DE, and be-

parallels,

DE and BC (th.

25 book

1).

BOOK II.
ALE by T, DEB

Represent the triangle

then x=y. Now, as the triangles

T and

53

by

may

x,

DEC

by y;

be considered as

AD and DB for bases, and the perpendicular distance of

E from AB for altitudes, therefore, by (th. 16, book 2).
AD: DB=T:x

having

the point

By

reasoning in the same manner in reference to the triangles

y, they having their common vertex in D, we have the

and

proportion

AE EC= T y.
AE EC=T x\
AD DB=T: x\

Therefore

But

But

AE EC=AD DB
AD DB=AE EC.

x=y

Therefore, (th. 6, book 2)

:

Or

Q. E. D.
Cor.

Considering

having their
as one, and

common

AEB

as

vertex in

ADE another,

one triangle, and

E; and

in the

whose vertex

is

AED

another,

same manner,

AD C

D, then we may have

A:AD=AC: AE
by taking the proportion

For,

AD DB=AE EC
:

And by

composition, (th. 8 book 2),

we have

AB :AD=AC:AE.

THEOREM
Similar triangles have

18.

their sides,

about the equal angles,

proportional.

Let

ABC and DEF be

two similar

triangles,

having the angle

B=E,
for

the

cuity,

AB

';

and

sake of perspi-

we

will

greater

Now we

A=D,

C=F

and

suppose
than ED.

AB AC=DE DF ;
AB :DE=AC:DF.

are to show that

DEF

or that

Conceive the triangle

taken up and placed on the triangle
in such a manner that the
shall fall on A, and the
point

ABC,

GEOMETRY.
point E falling on H.

54

DE

line

on

AB, the
EF, or

E=B,

the line

tion of

BC, and be

Now

AI=DF,
last

HI=EF.

and

theorem we have

That

DEF

But

as

AHI are identical for

AIH=F; therefore

and

AHI=E ;
HI

then

parallel to

is

AB AC=AH Al
AB AC=DE DF

is,

as the angle

EG

two triangles
and A=D, and

the

AH=DE,

Now,

representative, HI, will take the direcparallel to

(def. of parallel lines).
its

':

(7,

Q. E.

by the

D.

If perpendiculars be let fall from like angles in the

to
the
triangles,
opposite sides, as CL and FM, such perpendiculars
will divide the two triangles into similar partial triangles, and

Scholium.

...

As

And

DE=AC:DF
CL\MF=AC:DF
AB DE= CL MF

AB:

Therefore (th. 6 b. 2)

THEOREM

19.

triangle have its sides respectively proportional to the like

another
of
triangle, each to each, then the two triangles will be

If any
sides

equiangular.

Let the triangle abc have

to the triangle

ABC;

CB, and ac

A C,

to

prove that the

that

its
is,

as ab to

abc

sides proportional

ac to

AB ;

A C,

then

as cb to

we are

to

is

equianABC.
gular to the
On the other side of the base,

AB, and from A,

angle

BAD

to

conceive the

be drawn

= to the

angle a; and from the point B,

conceive the angle ABD drawn

= to the J Then the third J

= to the third angle C (th. 11, cor. 2, b. 1) and
will be equiangular to the A abc by construction.
b.

ac

hypothesis,

ac

Therefore,

By

Hence,
In this

last proportion the

(th. 6, b. 2).

consequents are equal

antecedents are equal that is,

In the same manner we prove that
:

A ABD

ab=AD AB
ab=AC AB

AD :AB=AC * AB

the

AD=AC
BD= CB

therefore, the

BOOK
But

AB is

common

to the

55

II

two triangles

therefore, all three of

A ABD are respectively equal to all three of the

ABC
A
(th. 19, b. 1).
But the A ABD
equiangular to the A abc by construction
ABC
also equiangular to the A obc.
the
A
Q. E. D.
therefore,

the sides of the

sides of the

is

is

THEOREM
If two triangles have one angle in
other,

and

20.

the one equal to one angle in the

the sides about these equal angles, directly, or reciprocally

proportional, the two triangles will be equiangular.

ABC and abc be two AS, and the angle

A=a, and AC of the one to ac of the other, as
Let

AB to

Then we

ab.

B=b, and

are to show that the angle

c=C.

the angle

If we take the
abc, turn it over and place
the point a on A, ac on
C, and ab on AB,
and join cb, then cb will be parallel to CB ;
for if cb be not parallel to CB, draw en par-

CB.

allel to

AC AB
AC AB

Then
Also

Now

three

as

must be equal
that

is,

is

Ab

terms

(th. 17, b.

the

that

same

(hy.)
each of

in

is,

Ab=An,

line.

cb is parallel to

nition of parallel lines.

When four
is

these

CB;

and

cb

But en was drawn

parallel to

CB;

therefore, the angle

C=c

defi-

Therefore, &c.

THEOREM
extremes

2)

Ac

are the same, the other terms

proportions

and en

An Ac

straight lines are

equal to the product

21.

in proportion, Hue
product of the

of the means.*

A
B

A'D=C'B.

to

D.

Q. E.

Let A, B, C, D, represent the four lines

Then we are

by the

show, geometrically, that

D ~

* This
proposition has had a symbolical proof, in theorem 2 book 2, but
it
important to give this geometrical demonstration.

deem

'

we

GEOMETRY.

50

Place

and d*aw

other,

and
its

at right angles with each

Also place
the hypotenuse.

and

Then

hypotenuse.

bring the two triangles

shall be at right angles with

together, so that
,

each other, and draw

at ri-ht
to
angles
O
O

as represented in the figure.

these two

Now,

AS

have each a right

_j

and

the sides about the equal angles, proportional

that is,
C 2); therefore, (th. 20, b. 2),

A B=

AS are

the two

which meet

equiangular, and the acute angles

at the extremities of

and

C,

are=to a

B and C make

right angle,

another right angle, by construction ;

therefore, the extremities of A, B, C, and D, are in one right

and the

lines

2 b. 1), and that line is the diagonal of the parallelogram

Hence, the complementary parallelograms about this parallelogram are equal (th. 28, b. I) but one of these is B long, and

line (th.
cb.

and

D long, and A wide therefore,

XC=AXD. Q. E. D.
When B=C then A*D=B and B the mean propor-

C wide,

Cor.
tional

and the other

is

between

and D.

THEOREM

22.

Similar triangles are to one another as the squares of their like

sides.

ABC, and DEF,

Let

be two similar or equiangular triangles. Then we

are to prove that

ABC:DEF=AB*:DE*
By

the

we

have,

But,

Hence,

But,

by

AB DE=LC :MF
AB_ DE=AB: DE

AB DE*=AB-LC DE-MF
2

(th. 16, b. 2),

DE'MF is

AB'LC is

double of the

Therefore,

(Th.

of

similarity

the triangles,

double the area of the

& ABC A DEF

6, b. 2),

A ABC,

DEF.
:

AB'LC DE-MF
:

AB

2
:

DE

2
.

Q. E.

D.

BOOK

II.

57

THEOREM

23.

The perimeters of similar figures are to one another as their

and their areas are to one another as the squares of their

sides ;

like
like

sides.

ABODE,

Let

and

abode,

be two similar figures then

we are to show that EA is to
;

ea as the sum of all

the sides

EA+ AB, &c., is to ea-f-ab,

etc.,

and

is to that

As
tion

that the area of one

EA

the other, as

of

to

ea

2
,

or

AB

ab 2

to

the figures are exactly similar by hypothesis, whatever relais to EA, the same relation ab will be to ea; and if we

AB

take
{

Then we must

^
'

DE=qEA)

AE

*T
cd=p(ea)

\.de= q(ea)

(th. 7, b. 2),

Now, by
That

ab=m(ea)
B

take

ea=EA-^(-mEA, &c.

ea-\-mea, &c.

is,

EA ea=P
:

p.

P and^?

representing the perimeters of

the figures.
As the two figures are exactly similar, whatever part the triangle
is of one whole, the same part the triangle eab is of the

EAB

other whole

therefore,

EAB eab=EABCDE
EAB eab=AB* atf
:

But by

(th. 22, b.

2)

eabcde.

Therefore, by (th. 6, b. 2),

EABCDE

eabcde=AB*

THEOREM
Two

triangles

ab\

Q. E.

D.

24.

which have an angle in the one, equal

the other, are to each other as the rectangle

angles.

to

an angle

of the sides about

in

the equal

GEOMETRY.

58
Let

AB C be

CDE
BC and

one triangle, and

the other, and so placed that

shall be one and the same

CD

Then

line.

BCA=ECD, AC and CE will

the angle
line (converse of th. 3, b. 1).
call the triangle
if

Draw

be in the same

the dotted

line,

AD, and

ACDT.

We

have now

show

to

that the

A ABC: A CDE=BC'CA CE'CD

By (th. 16, b. 2), A ABC T=BC CD
T: A CDE=AC CE
Also,
:

multiplying term by term, and neglecting the

By

in the first couplet,

we

common

factor

have,

A ABC A CDE=AC-BC

CE-CD. Q. E. D.
When the sides about the equal angles are proporthe two AS will be similar, and this theorem becomes essen:

Scholium.
tional,

22

tially that of

for in that case

we

shall have,

BC: CA=CD:
Multiply the

first

CE.

by CA, the

couplet

last

couplet

by CE, and

changing the means,

BC-CA: CJ-CD=CA 2
Comparing

this proportion

A ABC A CDE=CA*
:

Which

is

theorem 22 of

the vertical angle

CE*

we

have,

CE*

this book.

THEOREM
If

with the concluding one,

of a triangle be

25bisected, the bisecting line will

cut the base into segments, proportional to the adjacent sides of the
triangle.

Let

ABC

be any triangle, and

bisect the vertical angle, C,

straight line

show

CD.

Then we

by the
are to

that

AD:DB=AC: CB.
AC to E, making

Produce

CE= CB, and join EB.

The exterior angle CB, of the

CEB,
equal to the two angles E, and
(th. 15, b. 1); but the
therefore the angle
because
CD, the
angle

CBE

is

E=CBE,

CB=CE;

BOOK

59

II.

E;

half of the angle ACS, equal's the angle

are parallel (th. 12, b. 1).

Now,

as

ABE

a triangle, and

is

(th. 17, b. 2),

by

CD

If from the right angle of a

drawn to the hypotenuse,
1

2.

of

is

BC, therefore,
D.

Q. E.

26.
a perpendicular

right angled triangle,

similar to the whole triangle.

The perpendicular

is

a mean proportional between the segments

the hypotenuse.
3.

The segments of

the hypotenuse will

squares of the adjacent sides of

4.

of

BE

divides the triangle into two similar triangles,

The perpendicular

and each

CB.

THEOREM
be

parallel to

is

AD DB=AC CE or
:

hence, Z>C7and

The sum of

the squares

be in proportion to the

the triangle.

of the two

sides, is equal to the square

the hypotenuse.

BAG

be a right angled
A, and draw
right angled
Let

AD

at

dicular to

BC=a.

triangle,

perpen-

BC. Put AB=c, .AC=b, and

BD=m, DC=n;

Put, also,

then

m-{-n=a.
1. The two AS, ABC, and ABD, have the common angle, B,
and the right angle BA
; therefore, the third angle
C=BAD, and the two As are equiangular, and therefore similar.

C=BDA

In the same manner

and the two

we prove

triangles,

the

A A D C similar to the A ABC,

being similar to the same A

ABD, ADC,

are similar to each other.

2.

As

similar triangles

have the

sides about the equal angles

proportional (th. 18, b. 2), therefore,

m AD=AD
:

3.

Comparing the triangles

common

n;

or,

ABD,

m*n=AD*

and

ABC,

the sides about the

angle, B, gives

c=c a
:

(1)

Comparing AD C with ABC, we have,

From
From

proportion

"

(1) we have,
(2)

"

b=b

(2)

am=ci

(3)

an=b*

(4)

GEOMETRY.

60

C^

771

Divide equation (8) by (4), and

ratio

between n and

which shows that the

=^,

m is the same as the ratio between 6

n m=b
c
m n=c 5
2

Add

4.

cM-

Scholium.

pose

2
,

If

we

is

2
;

or,

=a(w +m)=a

theorem 36, book

<>

take the last equation,

D.

c -j-5

=a

2
,

and trans-

into factors,

we

= a2_52
=(a+5)(a

we

.#.

1.

and then separate the second member

shall have,

From

equations (3) and (4), and we have,

This last equation

and

Or,

5)

learn that in any right angled triangle, the hyincreased

by one side, multiplied by the hypotenuse
potenuse,
same
the
diminished by
side, is equal to the square of the other
side.

this

BOOK

III.

BOOK

61

III.

ON THE INVESTIGATION OF THE CIRCLE, THE MEASURE OF ANGLES,

AND OTHER THEOREMS IN WHICH THE CIRCLE IS

AN IMPORTANT ELEMENT.

DEFINITIONS,

all

A
A

is one that is
continually changing its direction.
a figure bounded by one uniform curved line, and
straight lines drawn from a certain point within it to the curve,

1.

2.

Curve Line

Circle

are equal
3.

The

and

4.

this point is called the center.

entire curve

any portion of
is

is

Any

it is

is

called the circumference of the circle

called an arch, or arc of the circle.

single straight line

from the center to the circumference,

called the radius of the circle.

5.

A straight line
is

ference,
6.

drawn between any two

points on the circum-

called a chord.

The space on either side of a chord,

by the chord and arc, is called a

inclosed

segment of a

circle.

Any chord which passes through the

center, is called a diameter, and such a chord
7.

divides the circle into two equal segments,

called semicircles.

8.
straight line touching the
ference of a circle, at any one point,

9.

The

arc,

and area between two

circumis

called a tangent to the

radii, is called the

circle.

sector of

circle.

Thus

the marginal figure represents a circle

C is the center,
line from C to the circumference, is a
;

CB, or CD, or CA, or any

radius.

EF are
IJD

is

EQ-F is

an arc

called segments.

a tangent.

EF
AB

is
is

a chord

the areas on each side of

a diameter

CBD

is

sector;

and

GEOMETRY.

THEOREM
The radius perpendicular

a chord,

to

bisects the

chord,

and

also the

arc of the chord.

Let
circle,

we

AB be

are

a chord,

CD

and
to

G the

center of the

AB ;

perpendicular to

then

ADBD,

prove

that

the

center

and

AE=EB.
As C

is

of

the

circle,

A C= CB, and CD is common to the two

AS A CD and B CD, and the angles at D
AS

being right angles, therefore the two

AD C

BD C

and

are identical, and

part of the theorem.

Now as
and

AD=DB,

which proves the

first

AD=DB,

DE common

to the

two spaces,

ADE

DEB, and the angles at D, right angles, if we conceive the

sector CBE turned over and placed on CAE, CE retaining its posiand

tion, the point

B will

on the point A, because

fall

BE will fall on the arc AE;

ADDB;

then

would be points
in one or the other arc unequally distant from the center, which
the arc EB.
is
Q. E. D.
impossible therefore, the arc
the arc

otherwise, there

AE =

THEOREM
Equal

2.

angles, at the center are subtended by equal chords.

(See figure to last theorem).

Let the angle ACE=ECB, then the two isosceles triangles,
A CE, and ECB, are equal in all respects, and AE=EB.
Q. E.

THEOREM
In

the

distant

Let

and
C,

same

circle,

from

the center.

AB

and

EF

or in equal circles, equal chords are equally

be equal chords,

the center of the

draw

CO

and

respective chords.
diculars will bisect the

We

are

and we

nmo

to

shall

show

circle.

From

CH perpendicular

the

b. 3),

D.

3.

chords (th.

have

that

to

These perpen-

CG

1,

AG=EH.
CH.

BOOK

III.

A CO and ECH, we

In the two As,

63

have

EC= CA, AG=EH,

H=

and the angle

two
fore, the

the angle G, both being right angles ; theretriangles ACG, and ECH, are identical, and

CG=CH.' q.E.D.
We may
a* follows

Let

EH represent the half

HC=P,

r*ut

of any chord,

CE=R; R

and

Then, by

sircle.

and more

demonstrate this theorem analytically,

generally,

and put

we have
&-\-P>=IP

it

equal to C.

radius of the

representing the

(th. 36, b. 1),

(1)

AG

represent the half of any other chord, and put it

and
to
c;
put its distance from the center equal to p; then,
tqual

Also

let

By

equating the

general equation

Now,

first

(7

(7=c, that

if

c'+jfeJ?
(2)
members of (1) and (2), we have

is,

+P =c +^
2

(3)
the chords equal, then

=p*, or

the perpendiculars will be equal ; and if P=p, then

is, chords equally distant from the center, are equal.

Equation (3)
greater than

is

true,

under

c,

then

P will

the chord, the nearer

For

if

And
By

substitute this value of (7

That
equality

is
;

is

and

we

less

if

d be

have,

than
is

less

1
,

that

if

we suppose

is,

the greater

their difference

C=c-\-d, and

2
canceling c ,

than p; that

less

P=p,

C=c;

to the center.

let

c,

circumstances, and

be

be

will

greater than

is

Then,

it

all

this

because
than

C*=cM-2a?+P

in equation (3),

2cc?-j-cf-j-

3
,

P*=p

it

and we have,

requires

P is

less

2ce?-{-c?

to

than p; that

make
is,

the

greater chord is at a less distance from the center.

Cor. If the chord
tion (3), equals 0,

C runs through
2
2
2
(7 =c +p

and

the center, then P, in equa-

But

?=c*-\-p*, by equation
2
2
or C=JR, or the semichord becomes the radius,
,
(2), or C
as it manifestly should, in that case.

=R

THEOREM
If any

4.

drawn tangent to a circle, and from the point of condrawn to the center of the circle, the tangent and this

line be

tad a line be

radius will form a right angle.

tangent line can meet the circle only at one point, for

if

the

GEO ME TRY.

64
meets the

line

circles in

two

and is

points,

still

a tangent,

it

follows

that the portion of the circumference between the two points, is a

but no part of a circumference is a right line, but a
right line
continued curve line and whenever a right line meets' a circle in
;

two

it

points,

Now

must

and therefore cannot be a tangent.

cut the circle,

ABC

be a tangent line, touching

the circle at the point B, and draw the radius,
EB, and the line EG, and JEA.
to

let

EB is perpendicular
the only point in the
which touches the circle, any other

Now we
ABC.

line

are to show that

ABC

line, as

EC,

therefore,

E to

the

Because
or

EA, must

EB is the
line A C;

(th. 20, b. 1).

is

be greater than

therefore,

Q. E.

EB

the

is

the

same

circle,

drawn from the point

perpendicular to

AC

D.

THEOREM
In

EB;

shortest line that can be

or in equal

circles,

5.

equal chords subtend or stand

on equal portions of the circumference.

Conceive two equal circles, and two equal chords drawn within
them. Then conceive one circle taken up and placed
the

upon
two equal chords will fall on, and
exactly coincide with each other; and then the circles must coincide,
because they are equal and the two segments of the two circles
other, in such a position that the

on each side of the equal chords, must also coincide, or the

and magnitudes which coincide, or
could not coincide
;

the

same

space, are in

all

respects equal (ax. 9).

THEOREM
Through

three given points, not in the

cumference can be made

and BC.
Join

AB

made

to

pass, and

If a circle

is

through the two points

will be a chord
and B, the line
to such a circle ; and if a chord is

AB

by a line at right angles, the

bisecting line will pass through the
center of the circle (th. 1, b. 3) ;
therefore, if we bisect the line AB,
bisected

Therefore

fill

Q. E.

D.

6.

same

but one.

to pass

circles

exactly

straight line, one cir-

BOOK

65

DF at right angles from the point of

and draw
that can

III.

bisection, any circle

and B, must have its center someAnd, by reasoning in the same way (after

pass through the points

where in the line DF.

we draw EG at right angles from the middle point of JBC), any
circle that can pass through the points B and G, must have its
center somewhere in the line

EG.

Now,

if

the two lines,

DF,

and EG, meet in a common point, that point will be a center, from
whence a circle can be drawn to pass through the three point?,
and -fi^will always meet, unless they an;
A, B, and C, and

DF

parallel,

and

if

they are parallel,

it

follows that

AB

and

BC

must

be parallel (scholium to th. 15, b. 1), or be in one and the same

but this can never be the case while the three
straight line
;

given points, A, B, and C, are not in the same straight line

therefore, the two lines will meet, and from the point H, at which

they meet, a

circle,

and only one

through the three given points.

circle,

THEOREM
If two
centers

circles

7.

touch each other internally, or externally, the

and point of

Let two

can be drawn, passing

Q. E. D.

circles

tux>

contact shall be in one rigJit line.

touch each other

internally, as represented at

A, and

AB

through the point A, conceive

to be a tangent, at the common

Now,

point.

ular

to

AB,

if

line,

perpendic-

be drawn from the

point A, it must pass through the

center of either circle (th. 4, b. 3); and as there can be but one
perpendicular from the same point, (th. 20, b. 1), therefore, A, C,

and D, the point of contact, and the two

and the same line.
Q. E. D.

centers,

must be

in

one

let the circles touch each other externally, and from the
of
contact conceive the common tangent, AB, to be drawn.
point
Then a line, AC, perpendicular to AB, will pass through the
center of the external circle, (th. 4, b. 3), and a perpendicular,

Next,

AD,

from the same point, A,

will pass

through the center of the

GEOMETRY.
BA G and BAD are

86
other circle

hence,

right angles

therefore

Q.E.D.
When two

b. 1).

Cor.

G,

circles

A, D,

together equal to two

one continued

is

line

(th. 2,

touch each other internally, the distance

and
equal to the difference of their radii
when they touch each other externally, the distances of their
centers are equal to the sum of their radii.
between their centers

is

THEOREM
An

angle at

arc on which

tlie

8.

circumference of any circle

is

measured by half the

stands.

it

In this work

it is

taken as an axiom that any angle standing at

the center of a circle

and we now proceed

is

to

measured by the arc on which it stands

show that the angle at the circumference, is
;

half the angle at the center.

Let
GB be an angle at the center, and

an angle at the circumference, and at

first
in a line with
G.
We are
suppose

now

show

to

that the angle

ACB is

double the

angle D.

Join

DB, and

triangle;
rior angle,

the

AGB,

rior angles,

A D GB

CD=CB;

for

ACB

D, and CBD,

is

an isosceles
its

exte-

equal to the two inte-

is

equal to each other

but

is

and as

(th. 11, b. 1),

therefore,

A OB

measured by the arc

AB;

and these two angles

double the angle at

is

therefore the angle

D;

is

measured by half the arc AB.

Now

let

be not

in a line with

A C,

but at any point on the circumference (except on

to

AB), and

Now by

the

first

The angle

Also,

By
is

join

DC, and

produce

it

E.

subtraction,

part of this theorem,

EGB=1EDB
ECA=2EDA
ACB=ZADB

But A CB is measured by the arc

measured by one half of the same

AB ;

therefore

arc.

Q. E.

D.

ADB,

or

D,

BOOK

THEOREM
An

67

III.

9.

an angle in a segment,
riff hi angle ;
is less than a right angle ; and an angle in
than
a
semicircle,
greater
a segment, less than a semicircle, is greater than a right angle.
angle in a semicircle, is a

If the angle

ACE

is

in a semicircle, the

segment, ADB,

on which it stands,
opposite
CB is
also a semicircle, and the angle

is

measured by half the arc

ADB (th. 8, b. 2);

half of 180 degrees, or 90 degrees,

the measure of a right angle.
If the angle
CB is in a segment greater

that

is,

which

is

than a semicircle, then the opposite segment is less than a semicircle, and the measure of the angle is less than half of 180 degrees, or less than a right

angle.

If

the

angle

ACB

is

in

segment
segment, ADB,
on which the angle stands, is greater than a semicircle, and its
half, greater than 90 degrees; and, consequently, the angle greater
less than a semicircle, then the opposite

t!,an

a right angle.

Scholium.

Q. E.

D.

at the circumference,

Angles
which stand on the same arc of a
are equal to one another ; for
CAD, CED, are measured

same

arc,

CD; and having

all

circle,

angles, as

by half the
same mea-

the

must be equal.
Also, equal angles at the circumference
must stand on equal arcs ; for the arc, as
sure, they

EC, and CD, being measures

therefore,

if

of the angles BAG, and CAD,

the angles are equal, the magnitudes, which measure

them, must be equal also.

THEOREM

10.

The sum of two opposite angles of any quadrilateral inscribed in a

circle, is

equal to two right angles.

(See figure

theorem.)

ACBD represent any quadrilateral inscribed in a circle.

measure, half of the arc ADB, and
angle A CB has for

Let

The

to the last

its

GEOMETRY.

68
the angle

ADE has for

its

measure, half of the arc

A CB;

therefore,

of the two opposite angles at C and

together measured by half of the whole circumference, or
Q. E, D.
degrees, or by two right angles.

by

sum

addition, the

THEOREM
An
Let

and

is

measured by one

the intercepted arc.

AD

AS

a chord,
be a tangent, and
the point of contact ; then we are to

show that
the arc

11.

angle formed by a tangent and a chord,

half of

D, are
by 180

BAD

the angle

is

measured by half

AED.

From A, draw
the center,

C,

A 0;

the radius

CE

draw

and from

perpendicular to

AD.

AD+DAC=90 (th. 4, b. 3)
C+DAC=9Q (cor. 4, th. 11,
BAD (7=0
subtraction,
by

The angle
Also,
Therefore,

By

BAD=C.

transposition, the angle

But the angle

C, at the center of the circle,

AED;

arc

AE,

also

measured by the arc AE, the half of

the half of

An

angle

formed by a tangent and a

opposite segment

Let

of

measured by the

AED.

chord, is equal to

an angle

AD

any angles, as A CD, and AED, in the segThen we are to show that the angle

ments.

and

GAD=AED.

BAD

the last theorem, the angle

is
measured by half the arc
and as the

By

AED;

angle

ACD

half of the

(th.

same

8, b.

3)

is

is

12.

a tangent, and
a chord,
the point of contact, A, draw

BAD=ACD,

BAD,

Q. E. D.

the circle.

AB be

and from

is

therefore, the equal angle,

THEOREM
tJie

b. 1)

measured by

arc, therefore the angle

BAD=ACD.

in

BOOK
Again, as

sum

AEDC

III.

69

a quadrilateral, inscribed in a

is

circle,

ACD-\- AED=<2

b. 3)
(th. 10,

right angles,

BAD+DAG=2 right angles, (th.

(and observing that BAD has just been

Also, the angles

By

subtraction

A CD),

equal to

Or,

we
.

I, b.

have,

AED DAG=Q
AED=DA G,
.

THEOREM
Parallel chords, or a tangertt

on

Let

1)

proved

by

transposition.

Q. E.

arcs

the

of the opposite angles,

and a

D.

13.

parallel chord, intercept equal

the circumference.

AB and CD be two

parallel chords,

and draw the diagonal, AD; and because

AB and CD are parallel, the angle

DAB

the

ADC
DAB has

angle

the angle
of the arc

BD;

(th.

5,

b.

measure, half
and the angle
has
for its

measure, half of the arc

for its

but

1);

ADC
AC (th.

the angles are equal, the arcs are equal

arc
C.
Q. E. D.

8, b. 3);

that

is,

and because

the arc

BD= the

let

Next,

EF

be a tangent, parallel

the point of contact,

By

to

a chord,

CD, and from

G, draw Q-D.

reason of the parallels, the angle

CD Q-

= ihe

angle

D OF.

measure, half of the arc CG (th.

has for its measure, half of the
arc GD (th. 11, b. 3); therefore, these equal measures of equals
must be equal that is, the arc CG
the arc GD.
Q. E. D.

But the angle CDGf has for

9, b. 3); and the angle

its

DGF

THE OREM
When
formed

14.

two chords intersect each other WITHIN a

is

measured by half the sum of

t/te

circle, the angle thus

two intercepted arcs.

GEOMETRY

70
Let

AB

and

CD

intersect

each other

within the circle forming the two angles,

with
E, and
and equal angles.

Then we

their opposite vertical

are to show, that the angle

is

measured by the half sum of the arcs

AC-f-BD; and the angle E is measured
l

by the half

sum of

draw

First,

AF

the arcs

AD-f-CB.

parallel to

CD;

then,

by reason of the parallels, the angle

BAF is measured by half of the arc
arc

BD,

plus half of the arc

Now,
sum

is

alone, as

sum

half the

by

two chords

angle thus formed

intersect, or

is

AF

parallel

to

CD;

then,

equal to the angle

BAF.

the difference

by

But the angle

measured by half the arc BF;

that is, by half the difference between
D.
the arcs BD and A C.
Q.
is

N. B.

Prolonged

without the
called

chords,

circle, as JED, and

secants.

They

and not trigonometrical

are

to

meet

EB,

are

geometrical,

secants.

mea-

15.

meet each other WITHOUT a

measured by half

is

C; therefore, the other

other parts of the circum-

reason of the parallels, the angle E, made

by the intersection of the two chords, is

BAF

13,b. 3).

just determined,

arcs.

Draw

half of the

FD=AC (th.

BD-\-A

is

THEOREM
When

is,

we have

of the arcs

E measured by half of the

ference, AD+ CB.
Q. E. D.
angle,

FDB;

because

of the angles, E-\-E l , make two right angles,

measured by half the whole circumference.

But the angle E,

sured

But the angle

that

sum

as the

that

AC;

BAF=E.

of

circle, the

the intercepted

BOOK

III

THEOREM
The angle formed by a
difference

Let

We

and a

16.

tangent, is

measured by half the

of the intercepted arcs.

be a secant, and CD a tangent.

to show that the angle formed at
measured by half of the difference of

CB

now

are

C, is

secant

71

BD and DA.
From A, draw AE

the arcs

BAE= C.

the angle
is

parallel to

measured by half of the arc

b. 3); that is,

by

AD=DE,

BE

AD;

and

(th. 8,

for the arc

BDDE=BE;

and

BAE

half of the difference be-

BD

tween the arcs

then

CD;

But the angle

measured by half the arc BE.

therefore the equal angle, C,

Q. E.

THEOREM
Wlien two chords

intersect

is

D.

17.

each other in a

circle, the

rectangle of the

segments of the one, will be equal to the rectangle of the segments of the
other.

AB

Let

CD

and

be two chords

ing each other in E.

that the rectangle

Join

angles

intersect-

Then we are

to

show

AE*EB=CEXED.

AD and CB, forming the two triAED and CEB, which are equiand

angular,

therefore

similar

for

the

B and D

are equal, because they are

angles
both measured by half the arc AC. Also the angles
and
is measured
because
each
half
same
the
arc,
equal,
by

C are
DB; and

AED CEB, because they are vertical angles; hence,

AED and CEB are equiangular. But equiangular

the angle
the triangles,
triangles

have their

(th. 18, b. 2);

portional to

That

Or

is,

sides,

therefore,

CE

and

(th. 21, b. 2),

ED,
.

about the equal angles, proportional

and ED, about the angle E, are pro-

AE

about the same angle.

AE ED CE EB
AE*EB= EDXEC.
:

Q. E.

D.

GEOMETRY.

72

When

Scholium.
angles to

it,

one chord

a diameter, and

is

the other at right

of the segments of the diameter is equal to the

other chord; or half of the bisected chord is a mean

the rectangle

square of half the

proportional between the segments of the diameter.

ADXDB=FDXDE.

For

But

AB

if

passes through the center, C, at right angles

to.FE, then

and

in the place of

FD=DE

FD,

in the last equation,

Or,

equal,

DE,

AD:DE:\ DE DB
\

AD=R

Then

(th. 1, b. 3),
its

and we have,

DE=x, CD=y,

Put,

write

y,

and

CE=R,

the radius of the

With

a.ndDB=It+y.

circle.

this

notation,

ADXDB,
1

Becomes,

Or,

(R y)(R-\-y)=x
JR*y*=a?
.

X*=x>+y*

Or,

That

D CE,

is,

is

the square

equal to the

of

the hypotenuse

sum of

the squares

the right angled triangle,

of the other two sides.

of

THEOREM
Iffrom any point without a

circle,

18.

any number of secants

the rectangle formed by

any one secant and

be equal to the rectangle

of any other secant, and

Let AB, A C, AD,

AE, AF, AG, &c.,

Then we

ments.

&c., be secants,
their

external

its

its

and
seg-

are to show that

A B X AE=AD XAG, &c.

BF and EC; then the two As,
AFB and AEG are equiangular for the
And,

B=

C, as each qf them is measured

angle
half
same arc, EF; and the angle
the
by
is

common

to the

two triangles

drawn,

external segment.

Join

BA C

be

external segment, will

therefore, the third angles are equal (th. 11, cor. 1, b. l).

BOOK III.
AE AF AC AE
2),

Therefore (th. 18, b.

Hence,

we may prove

that

ABXAE=AGXAD
ACXAF=AGXAD

....

And,

ABxAE =ACXAF

In the same manner

73

D.

Q. E.

Scholium
fixed

1.

If

will

AD

outward, on A, as a
come nearer together, and will be

conceive

and

O-

point,

we

exactly together in the tangent

But however

far or

AH,

O may

near

to revolve

be to D, we always have,

AE X AE=AD XAG
AD and A G become AH, we shall have,
ABXAE=AH*
AH and AP be tangents to the same circle,

And, when both

Scholium

If

2.

from the same point on each side of A, they will be equal to each
other

For,

Also,

Hence

BAXAE=AP*
BAXAE=AH*
(AP*)=(AH>),

(ax. 1),

This property will enable us

we know
known hight above

the surface.

For example, suppose

of a mountain, and

AH

FC

AH

Then,

On
made

this principle,
;

and on

to

be the diameter of the earth, AF, the hight

on sea to the visible horizon. If

AF

the distance

were both known,

=x, AF=h, and AH=d.

FC

could be computed therefrom.

(h+x)h=d*,

or

*=-

If a

let

FC

rough estimates of the diameter of the earth have been

has been computed.

this principle the dip of the horizon

circle be described

19.

about a triangle, the rectangle of two sides

equal to the rectangle of the perpendicular

and

For,

THEOREM
is

AP=Aff.

compute the diameter of the earth, whenthe visible distance of its regular surface, as seen from any

ever

and

or

to

the diameter

of the circumscribing

let fall

circle.

on

to the third tide,

GEOMETRY.
triangle, AC and CB,

74

ABC

Let

the sides,

and

be the

CD

the perpendicular on the base,

diameter of the circle. Then ice

CE the

are to shoic that

ACXCB=CJSXCD.
A CD and CEB, are equianbecause
A=E, both measured by the
gular,
The two As,

ADC

is a
half of the arc CB.
Also,
right angle, equal to CBE,
an angle in a semicircle, and therefore a right angle hence, the
Therefore
third angle,
(th. 11, cor. 1, b. 1).
;

ACD=BCE

(th. 18, b. 2),

AC: CD: EC CB
ACxCB=CExCD.
:

Hence,

to the

The continued product of

Scholium.
equal

Q.E.D.

three sides

of a

double area of the triangle into the diameter of

triangle, is
its

circum-

scribing circle.

members

Multiply both

of the last equation

by AB, and we have,

A CX CBXAB= CEX (ABx CD)

But

CE

is

the diameter of the circle, and

the area of the triangle

ACX CBXAB=

Therefore,

diameter

THEOREM
The square of a
the rectangle

Let

ABC

of

the

it

any angle of a triangle, together \titli

makes with the opposite side, are equal

two sides, including the bisected angle.

be the triangle, CD the line biThen we are to show that

CD*-rADxDB=ACX CB.
ACE and CDS, are equibecause
the angles E and B are
angular,
The two As,

the

twice

20.

secting the angle C.

t-tuial,

X 2 AS.

line bisecting

of the segments

to the rectangle

(ABx CD)

both being in the same segment, and

by hypothesis. There-

j ACE=BCD,

fore, (th. 18, b. 2),

AC

CE:

CD

CB

BOOK
But
this

obvious that

is

it

III.

75

CE=CD-\-DE, and by

value of CE, in the proportion,

we

substituting

have,

AC:(CD+DE) \\CD\CB
multiplying extremes and means,

By

CD*+DEX CD=ACX CB
DEX CD=ADXDB, by (th. 17, b. 3), which,

But

stituted,

we

being sub-

have,

CD*+AD X DB=A OX CB.

THEOREM

Q. E.

D.

21.

The rectangle of the two diagonals of any quadrilateral inscribed in a

circle, is

Let
then

sum of

equal to the

ABCD

we are

to

the two rectangles

be a quadrilateral in a

show

circle

of the opposite

sides.

that

ACXBD=ABXDC+ADXBC.
From
angle

CE

C, let

DCE

be drawn so that the

shall be equal to angle

ACB;

BAG

is equal to the
and as the angle
in
the same segboth
being
angle CDE,
and
the
two
ment, therefore,
triangles,
and we have (th. 18, b. 2),

DEC

ABC are equiangular,

AB-.AC: '.DE-.DC
The two AS,

DAC=EBC,
half the same

=BCA;
=ECB;

and

ADC

and

are equiangular; for the angle

both being in the same segment, are measured by
for
arc, DC; and the angle

DCE
DCA=ECB;
ECA, and DCA

each of these add the angle

to

therefore (th. 18, b. 2),

AD: AC:
By

(1)

BEC

'.BE: BC
(2)
means in these two

multiplying the extremes and

proportions,

and adding the equations together, we have,

But,

DE+BE=BD;

therefore,

(ABXDC)+(ADXBC)=BDXAC.

Q. E.

D.

GEOMETRY.

76

When

Scholium.

two of the adjacent sides of the quadrilateral

AB=BC,

are equal, as

then the resulting equation

Or,

Or,

That

as one of the equal sides of the quadrilateral,

is,

adjoining diagonal, so is the transverse diagonal to the

unequal

If two chords

to the

the two

intersect

each other in a

the squares

of

the diameter

of the

AB

CD

and

is

parallel to

therefore

Draw

DF and AF.

ED,

AF

ABF

is

is

Also, because

(th. 9, b. 3).

is

angles, the

equal

to the

sum

square

be two chords, intersect-

and join
parallel to ED,
we are to show that

angle, and

circle, at right

circle.

ing each other at right angles.

BF

22.

of the four segments thm formed,

of

As

is

sum of

sides.

THEOREM

Let

is,

(ABXDC)+(ABXAD)=BDXAC
ABX(DC+AD)=BDXAC
AB:AC::BD:( CD+AD]

BF
Now

a right

diameter

BF

is

parallel to

CD,

CB=DF

(th. 13, b. 3).

Because

CEB

is

a right angle,

AED

CE*+EB*=CB*=DF*

Adding

is a
AE*-\-ED*=AD*
right angle,
these two equations, we have,

But, as

AF

Because

is

Scholium.
in a circle,

ADF a right
DF +AD =AF

a diameter, and
2

Therefore

Hence,

CE^EB^+AE^+ED^AF

Q. E.

D.

two chords intersect each other at right angles,

their opposite extremities be joined, the two chords

may make two

which the diameter of the

AD

If

and

thus formed

For

9, b. 3),

angle (th.

is

sides of a right angled

triangle, of

circle is the

hypotenuse.
one of these chords, and CB is the other

have shown that

CB=DF;

and

AD

and

DF

and we

are two sides of a

BOOK
which AF

and

and

AF

CB may
its

7?

is the
hypotenuse therefore,
be considered the two sides of a right angle,

of
right angled triangle,

AD

III.
;

hypotenuse.

THEOREM

23.

Jf two secants intersect each other at right angles, the

squares, increased by the

sum of

of
of the diameter of

the circle, will be equal to the square

Let

AD.

BF

CD, and

parallel to

Now

Because

the circle.

From B,

we are

BF

is

to

join

AF

a right angle.

parallel to

Also,

addition,

As

AED

CD,

ABF a
AF
a
AF
is

is

is

is

a diameter,

ADF'is

a right angle,

EB*+EC*=BC*=DF*

AE

and

show that

right angle, and consequently

diameter, and BC=DF; and because

By

their

AE and ED be two secants intersect-

ing at right angles at the point E,

draw

sum of

the two parts without

the squares

-\-ED*+J5

+EC =AD*+DF =AF*.

2

Q. E.

D.

GEOMETRY.

78

BOOK

IV.

PROBLEMS,
IN

we

this section,

shall, in

most

instances,

merely show the

construction of the problem, and refer to the theorem or theorems

that the student may use, to prove that the object is attained by the
construction.

In obscure and

difficult

problems, however, we shall go through

it were a theorem.

the demonstration as though

PROBLEM
To

a given finite

bisect

straight line

AB

be the given line, and from its

and B, with any radius
half of
than
the
greater
(Post. 3), describe arcs, cutting each other in n and ra.
Let

extremities,

AB

Join
will

n and m; and

C,

be the middle of the

Proof, (th. 15, b,

where

cor.

1,

it

cuts

AB

).

PROBLEM
To
Let

ABC be the

bisect

a given

2.

angle.

given angle. With any

B, describe the arc

radius, from the center

AC.
radius

From

and

C, as centers, with

greater than the half of

scribe arcs, intersecting in n;

it will bisect the
given angle.

Proof, (th. 19, b. 1).

line required.

AC,

de-

and join Bn,

BOOK

IV.

79

PROBLEM
From

a given point, in a given

3.

draw a perpendicular

line, to

to that

line.

AB

Let

be the given

and

line,

the given point.

Take n and
equal
distances on opposite sides of C; and
from the points
and n, as centers,

with any radius greater than nC or

or
C, describe arcs cutting each other

Join SC, and

in S.

The

following

when

Take any

point,

be the per-

Proof, (th. 15, b. 1, cor.

another method, which

is

preferable,

will

it

pendicular required.

the given point, C,

or near the end of the line.

is

0, which

is

at

is

manifestly

one side of the perpendicular, and join OC;

and with OC, as a radius, describe an arc,
cutting

AB

in

arc, again, in n;
it

will

and

mn

Join m 0, and produce

then a diameter to the circle.

C.
is

be the perpendicular required.

line, to

to

meet the

Join Cn, and

Proof, (th. 9, b. 3).

PROBLEM
From, a given point without a

it

4.

draw a perpendicular

to that

line.

Let

AB be

given point.

the given line, and

From

C,

the

draw any oblique

Find the middle point of

Cn by (problem 1), and from that point,
as a center, describe a semicircle, having
Cn as a diameter. From the point m,

line,

as Cn.

where

this semicircle cuts

and

will

it

AB, draw Cm,

be the perpendicular required.

Proof, (th. 9, b. 3).

GEOMETRY.

80

PROBLEM
At a

5.
angle equal to another given

make an

given point in a line, to

angle.

A be the given point in the

DCE the given angle.

Let

and

From C

as a center, with

CE, draw the arc

From A,

AF= CE,

as a

AB,

line

any radius,

ED.
the radius

center, with

describe an indefinite arc

FG

from F, as a center, with

equal to ED, describe an

and

as a radius,

arc, cutting the other arc in G, and join

b. 3).
angle required. Proof, (th. 5,

AG; GAF will be the

PROBLEM
From a given point,
Let

draw a

line parallel to

a given

line.

be the given point, and CE the

Draw AB, making an angle,

line.

given

ABC;
line

to

6.

and from the given

AB, draw

the

angle

point,

in the

A,

BAD=ABC,

by

the last problem.

AD and

CB make

the

same angle with

PROBLEM
To

divide a given line into

"LetAB represent the given

let it

AB;

they are, therefore,

(Definition of parallel lines).

parallel.

be required

to divide

it

7.

any number of equal parts.

line,

and

into

any

of equal parts, say five. From

of the line A, draw AD, inde-

number
one end

both length and position. Take

convenient
distance in the dividers,
any
as Aa, and set it off on the line AD;

finite in

thus making the parts Aa, ab,

point,

e,

parallels to

required

be,

&c., equal.

draw EB, and through the

eB (problem 6.); these

Proof (th. 17, b. 2).

points a,

Through the last

and d, draw

b, c,

parallels will divide the line as

BOOK

IV.

81

PROBLEM
To find a

8.

third proportional to two given lines.

AB and AC be

any two lines. Place

and
On the
any angle,
join CB.
and
take
line,
AB,
C,
through
greater
Let

them

at

D, draw

AD=A
DE parallel to BC; AE

is

the third

proportional required.
Proof, (th. 17, b. 2).

PROBLEM
To find a fourth proportional
Let

AB, AC, AD,

three given lines.

together, at a point forming

as BAC, and join BC.
On

AD,

and

from

the

DE

to three

first

given lines.

the

represent

Place the

9.

two

any angle,

AB

point
parallel to

place

D, draw

AE

BC;
(problem 6)
be the fourth proportional required.

will

Proof, (th. 17, b. 2).

ROBLEM

P
To find

the middle, or

Place

AB

and

and, on

AC,

as

semicircle

point

BC

mean

in

(problem 3);

proportional, between two given lines.

one right

line,

a diameter, describe a

(postulate 3),

B, draw

10.

and from the

BD at right angles to A C
BD the mean proporis

tional required.

Proof, (scholium to th. 17, b. 3).

GEOMETRY

82

PROBLEM
To find

as
n,

the center

11.

of a given

circle.

Draw any two chords in the given circle,

AB and CD; and from the middle point,
of AB, draw a perpendicular to AB;

and from the middle

pendicular

m, draw a perthese two

point,

CD; and where

to

perpendiculars intersect will be the center

of the circle.
Proof, (th. 1, b. 3).

PROBLEM
To draw a

tangent to a given circle,

or without the circumference of the

When

the given point

12.

from a given

point, either in

circle.

in the circum-

is

A, draw AC the radius, and

from the point A, draw AB perpendicular
ference, as

to

A C; AB

is

the tangent required.

Proof, (th. 4, b. 3).

When

A C to
AC,

is

without the

circle,
;

draw

and on

as a diameter, describe a semi-

circle

this

the center of the circle

and from the point B, where

semicircle

circle,

intersects

draw AB, and

it

will

the given
be tangent

to the circle.

Proof, (th. 9, b. 3),

and

(th. 4, b. 3).

PROBLEM
On

a given

an angle equal

line, to describe

to

13.

a segment of a

a given angle.

circle, that shall

contain

BOOK
AB

Let

be the given

At

the given angle.

line,

IV.

83

and

the ends of the

given line, make angles DAB, DBA,

each equal to the given angle, G.

Then draw AE,

AD, BD;

perpendiculars to

.Z?,^,

and with the

center,

radius, EA or EB, describe a

then AFB will be the segment
it,

E, and
circle

required, as any angle f,

made

in

will be equal to the given angle, 0.

Proof, (th 11. b. 3), and (th. 8, b. 3).

PROBLEM
To

cut

a segment from any given

14.

circle, that shall

contain a given

angle.

be the given angle. Take

any point, as A, in the circumference,
and from that point draw the tangent
Let

AB;

and from the point A,

AB, make
blem

5),

the angle

and

AED

in the line

BAD=C
is

the

(pro-

segment

required.
Proof, (th. 11, b. 3), and (th. 8, b. 3).

PROBLEM
To

construct

an

equilateral triangle

15.

on a given finite straight

AB

be the given line, and from one

extremity, A, as a center, with a radius
Let

equal to

AB,

describe an arc.

At

the other

extremity, B, with the same radius, describe

another arc.
From C, where these two
arcs intersect,

draw

GA

and CB;

AB C will

be the triangle required.

The construction

is

sufficient

demonstration.

Or, (ax. 1).

line.

GEOME TRY.

84

PROBLEM
To

construct a triangle, having its three sides equal to three given

lines,
-

16.

Let

lines.

any two of which shall be greater than the third.

AB, CD, and
represent the three
Take any one of them, as AB, to be one
C_

EF

From A,

side of the triangle.

F
D

as a center, with

a radius equal to CD, describe an arc

and
from B, as a center, with a radius equal to EF,
describe another arc, cutting the former in n.
;

Join

An

and Bn, and

AnB

will

be the

Proof, (ax. 1).

required.

PROBLEM
To

describe

17.

a square on a given

line.

AB be the given line, and from the extremities, A and B, draw A C and BD perpendicular
Let

to

AB. (Problem 3.)

From A, as a center,

with

AB

as radius, strike

an arc across the perpendicular at C; and from

draw

CD

parallel to

AB;

ACDB

is

Proof, (th. 21, b. 1.)

required.

PROBLEM
To

construct

are equal

Let

From

(7,

the square

to

AB

rectangle, or

18.

a parallelogram, whose adjacent sides

two given lines.

and

AC

be the two given

the extremities of one line,

lines.

draw per-

pendiculars to that line, as in the last

A
A

problem

B
and from these

perpendiculars, cut off portions equal to the other line

parallel, complete the figure.

When

the figure

describe the angles

is

to

and by a

be a parallelogram, with oblique angles,

by problem

5.

Proof, (th. 21, b. 1).

BOOK

IV.

PROBLEM
To

describe

a rectangle that shall

to a given line.

85

19.

be equal to

a given square, and

have a side equal

AB

be a side of the given square, and

one side of the required rectangle.
Find the third proportional, EF, to CD
Let

CD
and

AB

Then we

(problem 8).

CD AS
:

shall have,
:

AB EF
:

EF

CD

Construct a rectangle with the two given lines,

and
it will be
equal to the given square, (th. 13, b. 2).

(problem 18), and

PROBLEM
To

a square

construct

20.

that shall be equal to the difference

of two

given squares.

Let

represent a side of the greater of two given squares, and

a side of the lesser square.

On A,

as a diameter, describe a semi-

and from one extremity, m, as a cenwith a radius equal to B, describe an

n, and, from the point where it cuts the

circle,
ter,

arc,

draw

circumference,

mn

and np; np

side of a square, which,

when

is

the

constructed,

(problem 17), will be equal to the difference

of the two given squares.
Proof, (th. 9, b. 3,

PROBLEM
To
to

construct

a square,

a line, N.
Place
and

From

the point

that shall be to

in a line,

where they

circumference in A.

Join

b. 1.)

21.
a given square, as a

line,

M,

and on the sum describe a semicircle.

join,

Am

draw a perpendicular
and

An, and produce them indefinitely.

On Am or An, produced, take
to the side of the
given square and
from B, draw BC parallel to mn;

AB=
;

A C is

and 36,

a side of the
required square.

to

meet the

GEOMETRY.

86
For,

Ant An*

Also,

Am? An

AB* AC*

(th. 17, b. 2.)

Therefore, AB :AC ::M

1

^Y

(scholium to

JV

(th. 6, b. 2.)

PROBLEM
To

and mean

cut a line into extreme

th. 36, b.
1.)

Q. E.

D.

22.

ratio; that

is,

so that the whole

shall be to the greater part, as that greater is to the less.

Let

AB

be the

From

line,

and from one extre-

BC at right angles, and

mity, B, draw
to half AB.

equal

and radius CB, deand produce it to

From A, as a center, and
radius,

scribe a

0, as a center,

Join

circle.

AC

AD

F.

describe the arc

line

AB,

We

are

DE;

this arc will divide the

as required.

now

show

to

that

AB :AE::AE: EB
By

(scholium to

Or,

Then, by

AF AB

b. 2),
(th. 8,

(AFAB)
As

we may

have,

AB AD
:

have,

:AB::

(ABAD) AD
:

CB=$AB=%DF;

.'

Hence,.

Therefore,

By

we

th. 18, b.
3),

therefore,

taking the extremes for the means,

we

have,

AB \AE\\AE\EB

PROBLEM
To
of

describe

an

isosceles triangle,

the third angle,

and

AB-~DF

AFAB=AF^-DF=AD=AL
AE AB EB AE

having

the equal sides

Q. E.

D.

23.
its

two equal angles double

of any given length.

BOOK

IV.

87

AB

Let
be one of the equal sides of the
required triangle ; and from the point A,
with
radius, strike an arc, BD.

AB

AB

Divide the line

mean

into

extreme and

by the last problem, and suppose

the point of division, and
the greater
ratio

segment.

From

the point B, with

AC,

the greater segment, as radius,

in D.
Join BD, DC, and

strike another arc, cutting the arc

DA.

The

ABD

triangle

is

BD

the triangle required.

DEMONSTRATION.
As
to

AC=BD,

BC,

construction

by

by the division of

AB;

AB BD
:

Now,

and as

AB

is

to

AC>

as

AC

therefore,
:

BD EG
:

as the terms of this proportion are the sides of the

triangles about the

is

two

common

that the two triangles,

angle, B, it follows, from (th. 20, b. 2),

A BD and BDC, are equiangular; but the

ABD isosceles therefore, BDC is isosceles also, and

BD=DC; \)MtBD=AC: hence, DC=A C (ax. 1), and the triBut
isosceles, which gives the angle CDA=A.
angle ACD
is

triangle

is

the exterior angle, BCD=CDA-\-A, (th. 15, b. 1).

Therefore,
BCD, or its equal B=CDA-\-A; or the angle B=2A. Hence,

ABD

the triangle
the third angle.

has each of
Q. E.

As the two angles,

Scholium.

its

angles, at the base, double of

D.
at the

base of the triangle

equal, and each double of the angle A,

it

ABD, are

follows that the

sum

of

But as the three angles

the three angles is Jive times the angle A.
of every triangle always make two right angles, or 1 80 degrees,
must be one-fifth of two right angles, or 36
therefore, the angle

degrees

and

to the circle

BD

is

a chord of .36 degrees,

when

AB

is

a radius

and ten such chords would extend exactly round the

circle.

PROBLEM
Within a given

circle to inscribe

24.

triangle,

equiangular

to

a given

GEOMETRY.

88

ABC

Let

be the

and abc

circle,

the given triangle. From any point,

to
as A, draw the tangent

EAD

the given circle (problem 12).

From the point A, in the line

AD, make
angle

b,

EAB=
The

the

angle

DA 0=

the

(problem 5), and the angle

the angle c, and join BG.

ABO

triangle

to the triangle ale,

is

and

inscribed in the circle;

is

it is

equiangular

the triangle required.

Proof, (th. 12, b. 3).

PROBLEM
To

an

describe

equilateral

25.

and equiangular pentagon in a given

circle.

Describe

1st.

an

isosceles

tri-

angle, abc, having each of the equal

angles, b and c, double of the third

angle, a, by problem 23.

2d. Inscribe the triangle

ABC,

in

the given circle, equiangular to the

triangle abc, by problem 24; then
each of the angles,
and C, is double of the angle A.

C by the lines BD
AE, EB, CD, DA, and the figure

3d. Bisect the angles

(problem 3),
is

and

join

and

and CE,

AEBCD

the pentagon required.

DEMONSTRATION.
By
are

construction, the angles

all

AD,

equal

therefore,

DC, AE, and EB, are

the chords

AE, EB,

<fec.,

BAG, ABD, DBG, BCE, EGA,

by scholium
all

equal

are equal.

PROBLEM
To
a

describe

circle.

an equiangular and

to
;

th. 9, b. 3,

and

if

Q. E.

the arc

BC,

the arcs are equal

D.

26.

equilateral polygon,

of six

sides, in

BOOK

IV.

89

Draw any diameter of the circle, as AB,

and from one extremity, B, draw
equal

BD

to

EC,

BD

the radius of the circle.

The

arc,

be one-sixth part of the whole cirwill be a

cumference, and the chord
will

BD

side of the regular polygon of six sides.

In the

= C,

CBD,

GB=CD,

as

the

construction

by

BD

and
is

equilateral,

and of course

equiangular.
But the sum of the three angles of every A, is equal to two
right angles, or to 1 80 degrees ; and when the three angles are

equal to each other, each one of them must be 60 degrees but

is a sixth
parth of 360 degrees, the whole number of
in
a
the arc whose chord is equal to the
circle
therefore,
;
degrees
;

60 degrees
radius,

is

a sixth part of the circumference ; and a polygon of six

may be inscribed in a circle, with each side equal to the

equal sides
radius.

Cor. Hence, as

CD, we say

or

BD,

is

the chord of 60 degrees,

generally, that the chord

PROBLEM
To find

the side

be inscribed in

Let

CB

of GO

is

equal

to

BC

to radius.

27.

of a regular polygon of ffteen

any given

and equal

sides,

which

may

circle.

be the radius of the given circle,

it into extreme and mean ratio

and divide

BD
BD

equal to CE,
(problem 22), and make
will be a side
the greater part; then
of a regular polygon of ten sides (scholium
to CB, and
to problem 23).
Draw

BA=

it

will

Join

be a

side of a

DA, and

that line

polygon of six sides.

must be the side of a polygon, which cor-

responds to the arc of the circle expressed by |, less j\, of the

whole circumference or
TL; that is, one-fifteenth of
T
the whole circumference or,
is a side of a regular
polygon

'^=^=

of 15 sides.

DA

GEOMETRY.

90

BOOK

V.

ON THE PROPORTIONALITIES AND MEASUREMENT OF POLYGONS

AND CIRCLES.

THEOREM
The area of any
half of

Let

its

circle is

be the radius of the

CAB

be a

will

number

of such sectors

may be

as small as

very small,
separately,
fec.,

the base,

its

radius into

we

circle,

and

circumference,

and we

may

made up
;

and

of a great
each sector

please; and

when

AB, BD, &c., each one

may be considered a right

taken

will

CA,

be triangles.

The

line

triangle

and the sectors

CAB,

is

CAB,

measured by

multiplied into half the altitude, (th. 30, b. 1) AB;

is measured
by CB, or its equal, CA, into

and the triangle

CBD

BD:

then the area, or measure of the two triangles, or sectors,

CA, multiplied by the half of AB, plus the half of BD, and

half
is

its

sector;

conceive the whole circle

CBD,

equal to the product of

circumference.

CA

AB a very small portion of

and

1.

so on for

all

the sectors that compose the circle

area of the circle

the circumference.

is

measured by
Q. E. D.

the

product of

THEOREM

t/te

therefore, the

radius into half

2.

Circumferences of circles are to one another as their radii,

to one another as the squares of their radii.

and

their

areas are

Let

CA

be the radius of a

radius of another circle.

circle (see last figure),

and Ca the

Conceive them to be placed upon each

other so as to have the same center.

BOOK

V.

91

AB

be a certain definite portion of the circumference of the

will represent that circumference.
larger circle, so that m times

Let

AB

AB

is of the
But whatever part
greater circumference, the same
part ab is of the smaller; for the two circles have the same number
of degrees, and of course susceptible of division into the same

number

of sectors.

But by proportional triangles we have,

CA Ca AB ab
:

Multiply the last couplet by

CA
That

Ca

(th. 4, b. 2),
:

as the radius of one circle

is,

mAB

and we have,

mab

is to the

radius of the other, so

circumference of the one to the circumference of the other.

is the

D.

Q. E.

To prove the second part of the theorem, represent the

circle by C, and the smaller by c; and whatever part the
CAB is of the circle C, the sector Cab is the same part
circle

larger
sector
of the

c.

That

is,

But,

Therefore,

C
c:: CAB
CAB :Cab::( CA)

CA)

Cab

2
:

( <7a)

(th. 22, b. 2)

2
:

Ca)

(th.

6, b.

Q.

Scholium.

diameters

1.

2)

E. D.

Circles are to one another as the squares of their

for if squares

be described about any two

circles,

such

be squares on the diameters of the circles. But each

squares
circle is the same proportional part of its circumscribed square
will

and as

have the same proportion to each other

2); therefore, circles are to one another as

like parts of things

as the wholes (th. 4, b.

the squares of their diameters.

Scholium
small,

is

2.

As. the circumference of every

to

represented

by AB, on one

AB
but

great or

to contain

cumference

will

circle,

360 degrees, if we conceive the cirbe divided into 360 equal parts, and one such part

assumed

circle,

or ab on the other,

AB

and ab

be very near straight lines, and the length of such a line as

will be greater or less according to the radius of the circle
;

its

absolute

absolute length cannot

relation

circumference.

between

the

be determined until we know the

diameter

of

circle

and

its

GEOMETRY.

92

To measure

the circumference of a circle, or, to discover exactly

part of a time, it is greater than its diameter,

how many times, and

a problem of some difficulty, and requires patience and care ;

it can
only be done approximately; for as far as investigations

is

and

have extended, the circumference of a

with

To

circle is

incommensurable

diameter.

its

acquire a very clear and dis-

between the

tinct idea of the ratio

and

diameter
the

circle,

circumference of

commence

must

pupil

first
approximations, and proceed with great deliberation.
Conceive a circle described on the

with

radius

CA, and

in

describe a regular polygon of

it

six

sides

(problem 26), and each side will be equal to the radius CA; hence
the whole perimeter of this polygon must be six times the radius,
or three times the diameter.
Let CA bisect bd in a. Produce cb

and

cd,

DB

and through the point A, draw

parallel to db;

DB

be a side of a regular polygon of six sides, described

about the circle, and we can compute the length of this line, DB,

will then

as follows

by

The two

construction

Ca

Now,

let

unity; then

and CBD, are equiangular,

triangles, Cbd,

therefore,

db

CA DB.
:

us assume CA, or cd, or the radius of the

db=l, and

Ca

we

In the right angle triangle Cad,

By

reduction,

is,

the proportion,

DB

(th. 36, b. 1)

Ca?-{-=l, because Cd=\, and

.

Ca=^j3,

::

DB,

in

or

But the whole perimeter of the circumscribing polygon

2

DB;

ad=$

which value of Ca, put

we have,
1

times

equal

have,

Ca*+ad*=Cd
That

circle,

the preceding proportion becomes

that

is,

six times

=,

V3

is

12
or,

==4/3=6.9282032

V3

six

BOOK

V.

93

Thus we have shown, that when the radius of a

perimeter of an inscribed polygon of six sides,

6.9282032

But,

the perimeter
of the inscribed polygon of six equal sides

call the

diameter

is

1,

3.0000000

will be,

And

of the circumscribed, will be

As we would

avoid

all

3.4641016

metaphysical verbiage in science,

come to the point at once, we lay it down

when the radius of a circle is 1, and of course
circumference
the diameter
less

the circumference

1,

than 3.4641016

to the ratio

Scholium

and

greater than 6,

is

is

and

this

less than

the diameter 2, the

6.9282032

As

and

must be greater than

we may

call

the area of a circle

is

and

as an axiom, that

the

first

3,

if

and

approximation

between the diameter and circumference of a

2.

the

6.000000

of a similar circumscribed polygon,

we

1 ,

And

if

circle is

is

circle.

numerically equal to the

radius multiplied by half the circumference (th. 2, b. 5), therefore,

if we
represent the radius by R, and half the circumference by ft,

and the area of the

circle

by

a,

then

we

shall

have

this equation

Rx=a
If

we now make

the radius

of a

to the area.

R=\

this equation

circle is 1, the

We

gives rt=a; that

is,

when

is

half circumference
numerically equal
seek the area of a circle whose

will, therefore,

is
unity; and that area, if found, will be numerically the
half circumference, and by inspecting the last figure, we perceive
that it is perfectly axiomatic (the whole is greater than a part),

radius

the sector CbAd, is greater than the triangle

Cbd, and less than the triangle CBD; and the area of the whole
circle is greater than one polygon, and less than the other.
Find-

that the area of

ing the
circle

AREA of a

circle,

of given diameter,

or finding a square which shall be equal to a

is

known as

the celebrated problem

of squaring

the circle.

THEOREM
Given, the area

3.

of a regular inscribed polygon, and the area of a

a regular inscribed

similar circumscribed polygon, to find the areas of

and circumscribed polygon of double

the

number of

sides.

GEOMETRY.

94
Let

be the center of the

circle

AB

EF

of the given inscribed polygon ;

parallel to AB, a side of the circumscribed
side

polygon.
If

AM be

AR

and

joined,

and JSQ be

AM

and B,
as tangents, at
will be
a side of an inscribed polygon of double the
number of sides; and
(scholium 2, th.

drawn

AR=RM

BQ=QM,

and

polygon of double the number of

As ARC

The

common

RMC,

and

therefore,

GR

sides.

are equal, for

AR=RM,

and

to both triangles,

R;

point,

18, b. 3),
side of the circumscribed

AR-}-RM=RQ= the

bisects the angle

AC=CM.

CR

is

tangents from the same

ECM.

Now, as the same construction, and the same reasoning would

take place at every one of the equal sectors of the circle, it is sufficient to consider one of them, and whatever is true of that arc,
would be true of every one, and true

for the

whole

circle,

and

its

polygons.

To

avoid

p represent the area of the given

the area of the similar circumscribed

let

confusion,

inscribed polygon, and

polygon. Also let p' represent the area of an inscribed polygon

of double the number of sides, and P' the circumscribed polygon
of double the

As

the

number

AS A CD

of sides.

A CM

and

common

have the

CD

are to each other as their bases,

CM;

to

vertex A, they
also to each
are
they

other as the polygons of which they form a part.

Hence,

As

AD

and

CD

p' :\

But, because of the

common

are to each other as

of the polygons p' and

P;

we

Therefore,

p'

That

p'

By

P
P

CD

vertex,

CA

is,

CM

(1)

EM are parallel, we have,

CA: CE:

CEM,

to

CM

M,

(2)

the two

But the

CE.

AS,

AS

CAM and

are like parts

have,
:

CA

CE

CD CM
:

(3)
(4)

comparing (1) and (4), we have,

p':P::p:p', orp'=
1

(th. 17, b.

2)

BOOK
That

the area of p'

is,

RMC

The two AS,

is

ERC,

GR

ECM, (th. 23,

CM: CE
CD CA or CM

bisects the angle

MR: RE
But,

That

Or,

By

composition, (th.

b.

2)

RMC: ERC
RMC :ERC

is,

CE

CM:

proportional between
and/?.
having the same vertex, (7, are

MR to ME.

to each other as their bases,

But, because

95

mean

and

V.

CD
P

CM

-P'

8, b. 2),

2(RMC) (RMC+ERC)
:

But 2 times

RMC

Therefore,

is
.

P', and

(RMC-\-ERC)

is

F=

Or,

P+P'

Now, P'

known, because 2pP is known ; and p-\-p' is also

known, as p' has been previously determined. Hence, by means
of P and j?, we can determine P' andjs'.
Q. E. D.
is

Scholium.

we

By

inspecting the figure in the scholium to theorem 2,

we double the number of sides of the inscribed

perceive, that if

polygon, we shall more nearly fill up the circle ; and if we double the
number of sides of the circumscribed polygons, we shall more nearly
pare them down to the surface of the circle.

Hence, by continually increasing the sides of the polygons, as indicated by the last theorem, we can find two polygons which shall differ
from each other by the smallest conceivable quantity; but the surface
of the circle

is

always between the two polygons and thus the sur

can be determined to any assignable degree of
;

face of the circle

exactness.

By

taking the figure in the scholium to theorem 2, b. 5,

that the area of an inscribed polygon of

must be

Which
And,
Or,

Hence,

is

we

perceive

six sides, to radius unity

CaX^X6
f /3, because

da=^

...
.

with p, in the

last

i-s/

theorem.

3 XiX6=f/N/3=p,

which corresponds

GEOMETRY.

96

The

area of the circumscribing polygon

measured by

is

CAXDAX6=6DA=3DB.
But

That

is,

Therefore,

Ca

iV 3

db

CA DB.

'

:1

(th. 17, b. 2.)

'

2
3DB= _6_,
/3,
d
.

Ds

or

>

BD=-

which corresponds with the

theorem.
Having, now, the area of an inscribed and circumscribed polygon
of six sides, by applying the last theorem we can readily determine the
last

area of an inscribed and a circumscribed polygon of 12 sides.

Thus,

p'

=24_ 12
P'+P

Now
the

let p'

and P' be the given polygons, and find others of double

sides, and thus continue until the inscribed and circum-

number of

scribed so nearly coincide, as to determine a very approximate area of

the circle.

In this manner

Number

we formed

the following table

of sides.

Inscribed polygons.

Circumscribed polygons.

-73=

2.59807621

2j3=3.46410161
12

12

3=

3.0000000

=3.2153904

24

3.1058286

3.1596602

48

3.1326287

3.1460863

96

3.1393554

3.1427106

192

3.1410328

3.1418712

384

3.1414519

3.1416616

768

3.1415568

3.1416092

1536

3.1415829

3.1415963

3072

3.1415895

3.1415929

6144

3.1415912

3.1415927

Thus we have

found, that

when

the radius of a circle

is 1,

the semi-

circumference must be more than 3.1415912, and less than 3.1415927

and

this is as accurate as

can be determined with the small number of

BOOK
uecimals here used.

To

V.

97

be more accurate

we must have more decimal

places, and go through a very tedius mechanical operation ; but this ia

not necessary, for the result is well known, and is 3.1415926535897
plus other decimal places to the 100th, without termination. This was

discovered through the aid of an infinite series in the differential and

integral calculus.

The number 3.1416 is the one generally used in practice, as

much more convenient than a greater number of decimals, and

it

it is

sufficiently accurate for all ordinary purposes.

In

expressions

analytical

mathematicians

it

to represent this

has become a general custom with

number by the Greek letter tt, and,

when any diameter of a circle is represented by D, the circumference of the same circle must be rtD. If the radius of a circle
therefore,

is

represented by R, the circumference must be represented by ZrtRa farther discipline of mind, and for more practical utility, as

As

applicable to trigonometry, we give another method of determining the

circumference of a circle, when the diameter is given. It is evident
that

when we

same length

take a small arc, the chord and the arc are nearly of the
but the arc is greater than the chord, for the chord is a

straight line, and the arc

is

curved.

But

if

we

take the half of any

small arc, and draw two chords in place of one, such chords taken
together, will be much nearer to, and more nearly equal in length to
the arc than the one chord of the undivided arc would be.

Now,

we

if

and can

parts,

sum

parts, the

can divide the circumference into several thousand equal

find the length of a chord corresponding to one of these
of all these equal chords will be infinitely near the circircle ; and the length of such a small chord we can

cumference of the

provided we can first know the chord of any definite arc, and from
that deduce the chord of any definite portion of that arc ; and this is
find,

shown

in the following theorem.

THEOREM
Given, the chord of any arc,

Let

AB

represent
in
Bisect the arc

AB

From

to

given

D, and

determine

4.
tJie

chord of half that arc.

chord.

join

AD.

C, the center of the circle, draw

CG

perpendicular to

draw

DF

AD;

and from D,

perpendicular to AB.
AB we are to determine

From
The two AS, CAn and AFD,
angular

for the

angle

FAD,

AD.

are equiat the circumference, is

measured by

GEOMETRY.

98

BD;

half the arc

equal arc,

As

AD.
.

and nCA, at the center,

The
.

DA AF

is

measured by half of an

F= the right angle

right angle,
:

CA

CnA;

therefore,

Cn.

In the triangle CnA, let cn=y, nA=x, and CA=1.

Then AD=2x; and put AB=C; then AF=%C.
By this notation the preceding proportion becomes

C
2x
But

\C

Hence,

y.

in the right angled triangle

y=r^

CnA, we have

^+Z =1
2

By

2
taking the value of y , from the proportion, and reducing,

the quadratic

16x2

By adding 4 to both members

we have

we have

CJ

(see Alg. Art. 99), and extracting

square root,

2=

4x 2
Therefore,

As 2x

2^=^/2

>2

74

AD,

the expression (2
value of the chord of the half of any arc, when
is

the value of

J4 C 2)* is
C represents

the
the

We

must, take the minus sign to

C 2 as the "plus sign would give increasthe part represented by ^/4
ing, and not decreasing values.

value of the chord of the whole arc.

,

If

we

represent the chord of a given arc by C, and the chord of half

that arc by C,, and the chord of half that arc by

t , and the chord of
shall
have
the
half that arc again by
,
&c.,
&c.,we
following series
3

of equations

C= the first chord

&c.=&c.

To
60

is

equations, we

observe that in any circle the chord of

apply these
the
to
to
radius
(cor.
equal
prob. 26), and if the radius is assumed

as unity,

we

have,

C = chord of 60

(o_ vrZc'*)==C'
ins. pol. of

=1.000000000

sid.

sid.

6 sides.

ins. pol. of

= chord of 30

12 sides.

.5176380902

BOOK

V.

99

Jt^C* )*=C t = chord of 15

(2

ins. pol. of

24

V"4^C|)^=C'3 =chordof

(2

ins. pol.

C*

V4

(2

of

96

chord of 3

chord of

jl^C* )*= C 6 = chord of

ins. pol. of

384

768
8

ins. pol. of

.1308062583

sid.

45

.0654381655

sid.

52' 30'"

.0327234632

sid.

56' 15"

.0163622792

sid.

30'"= .0081812080

sid.

'"= .0040906112

sid.

28'

7"

14'

3" 45

1536 sides.

J4^CI=C = chord of

(2

sides.

=C = chord of
ins. pol. of

30'

sides.

=C,= chord of
ins. pol. of

192 sides.

ins. pol. of

(2

sid.

sides.

J~4^Ct )*=C5 =

(2

.2610523842

48 sides.

)*=C4 =

ins. pol. of

sides.

7'

&c.

.0020453068

sid.

3072 sides.

Hence, .0020453068X3072=6.2831814896,

is

the perimeter of an

inscribed polygon of 3072 sides when the radius is 1, or diameter 2.

When the diameter is 1, the perimeter is 3.1415907498, which is a

little,

and but

a little, less

than the circumference, as determined by

more extended computations.

Although not necessary for practical application, the following
theorem for the analytical tri-section of an arc will not be

beautiful

unacceptable.

THEOREM
Given, the chord of any arc,

Let

AE

to

5.

determine the chord of one third of such arc.

be the given chord, and conceive

its

arc divided into three equal parts, as represented

by

AB, BD, and DE.

Through the center draw BCG, and join ABThe two AS, CAB and ABF, are equiangular;
angle FAB, being at the circumference,
measured by half the arc BE, which is equal
to AB, and the angle BCA, at the center, is
for the

is

GEOMETRY.

100
measured by the arc
angle

CBA

or

FBA,

AS;
is

therefore, the angle

common

to

FAB=BCA;

but the

both triangles; therefore, the third

is equal to the third angle, AFB,

angle, CAB, of the one triangle,
of the other (th. 11, b. 1, cor. 2), and the two triangles are equiangular

and similar.

But the
isosceles,

and

CBA is isosceles; therefore, the

AB=AF, and we have the following
CA AB AB BF
:

Now

A AFB

and the proportion becomes,

1

Also,

a:

FG=2

also

AE=c, AB=x, CA=1. Then AF=x,

let

is

proportions

BF.

Hence

and

EF=cx,

BF=x*

x2
>

AE

As

point F,

That
Or,

and

we

GB

are

two chords that intersect each other

at the

have,

GFxFB=AFy.FE

is,
.

x 2)x2 =*(c

(2

a;

3x=

(th. 17, b. 3)

x)

AF

to be 60 degrees, then c=l, and the

If we suppose the arc
3
3x= 1; a cubic equation, easily resolved by
equation becomes a;
Horner's method ( Robinson's Algebra, University Edition, Art. 193),
giving x=. 347296-}-, the chord of 20. This again may be taken for

the value of

c,

and a second solution will give the chord of 6

many times as we please.

40',

and

so on, trisecting as

If the pupil has carefully studied the foregoing principles, he has

the foundation of all geometrical knowledge; but to acquire indepen-

dence and confidence,

mind

it

is

necessary to receive such

discipline of

as the following exercises furnish.

Some

of the examples are

mere problems, some

some a combination of both.

are theorems, and

Care has been taken in their selection,

that they should be appropriate ; not very severe, not such as to try
the powers of a professed geometrician, nor such as would be too
trifling to engage serious attention.

EXERCISES IN GEOMETRICAL INVESTIGATION.

1

shall
2.

From two given

meet

in the

From two

position to

draw

If

draw two equal straight

lines,

which

point, in a line given in position.

given points on the same side of a line, given in
two lines which shall meet in that line, and make

equal angles with

3.

points, to

same

it.

from a point without a

circle,

two

straight lines be

drawn

to

BOOK

V.

101

the concave part of the circumference, making equal angles with the
line joining the same point and the center, the parts of these lines

which are intercepted within the circle, are equal.

4. If a circle be described on the radius of another

circle, any
drawn from the point where they meet, to the outer circumference, is bisected by the interior one.
5. From two given points on the same side of a line given in position, to draw two straight lines which shall contain a given angle, and

straight line

be terminated in that
6. If,

line.

from any point without a

drawn touching

circle, lines "be

it,

the angle contained by the tangents is double the angle contained by

the line joining the points of contact, and the diameter drawn through

one of them.
7. If,

from any two points in the circumference of a circle, there be

straight lines to a point, in a tangent, to that circle, they

drawn two
will

make

8.

the greatest angle

From

which

when drawn

to the point of contact.

a given point within a given circle, to draw a straight line

make, with the circumference, an angle, less than any

shall

angle made by any other line drawn from that point.

9.

If

two

circles cut

each other, the greatest line that can be drawn

through the point of intersection,

is

that

which

is

parallel to the line

joining their centers.

10. If, from any point within an equilateral triangle, perpendiculars
be drawn to the sides, they are, together, equal to a perpendicular

drawn from any of the angles

to the opposite side.

11. If the points of bisection of the sides of a

given triangle be

joined, the triangle, so formed, will be one-fourth of the given triangle.

12.

The

difference of the angles at the base of

any

triangle, is double

the angle contained by a line drawn from the vertex perpendicular to

the base, and another bisecting the angle at the vertex.
13. If, from the three angles of a triangle, lines be drawn to the
points of bisection of the opposite sides, these lines intersect each
other in the same point.

14.

angle,
15.

The
meet

three straight lines which bisect the three angles of a

in the same point.

The two

triangles,

tri-

formed by drawing straight lines from any

point within a parallelogram to the extremities of two opposite sides,

are, together, half the parallelogram.
16. The figure formed by joining the points of bisection of the sides
of a trapezium, is a parallelogram.
17. If squares

be described on three sides of a right angled triangle,

GEOMETRY.

102

and the extremities of the adjacent sides be joined, the triangles so

formed, are equal to the given triangle, and to each other.
18. If squares be described on the hypotenuse and sides of a right
angled triangle, and the extremities of the sides of the former, and the
adjacent sides of the others, be joined, the sum of the squares of the

lines joining them, will

be equal to

five

times the square of the

hypotenuse.

The

vertical angle of an oblique-angled triangle, inscribed in a

greater or less than a right angle, by the angle contained
between the base, and the diameter drawn from the extremity of
19.

circle, is

the base.
20. If the base of

any triangle be bisected by the diameter of

its

circumscribing circle, and, from the extremity of that diameter, a perpendicular be let fall upon the longer side, it will divide that side into

segments, one of which will be equal to half the sum, and the other
to half the difference of the sides.

f
21.
straight line drawn from the vertex of an equilateral riangle,
inscribed in a circle, to any point in the opposite circumference, is

equal to the two lines together, which are drawn from the extremities
of the base to the same point.
22. The straight line bisecting any angle of a triangle inscribed in
a given circle, cuts the circumference in a point, which is equidistant
from the extremities of the sides opposite to the bisected angle, and

from the center of a circle inscribed in the triangle.

a line be drawn to any point in

If,
the chord of an arc, the square of that line, together with the rectangle
contained by the segments of the chord, will be equal to the square

from the center of a

23.

circle,

described on the radius.

24. If

two points be taken in the diameter of a

circle, equidistant

from the center, the sum of the squares of the two lines drawn from
these points to any point in the circumference, will be always the same.
25.

If,

on the diameter of a semicircle, two equal

circles be described,

space included by the three circumferences, a circle be inscribed, its diameter will be f the diameter of either of the equal

and

in the

circles.

26. If

a perpendicular be drawn from the vertical angle of any

triangle to the base, the difference of the squares of the sides

to the difference of the squares of the segments of the base.

i*

equal

27. The square described on the side of an equilateral triangle, is

equal to three times the square of the radius of the circumscribing
circle.

BOOK

103

The sum

of the sides of an isosceles triangle, is less than the

of any other triangle on the same base and between the same

28.

sum

V.

parallels.

29. In

triangle, given one angle, a side adjacent to the given

the difference of the other two sides, to construct the

any

angle, and
triangle.

30. In any triangle, given the base, the sum of the other two sides,
and the angle opposite the base, to construct the triangle.

31. In any triangle, given the base, the angle opposite to the base,
and the difference of the other' two sides, to construct the triangle.

PROBLEMS REQUIRING THE AID OF ALGEBRA

FOR THEIR SOLUTION.
No

definite rules

can be given for the solution or construction of

the following problems ; and the pupil can have no other resources
than his own natural tact, and the application of his analytical and

geometrical knowledge thus far obtained ; and if that knowledge is

sound and practical, the pupil will have but little difficulty; but if his
geometrical acquirements are superficial and fragmentary, the difficulties may be insurmountable
hence, the ease or the difficulty which
we experience in resolving such problems, is the test of an efficient or
:

knowledge of theoretical geometry.

inefficient

When

a problem

is

proposed requiring the aid of Algebra, draw the

figure representing the several parts, both

unknown

known and unknown.

Rep-

known

parts by the first letters of the alphabet, and the

and required parts by the final letters, &c.; and use whatever

resent, the

truths or conditions are available to obtain a sufficient

number of

equations, and the solution of such equations will give the unknown
and required parts the same as in common Algebra.

But as we are unable to teach by more general precept, we give the

solutions of a few examples, as a guide to the student.
The first two are specimens of the most simple and easy; the last
two or three are specimens of the most difficult and complex, or such
as might not be readily resolved, in case solutions were not given.
It might be proper to observe that different persons might draw
different figures to the

more complex problems, and make

equations and give different solutions

always the most simple.

PROBLEM

different

but the best solutions are

1.

Given, the hypotemise, and the sum of the other two sides of a right
angled triangle, to determine the triangle.

GEOMETRY.

104
Let A

EC be

the

we

CB=y,ABx, A C=h,

A- Put

Then, by a given condition we

and CB-\-AB=s.
have,

x+y=s
And,

From

x2+3/ 2 =A 2

(th. 36, b. 1)

these two equations a solution

is

easily ob-

tained, giving,

If

A=5, and s=7,

x=4

or 3, and

y=3

or 4.

In place of putting x to represent one side, and y the other,

might put (x-}-y) to represent the greater side, and (a: y} the lesser

N. B.

we

side; then,

x 2 -\-y 3

A
='

and 2x=s, &c.

PROBLEM

2.

Given, the base and perpendicular of a triangle, to find the side of its
inscribed square.

ABC be the A- AB=b, the

CDp, the perpendicular.
Draw EF parallel to AB, and suppose
Let

base,

equal to EG, a side of the required

square; and put EF=x.
it

As we

Then, by proportional

That

is,

and

EF
x

have,

CD AB
:

bp

Hence,
That

CI

is, the

bx=px;

Ip

or,

a:

,
,

side of the inscribed square is equal to the product

of the base

altitude, divided

by their sum.

PROBLEM
In a

3.

about the vertical angle, and

triangle, having given
ine bisecting that angle and terminating in the base, to find the base.
be the A> and let a circle be cirLet
the sides

ABC

cumscribed about

it.

Divide the arc

AEB into

parts at the point E, and join EC.

This line bisects the vertical angle (th. 9, b. 3,

two equal

scholium).

Join

Put AD=x,
nnd

DEw.

BE.

DB=y, A Ca, CB=b, CD=c,

The two AS, ADC and EBC,

are equiangular; from which we have,

a c; or, cw-\-c*=ab
w-\-c b
:

(1)

the.

BOOK
EC

But, as
circle,

we

Therefore,

CD

two chords that intersect each other

are

bisects the vertical

...

Or,

105

....
....

and

have,

But, as

AB

V.

cw=xy
2
xy+c =ab
angle, we have,

x :y

(2)

(th. 23, b. 2)

x=f

(3)

a
I
z
ry -\-c*=ab; or y=-Jb*-

Hence,.

in a

(th. 17, b. 3)

c*b
-

c*b

And,

x and y

as

Now,

are determined, the base

Observe that equation (2)

N. B.

is

PROBLEM
To
angle,

is

determined.

theorem 20, book

3.

4.

determine a triangle, from the base, the line bisecting the vertical
the diameter of the circumscribing circle.

and

Describe the circle on the given diameter,

and divide it in two parts, in the point D,

A B,

ADxDB

shall be equal to the square

so that
of one half the given base.

D draw EDG
EG will be the

at right angles to

Through

AB, and

given base of the

triangle.

Put

AD=n, DB=m, AB=d, DG=b.

Then, n-}-m=d, and nm=b 2 and these two equations will determine n and m; and therefore, n and m we shall consider as known.
;

Now, suppose EHG to be the required A> and join HIB and HA.
The two 8 AHB, DBI, are equiangular, and therefore, we have,

>

AB HB
:

But

HI

is

IB=w, we

IB

DB.

we will represent by c; and if we put

have HB=c-\-w; then the above proportion becomes,

a given line, that

shall

c-\-w

Now, w can be determined by a

is a known line.

w m
:

quadratic equation;

and therefore,

IB

In the right angled

known;

therefore,

El

IG

and

are

DI

A DBI, the hypotenuse IB, and

is

known.

known

(th. 36, b. 1);

and

if

base

DI

is

DB,

are

known,

GEOMETRY.

106
Lastly, let

EH=x, HG=y,

Then, by theorem 20, book

and put

El=p,

.....
......
3,

Or
v^r,

IG=q.

pq-\-c*=xy

x :y

But,

and

:p

(1)
:

(th. 25, b. 2)

r
x=

f9"\

{4}

And, from equations (1) and (2) we can determine x and y, the sides
of the A; and thus the determination has been attained, carefully and
easily, step

by

step.

PROBLEM
Three equal

5.

circles touch each other externally,

of ground; what

is the

and thus

inclose one acre

diameter in rods of each of these circles

Draw

three equal circles to touch each other

externally, and join the three centers, thus

The lines joining the

forming a triangle.
centers will pass through the points of contact (th. 7, b. 3).

Let
circles

is

represent the radius of thse equal

then it is obvious that each side of this

The triangle is therefore

incloses the given area, and three equal sectors.
each sector is a third of two right angles, the three sectors are,
equal to 2.R.

equilateral,

As

and

it

together, equal to a semicircle; but the area of a semicircle,

whose

rtR'*

radius

is

R,

is

expressed by

jr-

(th. 3, b. 5, and th.

1, b. 5);

and the

rtR*

area of the whols triangle must be

is also

equal to

-{-160;

but the area of the

multiplied by the perpendicular altitude, which

Therefore,

Or,

RV 3= ~2~+ 160

J2 z (2,y3

rt)=320
320

3.20

=992.248

2^/33.1415926
Hence,

0.3225

.R=31.48-j- rods for the result.

PROBLEM

6.

In a right angled triangle, having given the base and the

perpendicular and hypotenuse, to find these two sides.

sum

of the

BOOK

V.

PROBLEM

7.

Given, the base and altitude of a triangle, to divide

it

into three equal

parts, by lines parallel to the base.

PROBLEM
In any equilateral

AJ given

from any point within,

the length

of

drawn

determine the sides.

to the three sides, to

PROBLEM
In a

8.
the three perpendiculars

9.

and the difference

right angled triangle, having given
between the hypotenuse and perpendicular (1), tofind both these two sides.
the base (3),

PROBLEM
In a

right angled triangle, haviny

ference between the base

and perpendicular

sides.

PROBLEM

Having

given, the area or

10.

given the hypotenuse (5),

measure of

and

the dif-

two

(1), to determine both these

11.

the space

of a rectangle inscribed

in a given triangle, to determine the sides of the rectangle.

PROBLEM
In a

the ratio

having given
of the base, made by a perpendicular from

triangle,

the segments

12.

of the two sides, together with both

the vertical angle, to

determine the sides of the triangle.

PROBLEM
In a

the base, the

having given
of a line drawn from

triangle,

the length

to find the sides

13.
sum of

the other

the vertical angle to the

two

and

sides,

middle of the base,

of the triangle.

PROBLEM

14.

To determine a right angled triangle; having given the lengths of two

lines drawn from the acute angles to the middle of the opposite sides.

PROBLEM
To determine a
radius of

its

right angled triangle; having given the perimeter,

To determine a

the

triangle;

having given

16.
the base, the perpendicular,

and

of the two sides.

PROBLEM
To

and

inscribed circle.

PROBLEM
the ratio

15.

17.

determine a right angled triangle; having given the hypotenuse, and

the side

of the inscribed square.

GEOMETRY.

108

PROBLEM
To

18.

determine the radii of three equal circles, inscribed in a given

to touch each other,

and

circle,

also the circumference of the given circle.

PROBLEM

19.

In a rigid angled triangle, having given the perimeter, or sum of aU the

sides, and the perpendicular let fall from the right angle on the hypotenuse,
to determine the triangle; that is, its sides.

PROBLEM

20.

right angled triangle; having given the hypotenuse and

of two lines, drawn from the two acute angles to the center of

To determine a
the difference

the inscribed circle.

To determine a
the difference

PROBLEM
triangle; having given

of the two other

the rectangle, or

triangle; having

product of

from

and

the

two

22.

given the base, the perpendicular,

and

sides.

PROBLEM
To

base, the perpendicular,

sides.

PROBLEM
To determine a

21.

tJie

23.

determine a triangle; having given the lengths of three lines drawn

the three angles to the middle of the opposite sides.

PROBLEM
In a

triangle,

having given

inscribed circle.

all the

24.

three sides, to

PROBLEM

find the radius of the

25.

To

determine a right angled triangle; having given the side of the inscribed square, and the radius of the inscribed circle.

PROBLEM
To

26.

determine a triangle, and the radius of the inscribed circle; having

given the lengths of three lines drawn

that circle.

PROBLEM

To determine a
the radius

from

the three angles to the center

27.

right angled triangle; having given the hypotenuse,

of the inscribed

circle.

of

and

BOOK

VI.

BOOK

VI

ON THE INTERSECTION OF PLANES.

DEFINITIONS,
THE

14th definition of book

1,

defines a plane.

It is a superfices,

having length and breadth, but no thickness.

The

surface of

give a person

still

water, the side of a sheet of paper,

some idea of a

curved surface

is

may

plane.

not a plane

although

we sometimes

say,

" the
plane of the earth's surface."
1.

If any two points be taken in a plane, and a straight

line join

the points, every point in that line is in the plane.

2. If any point in such a line should be either above or below
the surface, such a surface would not be a plane.
3.
straight line is perpendicular to a plane, when it makes

which it meets in that plane.

are
to
each other when any straight
planes
perpendicular
line drawn in one of the planes, perpendicular to their common
right angles with every straight line
4.

Two

section, is perpendicular to the other plane.

two planes cut each other, and from any point in the line of
section, two straight lines be drawn, at right angles
to that line, one in the one plane, and the other in the other plane,
5.

their

If

common

the angle contained

by these two

lines is the angle

made by

the

planes.
6.

straight line

is

parallel to a plane

when

plane, though produced ever so far.

7. Planes are parallel to each other

though produced to any extent.

8.
solid angle is one which

point, of

more than two plane

plane with each other.

it

does not meet the

when they do not meet,

formed by the meeting, in one

angles, which are not in the same
is

GEOMETRY.

110

THEOREM

1.

three straight lines meet one another, they are in one plane.

If any

BC

For conceive a plane passing through

about that

to revolve

line

till it

pass through
Then because the points
the point E.
is in
and G are in that plane, the line
it ;
and for the same reason, the line

EG

EB

is

in

it

Hence

BG

and

the lines

is

in

it,

by

AB, CD, and

hypothesis.

BG are

all in

one plane.

Any two

Cor.

plane

straight lines

which meet each other, are

THEOREM
If

in

one

in one plane.

and any three points whatever, are

2.

two planes cut one anotJier, the line

of

their

common

section is

straight line.

For

let

and D, any two points in the line

common

of their

be joined by the
then because the points

section,

BD ;

straight line

D are both in the plane AE, the whole

BD in that plane and for the same
in the plane GF.
The straight line BD is therefore
reason BD

and

line

is

is

common
common

to

both planes

and

it

of those
Let

of intersection,

it

mil

stand at right angles to

at their point of intersection

will be at right angles to

through

CD,
itself.

any other

EF

line

and

Then

A.

drawn

in the plane, passing through

EF

and, of course, at right angles to the plane

(Def. 3.)

Through A, draw any

line,

A G,

of two other straight

be at right angles to the plane

lines.

AB

AB

the line of their

THEOREM.

3.

straight line stand at right angles to each

lines at their point

CD,

therefore

section.

PROPOSITION
If a

is

in the plane

BOOK

EF CD,

VI.

and from any point G, draw

and join FG and produce

OH

HF=AH,

AD,

parallel to

Ill

it

parallel to

D.

to

AD.

Because

Take

HG

is

we have

FH HA
:

FG GD
:

But, in this proportion, the first couplet is a ratio of equality

therefore the last couplet is also a ratio of equality,
is bisected in G.
That is,
GD, or the line

FG=

FD

and BF.

JowBD, EG,
Now, in
we have,
Also, as

AFD,

the triangle

as the base

AF^+AD^=2AG +2GF
2

DF

theorem,

is

A BDF,

the base of the

FD

(1)

bisected in G,
(th.

we have by

F*+D*=2BG*-{-2GF 2

is

39 b.

1.)

the same

(2)

By subtracting (1) from (2) and observing that BF* AF*

=AB*, because BAF is a right angle and BD'1 AD^=AB^,
because BAD is a right angle, and we shall then have,
;

AG
AB*AG*=BG*
This last equation shows that BAG
Dividing

line

by

2,

and transposing

drawn through A,

.s

any

is

at right angles to

any

line

2
,

and we have,

is

in the plane

a right angle.

EF, CD,

But

therefore

AG
AB

in the plane, and, of course, at

right

D.

angles to the plane itself.

Q. E.

PROPOSITION

PROBLEM AND THEOREM.

To draw a
above

4.

straiglit line perpendicular to

Let J/2Vr be the plane, and

above it. Take, DC, any
plane,

and draw

From

the

point

Lastly, from
gles to the line

is

the point
on the

line

at right
angles to

C,

draw

CB

plane, at right angles to the line

is

a plane, from a given point

it.

A, draw
BC, and

AB at
join

it.

on the

DC.
right an-

BD.

ABC

a right angle by construction, and now if we can

prove that
also a right angle, then AB is at
to the

last proposition.

right angles

ABD

plane, by the

GEOMETRY.

112
Because

ABC

is

a right angle,

To both members

we

have,

DC

of this equation, add

ACD

is

is

a right angle,

AC +J)C
a

values in the last equation,

we

PROPOSITION
straight lines, having the

and because
latter

which shows that

ABD

have,
;

Q. E. D.

a right angle, and proves our proposition.

Two

and taking these

=AlP,

AEP+BD^AD*
is

and we have,

Aff+(C*+D C )=A C*+D C

BCD a right angle, BW+DC^BD'
2

Because

5.

same

THEOREM.

inclination to a plane, whether

perpendicular or oblique, are parallel to one another.

This proposition is axiomatic from our definition of parallel lines

a stationary plane can have but one position, and the same in-

for

clination
lines

from any fixed

position, must, of

but, for the sake of perspicuity,

we

course, give parallel

will give the

following

as a demonstration.

Let

MN be a plane, and AB and

CD lines

same inclination to it.

Then AB and CD are parallel.

having the

meet the plane, produce

it in B and D.
Join the points B and D, by the line BD, and
produce it to E.
The angle CDE=ABD, otherwise the two lines would not have
the same inclination to the plane.
But when one line, as BE, cuts
two others, as AB CD, making the exterior angle, CDE,
equal to
If the lines do not

them

until

they do meet

the interior and opposite angle on the same side, ABE, then the
and CD, are parallel. (Converse of th. 6, b.
lines,

two

AB

1).

Q.

E. D.

PROPOSITION
If two

straight lines be

6.

THEOREM.

drawn in any position through parallel

planes, they will be cut proportionally by the planes.

..

BOOK

VI.

113

Conceive three planes to be parallel, as

represented in the figure, and take any points,

and B,

"plane at

and third planes, and

in the first

AB, which

join

passes through the second

E.

and
Also, take any other two points, as
D, in the first and third planes, and join
CD, the line passing through the second
plane at F.
Join the two lines

by the diagonal

the second plane at G.

now

to

show

AE EB

that,

the planes are parallel,

triangles ABD and AEG,

is

OF FD

By comparing
we have,

We

are

CfD= Y.
EG; then, in

and

parallel

AE-.EB: X:
.

A C.

the two

have, (th. 17 b. 2).

Also, as the planes are parallel,

have,

which passes through

FD

A G=X,

BD

we

OF:

For the sake of perspicuity, put

As

AD,

EG-, OF, and

ED,

Join

GF is parallel to

AC, and we

X Y
:

the proportions, and applying theorem 6, book 2,

.
:
OF: FD. O. E. D.

AE EB
:

PROPOSITION

7.

THEOREM.

If a straight line le perpendicular to a plane, all planes passing

through that line^will be perpendicular to the first-mentioned plane.

AB
BC
passing through AB ; this plane

Let J/"Ar be a plane, and

perpenit.
Let
be any other

dicular to

plane,
will

be perpendicular

Let

BD be

the

to

MN.

common

intersection

of the two planes, and from the point B,

draw

BE

at right angles to

Then, as

AB

is

DB.

perpendicular to the plane

MN,

it is

ular to every line in that plane, passing through

is a
But the angle
therefore,
right angle.

ABE

perpendic-

(def. 1, b. 6);

ABE

(def.

6,

measures the inclination of the two planes therefore, the

is
CB
plane
perpendicular to the olane MN, and thus we can show
b. 6),

GEOMETRY.

114

AB,

that any other plane, passing through

to

MN;

PROPOSITION
From the same point

THEOREM.

8.

a plane, but one perpendicular can be

in

erected

the plane.

from
Let
and,

be perpendicular

will

D.

Q. E.

therefore, &c.

MN be

if

Ba

a plane, and
let

possible,

point in

it,

BA

two perpendiculars,

and JSC, be erected.

Let BD be drawn on

the plane MN, coinciding in direction with the plane passing

through these two perpendiculars.

Now,
line that

as a perpendicular to a plane is at right

angles to every
can be drawn on the plane, through the foot of the per-

pendicular, therefore,

ABD

is

CBD

a right angle, also

a right

is

angle.

ABD=

Hence,
CBD; the greater equal to the less, which is
must coincide with BA, and be one and
absurd therefore,

BC

the same line

therefore,

from the same

PROPOSITION
If two planes are perpendicular
section

of

the two

D.

THEOREM.

9.
to

Q. E.

point, &c.

a third plane,

the

common

inter-

planes will be perpendicular to the third plane.

BD

CB and
be two planes, both perpendicular to the third plane, MN, and let
be the common point to all three of the planes.
Let

From B, draw

BA will
GB,

to

BA

be

in the

this

will

erected from the

is

common

plane

be

two

or, there

point,

section to the
lines

which

may

is

PROPOSITION
If a solid angle be formed by
is

also a perpendicular

be two perpendiculars

impossible

therefore,

two planes BC and CD, and it

.5^ and BG, on the plane MN.

therefore perpendicular to that plane.

two of them

FB

From B, draw

BD.

BA ;

same

right angles to the

is

at right angles to

10.
three

greater than the third.

(Prop.

3, b. 6).

BA
is

at

AB

Q.E.D.

THEOREM.

plane angles, the sum of any

BOOK

VI.

BAD, DAG, BAG,

Let the three angles,

form the solid angle A. The sum of any two

of these is greater than the third.
When
these angles are all equal, it is evident that the
sum of any two is greater than the third, and the proposition
needs demonstration only when one of them, as
C, is greater

BA

than either of the others

their

we

are then to prove that

less

than

line, as

BD.

it is

sum.

On

the line

take any point, B, and

AB,

the same point, B, make the angle

From the point A, and on the plane

From

DC.

draw any

ABCABD,

and join

BAC, draw the angle

the two plane triangles
and BAE,
have a common side, AB, and the angles adjacent equal (th. 14,
b. 1); therefore, the two AS are, in all respects, equal; and

BAD

BAE=BAD. Now

ADAE, and BD=BE.

In the triangle
But,

By

BD C,

B C<^BD-\-D C

subtraction,

posite

DC,

verse of

is

th.

That

EC

DAG

less

than

b.

DAC+DAB~>BAC.

PROPOSITION
less

at

EAC,

opposite

and

AC

DA C,

EC.

is

op-

(Con-

DAC^EAC
DAB=BAE

By addition,

The

therefore, the angle

).

EAC, DA=AE,

and

CD;

greater than the angle

A,

is,

But,

is

EC<JDG

In the two triangles,

common, but

BEBD

11.

(Ax. 2).

Q. E.

D.

THEOREM.

num. of any plane angles forming any solid angle, i$ always

than four right angles.

Let the planes which form the solid angle

A, be cut by another plane, which we may

call

the plane of the base,

any

point, a, in this plane,

aD, aE,

&c., thus

making

BCDE.

and
as

join

many

Take

aB, aC,
triangles

on the plane of the base, as there are triangular planes forming the solid angle
as the sum of the angles of every

A.

is

But
two

GEOMETRY.

116

sum

right angles, the

vertex in A,

is

of

all

equal to the

have their vertex

the angles of the AS which have their

sum of all angles of the AS which

But the angles BCA-\- A CD,

in a.

gether, greater than the angles BCa-\-aCD, or

are, to-

BCD, by

the last

That is, the sum of all the angles at the bases of

proposition.
the AS which have their vertex in A, is greater than the sum of
the angles at the bases of the AS which have their vertex in a.
Therefore, the sum of all the angles at a, is greater than the sum
of all the angles at A, but the sum of all the angles at a, is equal
all

to four right angles

less

therefore, the

sum

of

all

the angles at

A,

is

Q. E. D.

than four right angles.

PROPOSITION

12.

THEOREM.

solid angles are formed by three plane angles

respectively
each
other, the planes which contain the equal angles unll be
equal
equally inclined to each other.

If two
to

ASC DTF,
A SB = DTE;
angle BSC=ETF;

Let the angle

and the angle

also

the

then will the inclination of the

planes,
that

to

A SO, A SB,
of

the

be

planes

equal

DTF,

DTE.

SB

Having taken

ASC;

plane
the plane, draw

B C;
TF;

BO

perpendicular to the

OA, 00,

perpendicular to

SA, SO;

join

AB,

draw EP perpendicular to the plane

P, draw PD, PF, perpendicular to TD,

from the point

DE, EF.
SAB, is right

lastly, join

The
at

draw

TE= SB;

next take

DTF;

at pleasure,

from the point 0, at which that perpendicular meets

triangle

D; and

since the angle

angled at A, and the triangle TDE,

we have SBA=TED.

ASB=DTE,

SB=TE; therefore, the triangle SAB is equal to the

and AB=DE. In like manner
triangle TDE; hence, SA=TD,
That granted,
shown
it
be
that, SC=TF, and BC=EF.
may
Likewise,

the quadrilateral

and

SO=TF,

equal to the quadrilateral TDPF;

; because SA=TD,
upon its equal

SAOC,

for, place the angle

ASC,

the point

is

DTF

will fall

on D, and the point

on F;

BOOK
and, at the same time,
fall

on

PD,
PF;

00 on
A will
right
side

VI.

117

0, which is perpendicular to SA, will

perpendicular to TD, and, in like manner,
will fall on the point P, and
wherefore, the point

which

is

be equal to
at

angled

DP.

But the

A OB, DPE,
AB=DE, and

are

triangles

and P;

the hypotenuse
those
hence,
triangles are equal

the

A 0=DP;
hence, the anB
is the inclination of the two
The
OA
OAB=PDE.
angle
gle
planes A SB, ASC; the angle PDE, is that of the two planes
DTE,

DTF;

each other.
Scholium.

consequently, those two inclinations are equal to

Hence, If two solid angles are formed, &c.

The angles which form the

solid angles at

S and

T,

may be of such relative magnitudes, that the perpendiculars, O

and EP, may not fall within the bases,
and DTF; but they
will always either fall on the bases or on the planes of the bases

ASC

will have the same relative situation to A, S, and

produced, and
has to D, T, and F.
and
fall
C, as
But, in case that

BCO

on the planes of the bases produced, the angles

and EFP,
would be obtuse angles but the demonstration of the problem
would not be varied in the least.
;

GEOMETRY.

118

BOOK

VII.

SOLID GEOMETRY,
THE object of Solid Geometry is to estimate and compare the
surfaces and magnitudes of solid bodies ; and, like Plane Geometry,
it

must

rest

on

definitions

and axioms.

tbe definitions already given, we add the following, as being

exclusively applicable to Solid Geometry.

To

Surfaces are measured by square units; so solids are measured

cube units.

by

Cube

a solid, bounded

by six equal square sursolid

equal
angles.
forming eight
All other solids are referred to a unit of this figure
1.

is

faces,

for

measurement.

2.

Prism

is

a solid, whose ends are parallel, equal, and form

and its sides, connecting these ends,
;

equiangular plane figures

are parallelograms.
3.
prism takes particular names according to the figure of its
base or ends, whether triangular, square, rectangular, pentagonal,

hexagonal,

<fec.

A right

or upright prism, is that which has the planes of

the sides perpendicular to the planes of the ends or base.
5.
Parallelopipedon is a prism bounded by six
4.

parallelograms, every opposite two of which are equal,

and

alike,

parallel.

rectangular parallelopipedon, is that whose bounding

planes are all rectangles, which are perpendicular to each other.
rectangular parallelopipedon becomes a cube when all its planes
6.

are equal.
7.

ends

A
;

Cylinder is a round prism, having circles for its

is conceived to be formed
by the rotation of

and

a right line about the circumferences of two equal and

to the axis.
parallel circles, always parallel
8. The axis of a cylinder, is the right line
joining the

BOOK
two

the

of

centers

VII.

about which the figure

circles,

parallel

119
is

described.
9.

A Pyramid is a solid, whose

plane figure,

and

its

base

is

any right lined

sides triangles, having all their ver-

meeting together in a point above the base, called

the vertex of the pyramid.
10.
pyramid, like the prism, takes particular names
from the figure of the base.
tices

Cone

is a convex
pyramid, having a circular
conceived to be generated by the rotation of
a right line about the circumference of a circle, one end
of which is fixed at a point above the plane of that

11.

base, and

is

circle.

12.

The

fixed point,

axis of

a cone

is

the right line joining the vertex, or

and the center of the

circle

about which the figure

is

described.
13. Similar cones

and

and the diameters of

cylinders, are such as

have their altitudes

their bases proportional.

14.
Sphere is a solid, having but one surface, which is in
every part equally convex and every point on such a surface is
equally distant from a certain point within, called the center.
;

15.

sphere

may be

conceived as having been generated by the

revolution of a semicircle about

its axis.

The diameter of such a semicircle

is the diameter of the

sphere;
the center of the sphere.
16. The altitude of any solid is the perpendicular distance between the parallel planes, one of which is the base of the solid,

and the center of the semicircle

is

and the other

is a
plane, parallel with the plane of the base, passof the solid.
the
vertex
ing through
17. The area of the surface is measured by the product of its

length

and breadth (as explained by scholium on page 32); and

are always conceived to be exactly at right

these dimensions

angles with each other.

18. In a similar manner, solids are measured
their length, breadth,

and

hight,

when

all their

by the product of
dimensions are at

right angles with each other.

The product

of the length

of the surface of

its

base.

and breadth of a

solid, is the

measure

EOMETR Y.

120

Let P, in the annexed figure,

represent the measuring unit, and
the rectangular solid to be

AF

measured.

of

side

P,

one unit

is

in

length, one in breadth, and one

in hight
one inch, one foot, one
;

yard, or any other unit that

Then,

Now,

if

X1X

the base of the

units in length

10

and 2

may be taken.

the unit cube.

solid,

A C,

in breadth, then

is,
it is

as here represented, 5
obvious that (5x2= 10).

equal to P, can be placed on the base of AC, and no

and as each of them will occupy a unit of altitude, there-

units,

more

fore,

2 units of altitude will contain 20 solid units, 3 units of

tude,

30

and so on

solid units,

or, in general terms, the

alti-

number

the base, multiplied by the linear units in perpendicular altitude, will give the solid units in any rectangular solid.*

of square units in

THEOREM
Two parallelopipedons on

the

same

1.

and of

base,

the

same

the one rectangular, the other oblique, the opposite sides

in the

same planes,

altitude,

of which

lie

will be equal in solidity.

Let
G be the rectangular parallelopipedon on the base AC, and
the the oblique parallelopipedon,
on the same base, AC, and of the

AL

same

altitude,

namely, the perpen-

dicular distance between the

parand EL, and the

planes
side AF, in the same plane with AK, and the side DO-, in the same
plane with DL* Then we are to show, that the oblique parallelopipedon
MIKL, is equivalent to the rectangular parallelopip-

AC

allel

ABCD

edon,

AO.

* This
stration

is

one of those simple and primary truths that admit of no demonno other truths more simple and elementary than itself can be

for

brought to bear upon

it

hence

we

enunciate

it

as a definition.

All efforts to prove a proposition which is perfectly obvious, are very unsatisfactory to the mind, and always tend more to confuse than to elucidate.

BOOK
As

VII

121

the sides of the two solids are in the

one right line

whole

line

EF=IK,

EK,

because each

same

equal to

EFK

plane,

AB.

From

is

the

EF and IK; thus showing

angle BFK= the angle
The parallelogram DE
and all the angles at F

subtract, successively,

EI=FK.

is

BF=AE, and the

AEI; therefore, the A BFK=l\ AEL
= CF, and the parallelogram EM=FL;

that

But

forming the solid angles at that point, are respectively equal to the
like angles at E.
Hence, the two prisms, CBFGLK&n&DAEPIMI axe equal; for
they are bounded by equal planes equally inclined to each other;
one prism can be conceived to be taken up and placed into the

or,

same space occupied by the

same space, are equal.

Now, from the whole

other;

and magnitudes that

solid, take

the prism

GB

fill

the

K, and the

6, is left ; and from the whole solid take the prism

upright solid,
/, and the oblique solid, AL, is left.
Hence, by (ax. 3) the

DE

rectangular parallelopipedon AG, is equivalent to the oblique

AL, on the same base and altitude. Q. E. D.

parallelopipedon
Cor.

The measure

AE

perpendicular,
of the solid, AL,

of the solid

A G,

the base,

is

ABCD,

(def. 18, solid ge.); consequently, the

is

into the

measure

same base, multiplied by the same

also the

perpendicular.

Scholium.
sides

AF

EF

and

AK in

the

If

and

IK are

in the

same plane

same

line

that

but the angles

is,

the

AEH and

BFG not right angles, then neither parallelopipedon is rectangular;

but they are proved equal in exactly the same manner; that is, by
proving the two prisms equal, and subtracting each in succession

from the whole

solid.

and of the
whose opposite sides are between the same planes, are

Hence, two oblique parallelopipedons, on the same base,

same

altitude,

equal in solidity.

PROBLEM
Any oblique parallelojnpedon
opipedon on

the

same base and

is

2-

equivalent to a rectangular parallel-

altitude.

GEOMETRY

122
Let

AG

be any oblique parallelopip-

edon, and

AL

and HF.

Then we are

a rectangular parallelopipedon, on the same base, DB, and

between the same parallel planes,

BD

show, that they

to

are equivalent.

Produce

HG

meet

in

some

and IM; and because

plane, and not

same horizontal

they are in the

point, Q.

the parallelogram
stand on the base

ogram
solid,

is

Now, by scholium

to

equal to this imaginary solid,

the rectangular solid, AL,

AP. Therefore, the solid
Q. E.

parallel,

they will

and KL, and thus form

theorem

AP.

1,

But

book

7,

the

(th. 1, b. 7),

also equal to this imaginary solid,

is

A G-

(Ax).

FE

NP. Now conceive another parallelopipedon to

DB, and its upper base occupying the parallel-

NP=DB.

AO,

Also produce

is

= to the rectangular

solid,

AL.

D.

Cor. Hence, every parallelopipedon, in whatever direction or degree

it is

inclined, is

measured by

the

product of

its

Lose into

its

perpen-

dicular altitude.

THEOREM

3.

Parallelopipedons on the same, or on equal bases, are

as their perpendicular altitudes;
altitudes, are to

Let

and

b,

and

to

one another

and parallelopipedons having equal

one another as their bases.

represent two parallelopipedons, whose bases are

and altitudes

and

a.

Then, by the last theorem, the measure of P is BA, and the

measure of p is ba. But, all magnitudes are proportional to their
ba
numerical measures that is,
P
.
.
.

Now,

A=a, we have

in case

In case

B=b,

then

we

(th. 4, b. 2),

have,

p=BA
P p=B a
P pA a
:

Q. E.

THEOREM
Similar parallelopipedons are
dimensions.*

to

4.

one another as the cubes of their

like

* This theorem

is

true for

all

D.

similar solid*.

BOOK
Let

and

VII

123

P and p represent

let I

two parallelopipedons, as in theorem 3;

and n represent the length and breadth of the base of

P, and h

altitude.

its

Also, let

V and

n' represent the length

and breadth of p, and

h'

altitude.

its

That

is,

P=lnh, and^=Z'n'A'.

cor. to th. 2, b. 7,

Hence, by

p=lnh

I'n'k'*

by reason of the similarity of the solids,

But,

l'=n

=n

n n
'.

And,

h'^n

'.

n'

n
n'

'.

Multiplying these proportions together, term

we

have,

That

By

is,

Ink

different

little

:p=n*

by term,

(th. b. 2),

n'

ri*

(th. 6,b. 2)

arrangement of the proportions,

P p=l
P :p=h

1
I'

l'n'h'=n

we have,
Or,

:h' 3

Q. E.

THE OREM

D.

5.

be divided into two equal prisms, by

Any parallelopipedon may

its

diagonal plane passing through

opposite edges.

The parallelopipedon may be conceived

be composed of a great multitude of extremely thin parallelograms, all equal to one

to

HF

and the diagonal

divides the
into
two
equal parts (th.
parallelogram
22, cor. b. 1 ) and the line HF, passing down
another;

EG

EG

the parallelograms, from

to
A C, divides each and all of them into two equal parts ; that is,
the diagonal plane, HFBD, divides the parallelopipedon into two

through

all

equal parts, each of which

is

Otherwise, the two prisms

a prism.

may

Q. E.

D.

be proved to be bounded by

equal planes and equal angles therefore, they are magnitudes that
Q. E. D.
exactly fill equal spaces, and are therefore equal.
;

When the three factors are all equal

but in this case, the solids are actual cubes.
*

that

is,

l=n=h,

p=l3

fs

GEOMETRY.

124

The

Cor.

solidity of a

is therefore the
triangular base,
the perpendicular distance between
may be found by the product of the

prism

DBG, multiplied by
C and EG-; or, it
the .planes
base, IfffCD, and half the perpendicular distance between the
its altitude,

GD

planes

and EB.

THEOREM
All prisms of equal bases and
ever be the figures
It is of

of

6.

altitudes are equal in solidity, what-

the bases.

no consequence what shape a base

be, for

may

it

is

greater or less, according to the number of square. units that may

be contained in it hence, the base of a triangular prism may be
considered a square, or rectangular prism, containing the same
;

number

that is, any prism

of square units as the triangular base
a
be
considered
may
rectangular parallelopipedon, whose base is
the same in area as the base of the prism
but the solidity of a
;

measured by the area of its base by its altitude

parallelopipedon
and
a prism of the same area of base and
therefore,
(def. 18)
is

altitude,

has the same measure.

Q. E.

THEOREM
All similar solids are

to

D.

7.

one another as the cubes of their like

dimensions.

By theorem

4,

of this

is
proved true
and by theorem 5, all similar
be divided into two equal parts, thus

book, this proposition

for all similar

parallelopipedons

parallelopipedons may
forming similar prisms.

same proportion

But the halves of things are

as their wholes

in the

therefore, all similar prisms are

to one another as the cubes of their like dimensions.
;

Similar pyramids and similar cones are but the same like parts
;
and, like parts of wholes, are in the same proas
the
wholes
themselves ; therefore, our theorem is true
portion
of similar prisms

pyramids and cones.

Spheres are like proportional parts of their circumscribing cylinders
and our theorem is true for similar cylinders it is, therefor

fore, true for spheres.

BOOK
In short,

all

like parts of

any of

125

however irregular the shape, are but

them and
figure that may inclose

similar solids,

some mathematical

as the theorem

true for the mathematical figures,

is

their like parts

it

is,

of

a plane which

be cut by

is

parallel with
its

its base, th

area will be to

of its perpendicular distance from

the pyramid.
of the perpendicular altitude of

MN and mn be two par-

Let

planes,

stands

base

and

the base as the square

the vertex, is to the square

allel

true for

8.

section thus formed will be similar to the base,

the area

is

therefore, true for all similar solids

THEOREM
If a pyramid

it

D.

Q. E,

whatever.

VII

is

between which

any pyramid whose

P, and vertex G, and

perpendicular altitude

EF.

On any one of the edges,

as

and

GA,
any point a,
draw ab parallel to AB ; and
from b draw be parallel to BG.
take

round the whole

Then, by reason of the parallels

In this manner we may go

abc=A0.

(th. 10, b. 1), the angle

section,

whatever be the number of sides

and

every angle in the section will be equal to its corresponding angle of

the base that is, the two figures are equiangular, and similar and
;

as every line of the section

base, therefore,

plane.

is

the base

if

Produce a

line

parallel to its corresponding line in the

is

from

a plane, the section will be a parallel

plane to the perpendicular at H.

this

But equiangular plane figures are to one another as the squares

of their like sides (th. 23, b. 2); that is,

P
But,

And,

And,

AB

GA
GE

2
:

pAB

ab 2

2
:

=GA Ga*
Ge
Ga =GE
Ge =FE :FH
2

(ab)

(th's.

17 and 10, b. 2)

Multiplying all these proportions together, and at the same time

rejecting all the common factors that would otherwise appear in
the antecedents and consequents,

P:p=FE

we

2
:

have,

FJ9 2

GEOMETRY

126

By

for extremes, we have,

changing means

p P=FH* FE*

Q-

D.

made by the cutting plane is always similar

Cor. As
when the base is a polygon of a great
that
follows
it
to the base,
will be a polygon of the same number
section
the
of
sides,
number
the section

of sides

and when the base

is

circle,

the section will be a

and so on.

circle,

THE OREM

9.

be cut by a third
If two pyramids, standing between two parallel planes,
will be to each other as their bases.
sections
the
respective
parallel plane,

Let two pyramids stand as

represented in the figure, and
from any point, H, in' the perpendicular, pass a plane parallel to the plane MN.
By

the

last

theorem, each secpyramids is a

tion of these

similar figure to

By

theorem

its

tions, cuts all lines

Therefore,

And,

Hence,

By

base.

book

6,

GE

gr:gR=FH'.FE

this last proportion,

gr>

we

have,

gR*=FH* FE*
:

gK

US

=rs
gr
the application of theorem 6, book

But,

By

MN and mn, proportionally,

GE=FH\FE

Ge:

squaring

plane that forms these sec-

6, the parallel

between the planes

gr gR= Qe

portions,

we

But,

And,

have,
.

2, to these last

FH* FE*=rs* US 3
p P=FIP FE*
2
rs
RS*=q Q
:

two pro-

(th. 8, b. 7)

(th. b. 8)
Multiplying these three proportions together, term by term, rejecting common factors in antecedents and consequents, we have,
.

p P=q
:

Cor.

On

the supposition that

Q. E.

P=Q,

THEOREM

there results

D.

p=q.

10.

Any two pyramids having equal bases, and situated between the same
two parallel planes, or having equal altitudes, are equal.

BOOK
Take

the

same

P and

bases,

VII

127

figure as for the last theorem, supposing the

Q, equal, and conceive the perpendicular

EF,

to

be

by a great multitude of parallel planes, equidistant from

each other, and all parallel to the plane MN. By the last theorem,
divided

these planes will divide each pyramid into the same number of
equal parallel sections, of which the two pyramids may be con-

sidered as composed ; and, as the

fore, the two pyramids are equal.

sums of equals are

Q. E. D.

THEOREM

11.

a third part of
Every triangular pyramid
and
tlie same altitude.
same
base
the
having
is

FAB C

Let

AB&DEF

be a

equal, there-

triangular pyramid

the triangular prism,

a triangular prism of the same

base and the same altitude

the pyramid
be equal to a third of the prism.
Cut off the pyramid FABC from the
prism, by a section made along the plane
:

will

FA C;

there will remain the solid

FA CDE,

which

may be considered as a quadrangular

pyramid, whose vertex is F, and whose base is the parallelogram
ACDE. Draw the diagonal CE; and extend the plane FCE,
which

quadrangular pyramid into two triangular ones,

These two triangular pyramids have for their
on the plane
the perpendicular let fall from

will cut the

FA CE, FCDE.
common

altitude,

ACDE.

They have equal bases, the triangles ACE, CDE,

of the same parallelogram
halves
hence, the two pyramids,
being
FACE, FCDE, are equivalent (th. 10, b. 7). But the pyramid
;

valent.

and the pyramid FABC, have equal bases, ABC, DEF;

also, the same altitude, namely, the distance of the
these two pyramids are equiplanes ABC, DEF; hence
Now, the pyramid FCDE has already been proved equi-

valent

to

FCDE,

they have,
parallel

consequently, the three pyramids, FABC,

which compose the prism ABD, are all equivalent.

FACE;

FCDE, FACE,

FABC

is the third part of the prism ABD,

Hence, the pyramid,
which has the same base, and the same altitude.
Q. E. D.

Cor.

The

solidity of a triangular

part of the product of

its

base by

pyramid

its altitude.

is

equal to a third

GEOMETRY

128

The preceding demonstration is brief, direct, and all that could

be desired, provided the learner has a clear conception of the
but as we know that this is not
figure as represented on paper
;

generally the case,

ABCDEF

Let

we

be any rectangular par-

AFh.

AF

=AF. Draw GO

FO

As

M.

double of

AB.

AD=a, A=b,

and put
Produce

allelopipedon,

in

give the following method.

is

AF,
by

meet AJS, produced

AB, and A O

to

parallel to

therefore,

AM
it

like reasoning,

is

to

we

The whole

it

is

AD,

shall find

AI the

double of

AD.

to

figure
the other similar one has

of both,

double of

meet

meet the plane of BD, in Q.

now comprises two pyramids one, whose base

Join GH, and produce

A Q;

and

FG

O, making

Join GJE, and produce

in 7; then,

is

to

FH for

its

base, and the vertex

G.

The whole

figure also comprises the parallelopipedon Aff,

which

two prisms, and two equal and similar pyraOne prism has DCKIior its base, and DE, for its altitude ;
mids.
for its base, and BO=DE, for its altitude.
the other has
is

measured by

(afiA),

BMLG

As each

of these bases,

DK and

the solidity of these two prisms

is

BL, is equal to AC, hence,

expressed by (abh); and the

2M/

parallelopipedon, and two prisms together, are measured by

and, in addition to these, we have two equal pyramids of unknown
solidity; therefore, let

Now,

each one be represented by x.

whose base is AQ, and vertex G,

the whole pyramid,

is

expressed by (2a/4+!r).

But the pyramid, whose base

by

is

FH, and

vertex G,

is

expressed

(*).

As

these

two pyramids are

cubes of their like dimensions

GA

the cube of

GF, by

to the

similar,
;

that

they are to each other as the

they are to each other as

is,

cube of GF.

GA*

But

....
.....

construction.

Therefore,

GA

GF =8

is

the double of
I

1
Hence,
(2abh-\-2x) x=B
Product of extremes and means gives, 8a:=2aM-{-2a:

Therefore,

x=^(abh)

This last equation shows that the solidity of any pyramid is onethird of any rectangular solid of the same base and altitude.

BOOK

VII.

measure of the pyramid

Cor. This

is

true,

whatever be the

figure of its base ; and when the base is a circle, the pyramid is
called a cone ; hence, the solidity of a cone is one third of its cir-

cumscribing cylinder.

THEOREM
If a pyramid
the frustum that

be cut by

12.

a plane parallel

to its base, the solidity

remains after the small pyramid

is

taken away,

of
is

equal to three pyramids of the same altitude as the frustum; one havbase of the frustum; another, the upper base;

its base, the

ing for

a base which

the third,

is the

mean proportional

between the upper

and
and

lower bases of the frustum.

(The

figure has

Now, by

in

theorem 8.)

the last theorem, the solidity of the whole pyramid

P(FE)
^

expressed by

The

been previously described

difference of these

Thatis ,

and that of the small pyramid

is

magnitudes measures the frustum

(^tX^O =

is

the frustum.

To make this

expression corwith
the
enumeration
respond
of this theorem,
ish

FE

we must ban-

and FH, and obtain

their difference.

we

have,

FE:FH=j'P>.j~p

(1)

By

th. 8,

From

book

this

proportion

have,

7,

ffj\

FE=-

-4=

we

p
,

which, substituted in the above expression,

*L
(FH)PJp
p(FH)/_.
4-V_rV

gives,

3jp
Or,

From
But

thefrustum

(FH$*J*=2J=

FEFH

the frustum.

FH= JPjp' J^

l
proportion (1),
is the altitude of the
frustum, which
:

(FEFH)

designate by a.

Then, from proportion (2),

FH=~

(2)

we

will

GEOMETRY

130
This value of
frustum,

FH,

substituted in the last expression for the

gives,

=
By

we

actual division,

= the frustum.

have,

JPp+p)=
\(P+
O
Or,

the frustum

:
:z
%aP-{-$aJPp-\- kaP= the frustum.

Here we

find expressions for three different pyramids, which,

for its base, another
one has
;

together, are equal to the frustum

p, and the third

JPp, which

P and p;

two bases,

the

is

mean

proportional between the

therefore, a frustrum

is

equal,

Q. E.

<fcc.

D.

P=p, the frustum becomes a prism, and the above

for
the
three pyramids becomes aP, which is the proper
expression
for
the
expression
solidity of a prism.
Cor. In case

THEOREM

13.

The convex surface of any regular pyramid

of

its

base, multipled by

Bisect the side

Since the pyramid

half

its

AB
is

is

equal

to the

perimeter

slant hight.

in H, and join
regular, the side

SH.

SAB

is

an isosceles triangle

is

perpendicular to

AB;

consequently,

hence,

SH

is

SH
the

altitude of the triangle, and also the slant

For the same reason,
hight of the pyramid.

each side of the pyramid

angle, whose

is

an isosceles

tri-

altitude is the slant hight of

the pyramid.
Now, the area of the triangle SAB,
and the area of
equal to

ABX^SH;

is

all

compose the convex surface of the pyramid,

their bases.

But the sum of these bases, AB, BC,

and the common
is

slant hiyht.

the

triangles

equal

to the

which

sum

of

(AB+B C+ CD+DE+EF+AF) X %SH.

of the pyramid's base

hight of the pyramid.

pyramid,

is

<fec.,

forms the perimeter

altitude,

SH,

is

the slant

Therefore, the convex surface of any regular

equal to the perimeter of

its

base multiplied by half itt

BOOK

VII.

THEOREM
The convex

sum of

the

131

14.

surface of a frustum of a regular pyramid,

the perimeter

of

the two bases multiplied

is equal to
by half the slant

hight.

Conceive a regular frustum of a pyramid to

represented in the figure then each

exist, as

face will be a regular trapezoid, whose surface

is measured
by the half sum of its parallel
sides (th. 31, b. 1), multiplied by the
perpen-

dicular distance between them,

which

is

the

slant hight of the frustum.

Let
represent a side of the lower base,

and

a side of the upper base, and a the slant

hight then the surface of one face is measured
s

by

*(+).

There are just as many of these surfaces as the frustum has

sides.
Let m represent the number of sides then the whole sur;

must be ^a(mS-)rins). But (mS-{-ms), is the perimeter of

the two bases and \a is one-half of the slant hight.
Therefore,
&c.
Q. E. D.
face

Scholium.

Let

circles

be described round the bases of the

frustum, as represented in the last figure ; and conceive the number

of sides to be indefinitely increased ; then S and s will be indefi-

and
indefinitely great ; but however small S and
(the corresponding number to
being as much increased), the expression (mS-\-ms) will still represent the perimeters of the two bases.
But, when S and * are indefinitely small,
nitely small,

may be

while

OA, and DH,

frustum from

its

that

is,

the distances from the axis of the

edges being constant, the perimeter,

become the perimeter of the circle of which OA

and ms will be the perimeter of the circle of which
dius

that

is,

mS=2x(A

is

mS,

will

the radius;

DH

0), and ms~2a(DII); and by

is

the ra-

addition,

mS+ms^Z^A 0+DH)
But, in this case, \a becomes \AD, one-half the edge of the
frustum ; and the frustum of the pyramid becomes the frustum of
a cone, and its surface is measured by

%ADX2x(AO+Il);

hence,

GEOMETRY.

132

of a frustum of a cone,

T/ie convex surface

sum of

aides, multipled by the

The above expression

is

the circumferences

is

equal to half

of

its

its

two bases.

the same as

AO+DH\
)

If

we

take the middle point,

PM parallel to
Then,

OA

and

...

gves
That

=PM,

the convex surface

is,

side, multiplied

between

HD,

which, substituted,

of the frustum of a cone, is equal to its

circle which is exactly midway

by the circumference of a

two bases.

its

THEOREM
If any

and H, and draw

P, between

15.

regular semi-polygon be revolved about its axis, the surface

thus described, will be measured by the product of

cumference of

its

axis into the cir-

axis,

each describe frustums of cones

vestigation, let us take the side

From

and, for in-

AB.

the middle point, O, draw Q-I perpenDE. Join GC, and draw
parallel

AT

dicular to
to

its

inscribed circle.

semi-polygon, DABK, <fec., revolve

DE, the sides AB, BK, &c., will

If the

on

its

DE.
By

the scholium to the preceding theorem,

the surface described

by

ABX.

is

GI, which

cir.

dr.GC.
That is,

The two

AB,

right angle.

The

is

measured by

equal to

AT,

or

EL

HLX2* GC=ABx% GI

triangles,

dendicular to

AB

ABT and

CGI, are

similar.

the two angles CGI and

acute angles of the

IGA,

CG

is
As
perare equal to a

A ABT are also equal to a

right angle.

_]CGI+^IGA=jAT+_]ABT
jIGA=
_\ABT(th.5,\>.l)
CGI=
j
_BAT
By subtraction,

That
But,

is,

BOOK
Now,

GI=AJB

AT=HL

HL'CG=AB'GI

133

two triangles have each a right angle, they arc

as these

equiangular and similar;

CG
Therefore,

Hence,

VII.

members

Multiplying both

of this equation

by

2*,

we

have,

HL'2* CG=AB-2x GI
Thus we

find that the surface described

by the

side AJB, is

mea-

HL

sured by the product of

into the circumference of the inscribed
circle
and in the same manner we may prove that the surface
;

ference of the

same

described

surface

{DH-\-HL-\-LC,
inscribed circle

circle,

<fec.),
is,

taken together, is equal to

into
the circumference of the
multiplied
the surface described by the whole poly-

all

by

that

is measured
by DEL into the circumand so on of every other side and the

AD,

described by the side

the

sides

gon, is equal to DE, the axis of the polygon, into the circumference
of its inscribed circle.
Q. E. D.

THEOREM
The convex surface of a sphere
meter into

The

its

last

is

16.

equal to the product of

its

dia-

circumference.

theorem

is true,

whatever be the number of sides of

the polygon ; and now suppose the number to be indefinitely great ;

then the sides of the polygon will coincide with the circumference

of the circle, and

CG

becomes CA, and the surface described by

the sides of the polygon, is now the surface of the sphere, which
is measured
by the diameter DE, multiplied into the circumference
of the circle
Cor.

ference

is

If

2xCA.
we

2rtH,

Q. E.

D.

represent the radius of a sphere

and

its

diameter

ZR;

therefore,

by R,

its

its

circum-

convex surface

The

surface of a plane circle, whose radius is R, is rtJR2 ;

therefore, the surface of a sphere is 4 times a plane circle of the same
is 4rtfi?.

diameter.
Cor. 2.

The

surface of a segment is equal to the circumference

by the thickness of the segment.

of the sphere, multiplied

Cor. 3. In the
different

same sphere, or

in

equal spheres, the surfaces of

segments are to each other as their

altitudes.

GEOMETRY

134

THEOREM
The
a

solidity

of a sphere

17.

equal to the product of

is

tts

surface into

third- of its radius.

Let us suppose a sphere to be composed of a great multitude of

regular pyramids, whose bases are portions of the surface of the
sphere, and their common vertex the center of the sphere ; then the
altitudes of all such pyramids is the radius of the sphere.

The
^ of

solidity of

its

altitude

one of these pyramids is

and the
(th. 10, b. 7);

together, will be the

common

of

all

and the common

by

solidity of all of these

the bases multiplied into -J of the

all the bases, is the surface of

But the sum of

altitude.

the sphere

sum

base multiplied

its

altitude is the radius of the sphere

therefore, the solidity of a sphere is equal to its surface multiplied

by one

third of

its

Let R = the
is its

D.

Q. E.

radius.

radius of the sphere

surface

hence,

its

solidity

then (cor.

1, th. 15, b. 7),

must be

Cor. If r represent the radius of

3

will

be

two

solids are to

Artr

theorem

7,

and,

book

by

dividing

by

any other sphere, its solidity

the constant factors, A*, these

each other as J23 to r3 a result corresponding to

,

7.

THEOREM
The

solidity

of a sphere

is

18.

two-thirds the solidity of

its

circumscrib-

ing cylinder.

Let
2
rt-ft

will

be the radius of the base of an upright cylinder

be the area of the base

then,

but the altitude of

(th. 1, b. 5);

A cylinder which will just inclose a cube, must be %R; and the
3
solidity of such a cylinder must be 2nJR (def. 18, b. 7).
By the
last theorem, the solidity of a sphere, whose radius is R, is

ZrtR3

to

Or, as

to

Or, as

to

Therefore, the cylinder

is

to the sphere as

A
-

Q. E. D.

BOOK

VII.

We

give another method of demonstrating this truth, merely for

the beauty of the demonstration.
Let
be the diameter of a semicircle, and

AK

also the side of a parallelogram

whose width

is

the radius of the semicircle.

Join the center of the semicircle to either extremity of the parallelogram, as CB, CL.
conceive the parallelogram to revolve on

and

it

will describe a cylinder; the semicircle

describe a sphere, and the triangle

will describe a cone.
will

In

Now
AK,

A C,

allel to

D, and draw

take any point,

AB, and

join

Then, as

But,

=(70 2

BD*=DE\

DH par-

CA=AB, CD=DE.
CD 0, we have,

CO,

the right angled triangle

ABO

(1)

and

CO>=Dff*

Substituting these values in equation (1), and

DE +D0 =DH
2

we

have,

Multiply every term of this equation by

Then,

In

(2)
it,

term of

this equation, is the measure of the surwhose radius is DE; the second term is tb
measure of a plane circle, whose radius is
0; and the second
member is the measure of the surface of a plane circle, wli0se radius

Now,

the

first

face of a plane circle,

is

DH.

Let each of these surfaces be conceived to be-nr the same

extremely minute thickness

; then the first term is a section of a cone,

a corresponding section of a sphere, and these two
are, together, equal to the corresponding section of the

the second term

sections

cylinder

and

is

this is true for all sections parallel to

CR, which

compose the cone, the sphere, and the cylinder therefore, the
cone and sphere, together, are equal to the cylinder but the coi.j
;

described by the triangle

AR

(th.

ABC,

of the cylinder described by

10, b. 7); therefore, the corresponding section of the
the remaining two-thirds, and the whole sphere is twois

-J

sphere, is
thirds of the whole cylinder described

by the parallelogram AL.

Q. E. D.

ELEMENTS OF

136

ELEMENTARY PRINCIPLES

OF PLANE

TRIGONOMETRY.
TRIGONOMETRY

in its literal

the measure of triangles.

plane trigonometry, and

be portions of a sphere,

and

restricted sense,

has

for its object,

When

the triangles are on planes, it is

the triangles are on, or conceived to

when

In a more
it is
spherical trigonometry.
enlarged sense, however, this science is the application of the principles of geometry, and numerically connects one part of a magnitude with another, or numerically compares different magnitudes.

As

the sides and angles of triangles are quantities of different

but the relation
kinds, they cannot be compared with each other
;

may be

discovered

by means

of other complete triangles, to which

the triangle under investigation can be compared.

Such other triangles are numerically expressed in Table II, and
of

all

them are conceived to have one common point, the center of

and as all possible angles can be formed by two straight

circle,

lines

drawn from the center of a

exist

whose measure cannot be found

circle,

no angle of a

triangle can

in the table of trigonometrical

lines.

The measure

of an angle

is

the arc of a circle, intercepted be-

tween the two lines which form the angle the center of the arc
always being at the point where the two lines meet.

The

arc

measured by degrees, minutes, and seconds, there being

whole circle, 60 minutes in one degree, and 60
one minute. Degrees, minutes, and seconds, are desigis

360 degrees
seconds in

nated by
utes,

to the

',

Thus 27

".

14' 21", is

read 27 degrees, 14 min-

and 21 seconds.

All circles contain the same number of degrees, but the greater
the radii the greater is the absolute length of a degree ; the circumference of a carriage wheel, the circumference of the earth, or

greater and indefinite circumference of the heavens, have

of degrees ; yet the same number of degrees in

the

still

the

same number

each and every

measure.

circle is precisely the

same angle

in

amount or

PLANE TRIGONOMETRY.

137

As

triangles do not contain circles, we can not measure triangles

arcs ; we must measure them by other triangles, that is,
circular
by
by straight lines, drawn in and about a circle, from the center.

Such
ticular

straight lines are called trigonometrical lines,

and take par-

names, as described by the following

DEFINITIONS.
1.

The

sine of

an angle, or an arc,

is

a line drawn from one end

of an arc, perpendicular to a diameter drawn through the other end.

is the sine of the arc AB, and also of the arc BDE.
Thus,

BK

BF

is

BD,

the sine of the arc

BF,

is

also the cosine of the arc

it is

the cosine of the arc

N. B. The complement of an arc

wants of 90

what
2.

is

what

the supplement of an arc

it

is

it what it wants of 180.

The cosine of an arc is the perpendicu-

from the center of the

lar distance

the sine of the arc, or

it is

the

fame

circle to

in

mag-

nitude as the sine of the complement of the

arc.
Thus, OF, is the cosine of the arc AB; but
sine of
3.

CF=KB,

the

circle in

one

BD.

The

tangent of an arc

is

a line touching the

extremity of the arc, continued from thence, to

meet a

through the center and the other extremity.

is the
Thus,
tangent to the arc AB, and

DL

AH

of the arc

DB,

N. B. The
4.

AB, and

BD.

The

co, is but

secant of

circle to the

the arc

or the cotangent of the arc

AB,

a contraction of

an

arc, is a line

the

is

line

drawn

the tangent

AB.

word complement.

drawn from the center

Thus,
extremity of its tangent.
or of its supplement BDE.

CH

is

of the

the secant of

The

cosecant of an arc, is the secant of the complement.

Thus, CL, the secant of BD, is the cosecant of AB.
6. The versed sine of an arc is the difference between the cosine
5.

and the radius

DK

is

that

is,

AF

is

the versed sine of the arc

the versed sine of the arc

AB, and

BD.

For the sake of brevity these technical terms are contracted thus
AB, we write sin.AB, for cosine AB, we write cos.AB,

for sine

for tangent

AB, we

12

write tan.AB, &c.

ELEMENTS OF

138

From

the preceding definitions

consequences

AB, becomes

That when the arc

1st,

we deduce

the following obvious

so small as to call

and versed sine are also nothing,

nothing, its sine tangent
secant and cosine are each equal to radius.

The

2d,

radius

and versed

sine

its

cosine

The chord

3d,

the chord

BG,

The

is

is

it

its

sine of a

and

zero,

and

of an arc

is

quadrant are each equal to thf

secant and tangent are infinite.
twice the sine of half the arc. Thus
its

BF.

double of the sine

and cosine of any arc form the two sides of a

4th,
Thus,
right angled triangle, which has a radius for its hypotenuse.
CF, and FB, are the two sides of the right angled triangle CFB.
sine

Also, the radius and the tangent always form the two sides of a
right angled triangle which has the secant of the arc for its hypo-

we observe from the right angled triangle

relations analytically, we write
these
express
This

tenuse.

To

sin.

+cos.

^ +tan.
a

From

=R

=se^. a

CAH.

(1)
(2)

the two equiangular triangles

CFB, CAR, we have

CF:FB=CA:AH
*

That

is,

cos.

tan.=

:sb.=.ff :tan.

cos.

Also,

That

is,

cos

The two equiangular

That

is,

Also,

That

is,

CB=CA

CF:

R=R

cos.

see.

triangles CAff,

CDL.

CA:AH=DL:DC
R tan.=cot R
CF FB=DL D C
cos. sin. = cot: R
:

(3)
v
'

Off

sec.=J22

(4)

give

tan.

cot.=J2s

(5)

cos,

R=

sin. cot.

(6)

observing (4) and (5), we find that

By

cos. sec.

Or,

cos.

= tan.

tan.=cot.

cot.
:

(7)

sec.

The ratios between the various trigonometrical lines are always the
same for the same arc, whatever be the length of the radius and
;

therefore,

ience

we may assume

radius of any length to suit our conven-

and the preceding equations

will

be more concise, and more

PLANE TRIGONOMETRY.
readily applied,

by making

139

This supposition

radjus equal unity.

being made, the preceding becomes

2

sin.

+cos.

=l

(1)

2
l+tan. =sec.
2

tan.=
cos.

tan.=
cot.

The

(2)

(3)

cos.=

(5)
v '

cos.=sin.

center of the circle

is

(4)

sec.
cot.

(6)

considered the absolute zero point, and

the different directions from this point are designated by the different
.
On the right of C, toward A, is commonly
signs -f- and

marked plus (+), then the other direction, toward E, is necessarily

is called
Above
(
).
(+). below that line ( ).
If we conceive an arc to commence at A, and increase continuously around the Vhole circle in the direction of ABD, then the
following table will show the mutations of the signs.

AE

minus

sin.

+
+

1st quadrant.
'

2d

3d"

cos.

tan.

cot.

sec.

cosec.

-}-

-j-

+ +
+
PROPOSITION

4th

The chord of 60 and

the sine of 30 the versed
equal to

of 60

-f

1.

45

are each equal to radius;

and

the cosine

the tangent

sine

+
+
+

of 60

are each

half the radius.

(The

On C=,

=60,

vers.

first

truth

is

proved

in

problem

as radius, describe a quadrant

15,

book

take

1).

AD=45, AS

^#=90, then 5^=30.

and

AB, CB, and draw Bn, perpendicular to CA. Draw Em,

Make the angle CAff=9Q, and draw CDH.
parallel to AC.
In the A ABC, the angle A (75=60
Join

by hypothesis

therefore, the

other two angles

is

80

60)

sum

20

of the
.

But

CB= CA, hence the angle CBA= the angle

CAB, (th.
is

5 b.

and as the sum of the two

120, each one must be

60; therefore,
ABC, is 60

each of the angles of triangle

ELEMENTS OF

140

and the

that

sides opposite to equal angles are equal

is
equal to CA, the radius.

AB,

is,

the

chord of 60,
In the

CAff, the angle

CAH

a right angle

is

and by hypoth-

A CH, is half a right angle therefore, AHC, is also half a right

angle consequently, AH=AC, the tangent of 45= the radius.
esis,

book

th. 15,

By

that

Cn=-nA;

1, cor.

the cosine and versed

is,

are each equal to the half of the radius.

are perpendicular to
G, they are parallel, and

EG

As Bn and
is made

60

sine of

parallel to

JBm= Cn,

On; therefore,

or the sine

30,

Bm

is

the half of

radius.

PROPOSITION
Given the sine and cosine of two arcs
the

sum, and

difference

of

the

2.

to find the sine

same arcs expressed by

and

cosine

of

and

co-

the sines

sines of the separate arcs.

O be

Let

the

CD,

the center of the circle,

greater arc which we shall designate by a,

and Df, a less arc, that we designate by b.

Then by the

D0=sin.a;

sines,

We

GZ=cos.b.

and co-

definitions of sines

G0=cos.a; fl=sui.b;

FM,

are to find

which

is

=sin.(a+5); GM=cps. (a-\-b);

EP=sin.(ab); GP=cos.(ab).
Because

IN

is

parallel to

D 0,

the two

Also, the
equiangular and similar.
for the angle FIG, is a right angle ; so

As GD 0, GIN,

FHI,

is

similar to

are

GIN;

is HIN; and, from these

two equals take away the common angle HIL, leaving the angle
FIff= GIN. The angles at
and N, are right angles therefore,
is
the
and
similar to the
FHI,
GIN, and, of
equiangular,

course, to the

and

A GD 0;

and the

side

HI,

is

D 0.

Again, as

FI=IE, and IK,

FH=IK,
By

similar triangles

and

parallel to

homologous to IN,

FM,

HI=KE.

we have

GD:DO=GI:IN.
m
That
,

Also,

is,

-n

T-\T

J2:sm.a=cos.o://V, or

GD:GO=FI:FH

IN=
T-TIT

sin.a cos.i

R5

PLANE TRIGONOMETRY.
That
Also,

That

is,

FH=

or

6LY==

-^

jK

GD:DO=FI:IH

is,

or

Also,

That

R cos.a=sm.5 Fff,
GD:GO=GI:GN
R cos.o=cos.6 GN,

is,

141
cos.a sin.6

sin.a=sin.5

or

IB,

IH=

'-=

Jit

By

adding the

That

By

sin.

is,

and second of these equations, we have

first

...

sin.a cos.fi+cos.a sin.6

(a+5)

XE

subtracting the second from the

sin.

By

b)=

(a

cos.a sin.5

IH= GM=cos. (a-\-b)

...

Hence,

we have

adding the third and fourth,

member.

for the first

cos.a cos.6

cos.(a+6)=

we have

subtracting the fourth from the third,

GN-

By

first,

sin.a cos.i

..

sin.a sin. b

^
XK
we have

GN+IH= GN+NP= GP=cos.(ab)

,.

Hence,

cos. (a

cos.a cos. 54-sin.a sin. 5

-=
J*

b)=

Collecting these four expressions,

unity,

and considering the radius

we have
sm. a-f-5)=sin.a cos.S+cos.a sin.5
cos.^ cos.a sin.6
sin.

ai^=sin.a

cos.

a+i)=cos.a

cos.6

sin.a sin. b

(9

cos.

cos.6-f-sin.a sin.6

(10

6)=cos.a

Formula (-A), accomplishes the objects of the proposition, and

from these equations many useful and important deductions can be
made. The following, are the most essential :

By adding
gives (12).

(7) to (8),

we have

(11); subtracting (8) from (7),

(9) taken from (10)

Also, (9)-f-(10) gives (13);

gives (14).
sin.

a-f-)-f-sin.fa

sin.

a-j-5)

cos.

cos.

i)

= 2sin.a cos b

6)=2cos.a sin. b
6)=2cos.a cos.6
a-|-i)-}-cos.(a
ab) cos.(a-f-6)=2sin. a sin.6
sin.

(a

(lO
H2)
(13)
|14

ELEMENTS OF

142
If

we put a-\-b=A, and a

b=B,

then (11) becomes (15),

(12) becomes (16), 13 becomes (17), and (14) becomes (18).

I

cos

sin..4-r-sin.J5=2sin.

A B

g
(

--

(15)

sin.
)

cos.-4-r-cosJ?=2cos.

cos.-4=2sin.

COS..B

If
COS.

we

divide (15)

=cot.=

try),

we

as

by

we

learn

(18)

/A-J

sin.B

Whence,
Sin.

=tan. and

same

tan.

cos.(

X-

B\

(19)

___
A

sin.

A-\-B
/--\
-

sin.^=tan.

The sum of

or in words.

the sines

sines, as the tangent

tan.

AB
i\
J

of any two arcs is to the differof the half sum of the same arcs

tangent of half their difference.

By operating
mula

(17)

by equations (6) and (5) trigonome-

is to the

sin.

have

shall

ence of the

(16), (observing that

n.A

cos.
J

( (7),

we

in the

same way with the

different equations in for-

find,

f sin.-4+sin..B
~
=,=tan.
cos.-4-t-cosJ>
sin.-4-J-sin.-6

cos./?

COS.-4

sin.jB

sin.

A-{-B

A B

A B

A-}-B
-

*.\

/
'

cos.-4+cos.jB
sinJ?
sm.-4
A
.=cot.
cos.^ cos.

cot (

(21)
(22)
(23)

A+B
}

cos..4-|-cos..B

cos.B

A B

cos. .4

(20)

?%(nr)

(24)

PLANE TRIGONOMETRY

143

These equations are all true, whatever be the value of the arcs
and B; we may therefore, assign any possible
designated by

value to either of them, and

we make

0,

we

sin..4

cot.^A

sin. ^4

7=cot.--=*"
2

-;

cos.^l

and (24),

*2

l-f-cos..4

l+cos.^4

If

in equations (20), (21)

if

shall have,

=-j
l A

we now turn back

26 ')

(
v

to formula

(A), and divide equation (7) by

sin

and (8)
),
(9),

we

b
by (10), observing

at the

same

time, that

-=tan.

-- -

shall have,

--

_.
sin a cos.o+cos.a sin.o
-.
r- 7
tan.(a-r-o)= cos.a .cos.oz sm.a
sm.o

sin. a cos.o

tan.(a

By

cos.a sin.6

,j
6)= cos.a cos.o+sm.a
rT-sm.o
-.

dividing the numerators and denominators of the second

of these equations by (cos.a cos.5), we find,

members

sin.a cos.5
, x

---r

cos.a cos.6

tan.(a+5)= cos.a

tan.(a

cos.a sin.6
cos.a cos.5
^
-.

sm.a sm.o

cos.o

cos.a cos.6

cos.a cos.6

sin.a cos.o

cos.a sin.o

cos.a cos.6

cos.a cos.o

--=
6)= cos.a cos.o

cos.a cos.6

-= tan.a+tan.5
tan. a tan. o
-

tan. a

tan.5

-n=r~T
sm.a sm.o
1-j-tan.a tan.o
,

-.

(29)
v
'

cos.a cos.o

If in equation (11), formula (.B), we

sin.2a=2sin.a cos.a

make a=o, we
(30)

Making the same hypothesis in equation (13), gives,

2
cos.2a-fl=2cos .a
(31)
The same hypothesis reduces equation (14), to
1

*
(28)
v

cos.2a=2sin2 .a

(32)

The same hypothesis reduces equation (28),

to

2tan.a

tan.2a=
I

tan'.a

(33)'
v

shall have,

ELEMENTS OF

144
If

we

substitute

2a

for

(31) and (32), we shall have

in

l+cos.a=2
and

cos.o

Recurring again to formula

cos.
sin.

(), we
:

sin.(a+^)=

a.

(34)

a.

(35)

have, by transposing

2sin.a cos.i

sin.(a+i)=2cos.a

sin.

(a

b)

sin.i-f-sin.(tt

b)

we make a=30, 2sin.a will

second we make a =60, 2cos.a

in the first of these

expressions,

If,

equal radius, or unity; and

will also

if in

the

equal unity; these expressions then become,

sin.(30-r-&)=cos.&

And
The
when

sines

sin.(30

b)

(36)

sin.(60+)=sin.+sin.(60
b)
(37)
may be easily continued to 60, by equation (36),

the sines and cosines of

all

arcs below 30

have been com-

puted; then, by equation (37), the sines can be readily run up to 90.
The foregoing equations might have been obtained geometrically,

but not so easily and concisely.

ON THE CONSTRUCTION OF TABLES OF

SINES, TANGENTS, &c.
To explain this, we refer at once to Table II, which contains logarithmic sines, and tangents, and also natural sines and cosines. The
natural sines are

made

to the radius of unity; and, of course,

ticular sine is a decimal fraction, expressed

any parby natural numbers. The

logarithm of any natural sine, with its index increased by 10, will give
the logarithmic sine. Thus, the natural sine of 3 is .052336

The logarithm
To which add

of this decimal

is

...

2.718800
10.

The

.
8.718800
logarithmic sine of 3 is, therefore, .
In this manner we may find the logarithmic sine of any other arc,
when we have the natural sine of the same arc.

If the natural sines and logarithmic sines were on the same radius,
the logarithm of the natural sine would be the logarithmic sine, at oace,
without any increase of the index.

The

radius for the logarithmic sines, is arbitrarily taken SQ large

its logarithm is 10.
It might have been more or less ;

that the index of

but,

by common consent,

it is

settled at this value

so that the sines

of the smallest arcs ever used shall not have a negative index.
In our preceding equations, sin.a, cos. a, &c., referred to natural
sines;

bers

and by such equations we determine their values in natural numand these numbers are put in the table, as seen in table 2, under

the heads of nat. sine, and nat. cosine.

PLANE TRIGONOMETRY.
To commence computation, we must know the
known arc and we do know the sine and cosine

sine or cosine of

is

1, trig.),

(prop.

30=^

or, cos.

Eq. (1) gives

put
2sin.l5

2a=30,

30=1

some

sine of

{ (eq. (1) trig.);

cos.l5=0.5.

and extracting square

to (n),

The

and equation (30) gives

(n)

cos. 2 15-f- sin. 2 lo=l.

By adding (m)

and, hence, cos.

Now

3.

30.

of

30

145

(ra)

root,

we

obtain,

cos.!5+ sin.l5= /1.5=l-22474487.

(p)

/s

subtracting (m) from (w.), and extracting square root,

cos. 15
sin.
VG. 5=0.70710678
(q)
Sub. (q) from (p) gives
2sin.l5=0.5 1763709.

By

15=

Again, put 2a=15, and in like manner apply equations (30) and
and we can have the sine and cosine of 7 30', and thus we may

(1),

bisect as

under

1',

many times as we please, but when we get down

we can compute the sines by direct proportion.

Also, by theorems 3 and

4,

book

5, the

to

any arc

semicircumference of a circle

3.14159265; this, divided by 10800, the number of minutes in 180, will give .0002908882 for the length of the sine
or arc of one minute.
The logarithm of this number, with its index

whose

radius

is

unity,

is

increased by 10, gives 6.463726, the log. sign of

the table.

1',

Having the sine and cosine of 1', we can find the

by equation (30);
That is,
.
sin.2a=2 sin .a cos.a

2'

which

is

found in

sine and cosine of

Or,

sin.2'=2 sin.l'cos.l'

and every succeeding minute, we apply equation

(11), making a=2', and 6=1';
That is,
sin.3'=2 sin. 2' cos.l sin.l'

For the sine of

3',

Having the sine of 3', we obtain the sine of 4' by the application of
same equation that is, by making a=3', and 5=1;

the

Then,

When
by

the

sin. 4'=2 sin. 3' cos.l

sin. 2'

sin.5'=2

sin. 3'

the sine of any arc

following

trigonometry.

formula,
.

sin. 4' cos.l

&c., &c.

known, its cosine is readily determined

which is, in substance, equation (1),

is

cos.= N/(l-f-sin.)(l

sin.)

When
of

its

the sine and cosine of any arc are known, the sine and cosine
double, are found from equation (30); and thus, from equations

(30), (11),

When

and

(1), the sines

and cosines of

all

arcs can be determined.

the sine and cosine of an archavebeen determined through a

series of operations, the accuracy of the results should be tested
by

Id

ELEMENTS OF

146

equation (12) or (14), or by some other equation independent of former

operations ; and if the two results agree, they may be regarded as
accurate.

One independent method will be found by applying theorem 5, book

the natural
In that theorem we find the chord of 20 is .347296
Taken, the chord of 20, and trisecting
sine, then, of 10, is 173648.
the arc by the same problem, we find the chord of 6 40' to be .11628;
5.

and, of course, the natural sine of 3

20'

is

.05814; and thus, by

successive trisections we can obtain the sines, and of course the cosines

of certain arcs

and

when we

pute their increase or decrease

arrive at very small arcs,

by

we can com-

direct proportion.*

the sine of an arc computed through successive trisections,

agrees with the sine of the same arc computed through successive
bisections, we must, of course, regard the result as accurate.

Now,

if

When we

have the sines and cosines of an

r

i.

/o\

tangent are found by (3)

R sin.
tan.=

,,.

(6)

cos.

arc, the

tangent and co-

R cos.
cot.=

--;

andj the
,

sin.

secant

is

found by equation (4); that

is,

sec.=

cos.

For example, the logarithmic sine of 6, is 9.019235, and its cosine

9.997614. From these it is required to find the tangent, cotangent,
and secant.
JJsin.

Cos.

subtract

Tan.

is

19.019235

9.997614

PLANE TRIGONOMETRY
The

147

secants and cosecants of arcs are not given in our table, because
little used in practice ; and if
any particular secant is

they are very

it can be determined by
subtracting the cosine from 20
the cosecant can be found by subtracting the sine from 20.

required,

PROPOSITION
In any

right angled

proportions

As

1st.

of

3.

we may have

triangle,

and

the following

the hypotenuse is to either side, so is the radius to the sine

the angle opposite to that side.

As

2d.

of

plane

one side

is to the other side,

so is the radius to the tangent

the angle adjacent to the first-mentioned side.

As

3d.

one side

is to the

hypotenuse, so is radius to the secant of

the angle adjacent to that side.

CAB

Let

represent any right

angled triangle, right angled at A.

and
are called the sides

AC

AB

of the

A, and CB

is

called the

hypotenuse.
(Here, and in

by the

all

cases hereafter,

we

a triangle
the small letters

shall represent the angles of

large letters A, B, C, and the sides opposite to them,

by

c, b, c.)

From

either acute angle, as C, take

any distance, as CD, greater

CB, and describe the arc DE. This arc measures
the angle C.
From D, draw
parallel to BA; and from E,
draw EG, also parallel to BA or DF.
is the sine
By the definitions of sines, tangents, and secants,
or less than

DF

DF

of the angle

C; EG-

is

CO

the tangent,

the secant, and

CF

the

cosine.

Now, by

proportional triangles

CB
CA
CA
Scholium.

BA=CD DF
AB= CE EG
CB=CE CG

we

have,

or,

or, b
or, b

c=R
c=R
:a=R
:

If the hypotenuse of a triangle

sin.

0}

tan.tf
}

is

Q. E.

D.

sec.tfj

made

radius, one

the sine of the angle opposite to it, and the other side is the
cosine of the same angle.
This is obvious from the triangle CDF.

side

is

ELEMENTS OF
PROPOSITION 4.

148

In any

triangle, the sines

of the angles are

to

one another as the

sides opposite to them.

Let

ABC

be any

From

angle.

tri-

the points

A and B, as centers, with

any radius, describe the
arcs measuring these an-

and drawjoa, CD,

gles,

and mn, perpendicular

Then,

By

the

pa=sm.A, mn=sin.B
As, Apa and A CD, we have,

similar

R
By

the similar

sin.A=b

AS Bmn

R
By

AB.

to

CD;

or,

R(CD)=b

sin.^4

(1)

BCD, we have,
sm.B=a CD; or, R(CD) =asm.B
and

equating the second

members

(2)

of equations (1) and (2).

b sin.^4=a sin. B.

Hence,
Or,

sin.^1

sin..5=a

Scholium

1.

Scholium

2.

the triangle

is

5=sin

\
:

sin.

B)

Q.

E.D.

When either angle is 90, its sine is radius.

When CB is less than AC, and the angle B, acute,
represented by A CB. When the angle B becomes

obtuse, and the triangle is

CB'; but the proportion is
true
with
for
the angle
either
CBA,
equally
triangle
and the sine of CB'D is the same as the sine of AB' C. In pracB',

it is

CB'D=

tice

we can determine which

side

AB,

of these triangles

being greater or less than

AC;

or,

is

proposed by the

by the angle

at the

vertex C, being large as ACB, or small as ACB'.

In the solitary case in which
C, CB, and the angle A, are given,
and CB less than
CB
C, we can determine both of the AS

and

A CB';

and then we surely have the right one.

PROPOSITION
If from any angle of a
opposite

sicf.e,

triangle, a

5.

perpendicular be

let

fall on the

or base, the tangents of the segments of the angle are to

one another as the segments of the base.

PLANE TRIGONOMETRY.
ABC be the triangle.

Let

CD, on

perpendicular

Let

the side

149

the

fall

AE.

Take any radius, as Cn, and describe

the arc which measures the angle C.
From n, draw qnp parallel to AB. Then
it is

the tangent of the

the tangent of the angle
and qp t
by reason of the parallels

obvious that np

angle

D CB,

Now,

and nq

is

is

ta&.ACD

is,

of the sides

sum of the

is to the
difference

of

D.

6.

any angle of a

be let fall from

posite side or base, this base is to the

difference

have,

Q. E.

PROPOSITION
If a perpendicular

we

That

A CD.

AB
qn np=AD DB
ia.n.DCB=AD DB

triangle to

its

op-

other two sides, as the

the segments

of the base.

(See figure to proposition 5.)

AB

Let

be the base, and from

(7,

as a center, with the shorter

side as radius, describe the circle, cutting

AC

to

produce
It is obvious that

AF

AD

is

BD=DO

ments

in

O,AC

in

F, and

AE

sum

the

is

of the sides

AC

and CB, and

their difference.

is

Also,

and

AB

E.

is

As A

one segment of the base made by the perpendicular,

is

the other; therefore, the difference of the seg-

A @.
is

a point without a

Hence,

circle,

by theorem

AB AE=AF A G
:

PROPOSITION
The sum of any two
the tangent

of

the half

sides of

sum of

8,

book

Q. E.

3,

we

have,

D.

7.

triangle, is to their difference,

as

the angles opposite to these sides, to

the tangent of half their difference.

Let

by

ABC

be any plane triangle.

proposition 4, trigonometry,

Then,

we have,

CB AC=sm. A sm.B
:

Hence,

CB-\-AC

CBAC=sm.A+sm.E

sm.A

sin.B (th. 9 b. 2)

ELEMENTS OF

150
But, tan.

tan.

=sin..4-}-sin..B

sm.B

sin.,4

(eq. (19), trig.)

Comparing the two

CB+AC

latter proportions (th. 6, b. 2),

CBAC=

tan.

^M

(
\

)
I

tan.

PROPOSITION

Let

cosines

2,

Q. E.

D.

of

to

find some relation

the respective angles.

ABC be the

triangle,

and let the

perpendicular
either

without
as

and

to the sines

^Z-

have,

8.

Given the three sides of any plane triangle,

which they must bear

(
\

we

shown

figures

fall

upon, or
the base,
in

the

and

by

recurring to theorem 38, book

we

1,

shall find

_
CD
=-^ra3

Now, by

12

-2

proposition 3, trigonometry,

R
Therefore,

cos.

0=6

0)
we

have,

CD

__.
b cos. C
=
CD=

(2)

JBC

Equating these two values of CD, and reducing, we have,

cos.

(7=

--

R^+Vc*)
>

2ab

In this expression

we

(m)
'
v

observe that the part of the numerator

which has the minus

sign, is the side opposite to the angle

that the denominator

twice the rectangle of the sides adjacent

these observations we at once draw the fol-

From

to the angle.

is

lowing expressions for the cosine A, and cosine B.

Thus,

cos.^=

cos..B=

f-f

---

2ac

'-

(n)

(p)
v/v

and

PLANE TRIGONOMETRY.
As

these expressions are not convenient for logarithmic compu-

we modify them as follows

we put 2a=A, in equation (31), we

tation,

If

151

cos..4-f-

have,

1=2 cos. 2 ^A

In the preceding expression (n), if we consider radius, unity,

1 to both members, we shall have,

and add

Therefore,

a2

_(b-\-cf

~~2bc~

Considering (4+c ) as one quantity, and observing that

the difference of two squares, therefore

but (b+c n)=b+c+a

(i-f-c+)(6+c-fo 2a)

(b+cytf=(b+c+a)(b+ca);
Hence,

cos.

^A-

--

'-*-;

/ J-r-c-f-a \

By

cos. t
2

Or,

we have

2a

'-

5-f-c+a

4^1=
be

putting

=*, and extracting square

root, the

final

result for radius unity, is

For any other radius we must

write,

cos.iL4=
.

By

inference,

Also,

if

In every triangle, the sum of the three angles must equal 180; and
one of the angles is small, the other two must be comparatively

large; if

two of them are small, the third one must be

large.

The

greater angle is always opposite the greater side ; hence, by merely

inspecting the given sides, any person can decide at once which is the

greater angle ; and of the three preceding equations, that one should
be taken which applies to the greater angle, whether that be the particular angle required or not ; because the equations bring out the

ELEMENTS OF

152

and the cosines, to very small arcs vary so slowly,

;
impossible to decide, with sufficient numerical accuracy
to what particular arc the cosine belongs.
For instance, the cosine
and, of course,
9.999999, carried to the table, applies to several arcs
cosines to the angles

that

it

maybe

we should
when the

not

know which one

angle

is

large

but this difficulty does not exist

therefore, compute the largest angle first,
to take

and then compute the other angles by proposition 4.

But we can deduce an expression for the sine of any of the angles,
It is done as follows
as well as the cosine.
:

EQUATIONS FOR THE SINES OF THE ANGLES.

Resuming equation (m), and considering

radius, unity,

we

have,

a+i>_<?
COS. C= -;

2ab

memher

Subtracting each

Making 2a=C,

And

of this equation from

in equation
(32), then
cos.

(7=2

sin.

1,

gives

a=^C,

^C

(2)

Equating the right hand members of (1) and (2),

2
Zab

c+ab)
~

...

Or,

22
-

c+S-a^c+S+a

But

Put

By

sin.^C7=

c+ba
-

- - -VI

=s,

as before

I c-j-a

'b \

22

^ c+a-6_
;

c +a-{-b

then,

taking equation (p), and operating in the same manner,

have

sin.iLB

ac

From

()

in.^=-

we

PLANE TRIGONOMETRY.

153

The preceding results are for radius unity; for any other
we must multiply by the number of units in such radius.
For the radius of the tables, we write R; and if we put it under
2
the radical sign, we must write R
heuce, for the sines corresradius,

ponding with our logarithmic table, we must write the equations

thus,

IIP(sb)(s
c)
{
"A "V

sin.-M=J
M

be

large angle should not be determined by these equations, for

the same reason that a small angle should not be determined from

an equation expressing the cosine.

In practice, the equations for cosine are more generally used,
because more easily applied.
In the preceding pages

we have gone over

the whole ground of

theoretical plane trigonometry, although several particulars might

have been enlarged upon, and more equations in relation to the

combinations of the trigonometrical lines, might have been given

but enough has been given to solve every possible case that can arise
;

but to show more clearly

;
the beauty and spirit of this science, and to redeem a promise, we
give the following geometrical demonstrations of the truths expressed
in the practical application of the science

in

some

of the preceding equations.

as the center, with
as the radius, describe a circle.

From C
Take any

ED

ia

CA

arc,

AB, and

call

it

A;

AD a less arc, and call

the difference of the two arcs, and

AG=AB;

(A

B);

(See

fig. p.

154.)

therefore,

it

DG=A+B; EG=sm.A;

En=sm..B; Gn=sin.A-}-siu.JB;
n=s'm.A sin..5.

Fm=mD=Cff=cos.B; mn=cos.A;
Therefore,

Fm-{-mn=cos.A-\-cos.J3=Fn;

mD
Because
Therefore,

mn=cos.

cos.A=nD;

NF=AD; AB-\-NF=A+B;

180

B; then

must be designated by

(A+)=a.rc FB;

ELEMENTS OF

154
Or,

But the chord FB,

That

FB

is,

X,

the sine of

is tioice

arc

FB.

The angle nGD=BFD, because

both are measured by one half of the
arc

BD;

that

by

is,

and the
J

two triangles GnD, and FnB are similar.

The angle GFn, is measured by

FBG, Fn

In the triangle

to the opposite side

drawn from an angle perpendicular

by Proposition 5, we have,
Gn nB=tan. GFn tan.BFn
is

therefore,

That is,

sm.A

sin..4-{-sin..5:

sin..5=tan.

This

is

) :tan. /
\

equation (19).

In the triangle GnD, we have

sin.90

That

is,

2sin.

D G=sin.nD G
-

Tj9
_ sm.

A4-

r,

=cos.

Gn; sw.nD G=cos.n GD

^-

sin.-4+sin..B

A ~B
rB
- \ c< s. ( J

same

as equation (15).

In the triangle

FnB, we have,
sin.90

That

is,

2cos.

F=s'm.BFn Bn
:

=sin.

sin.^4

/A+B\ sm.
.

Or,

sm.-d

sin..B

sin..6=2cos.

/AB\

same as equation (16).

In the triangle FBn, we have,
sin.90

That

is,

2cos.

FB=cos.BFn Fn
:

=cos.

Vcos.^-j-cos.J^

PLANE TRIGONOMETRY.
Or, cos.^L+cos. C=2cos.
J

A+B
-

/
/

\
1

cos.

AB
-

155

v
I

same

as equa-

tion (17).

In the triangle GnD, we have,

sin.90
I

That

is,

2sin.

GD=sm.

:nD
/

^|-l-JJ

=sin.

cos.J?

cos. A,

same as equation (18).

In the triangle FGn, we have,
sin.

That

is,

Or,

(sin.-4-f-sin.2?)cos. (

sin.

QFn Gn=cos. GFn Fn

in.5=cos.

si

cos.A-\-cas.B

=(cos.-4-f cos.jB)sin.

sin.-

Or,
cos..44-cos..6

cos.---

same as equation (20).

We

give a few

ing figure :
Let the arc

more geometrical demonstrations from the

AD=A;

then

DG=sm.A;

follow-

CG=cos.A;

CI=DO;
The angle

AD;

that

is,

Also,

Now

DBA,

ADG=DBA=%A.

is,

sin.^4

Or,

same

BDO, we

in the triangle

sin.D^ G
That

measured by half

is

by \A.

have,

D <7=sin.90 BD
:

A=l

sin.

sin.^4=2si

as equation
(30).

In the same triangle

sin.90

That

Or

is,

BD=sm.BDO:BG; sm.BD6=cos.DB(7;

:2cos.|^=cos.|^

l-f-cos.^4

2cos 2 4^4=l+cos. J4, same as

equation (34).

ELEMENTSOF

156

In the triangle

D OA, we have,
:AD=sin.GDA OA
2sin.^A=s\u.^A 1cos.A

sin.90

That
Or,

By

is,

2sin.

similar triangles,

u4=l

cos.^d,

same

as equation (35).

we have,

BA:AD=AD-.AG
That

2 2sin.^4=2sin.-4

is,

Or,

versed sin.,4

versed sin^4=

APPLICATION OF THE PRINCIPLES OF

TRIGONOMETRY.
Every triangle consists of six parts; three sides, and three angles ;
and to determine all the" parts, three of them must be given, and at
must

least one of these parts

be a side,

because two triangles

may have

equal angles, and their sides be very different in respect to magnitude

if

In right angled plane triangles, the right angle is always given ; and
two other parts, and one a side, be given, it will be sufficient for the

complete determination of

all

the other parts.

Before the invention of logarithms, the numerical computations for

the parts of a triangle were all made by arithmetical proportion, as in
the rule of three, through the help of natural sines and cosines
For
the operations, in many cases, were extremely laborious.
curiosity,

Given,

we

the oblique angles,

38

of a right angled triangle, 840.4

38

16

oblique angles, together,

As

38

1:

16'=AC

44'.
:

But the natural sine of 38,

.61932 and

CB
16' is

AC=840.4.

Therefore,

feet,

and one of

16', to find the other parts.

therefore, the other angle is 51

sin.

but

mere

will use natural sines to solve the following triangle.

the hypotenuse

The two

.61932=840.4
840.4

247728
247728
495456

C.B=520.476528

CB

make 90

(th. 11, b. 1, cor. 4);

PLANE TRIGONOMETRY.
For the

AB, we have

side

That

the following proportion

AB
.78513=840.4 AB

cos.38

is,

157

16'=AC

_8404
314052
314052

628104

AJ?=659.823252
Before

we go

word or two

into logarithmic computation,

it is

important to say a

in relation to the nature of logarithms.

Logarithms are exponential numbers ; and Algebra teaches us, that the
addition of the exponents of like quantities multiplies the quantities,
and the subtraction of the exponents divides the quantities.
Hence, by logarithms, we perform multiplication by addition, and division
by subtraction.

EXPLANATION OF THE TABLES.

For the computation of logarithms, we refer at once to Algebra;
we shall point out the manner of finding them in the tables, and

here

some of

The

their uses.

logarithm of

1, is

0; of 10, is 1.00000; of

Hence, the logarithm of any number between 1

and 10, must be a decimal; between 10 and 100, must be 1 and a
The whole
decimal; between 100 and 1000, must be 2 and a decimal.
number belonging to a logarithm, is called its index. The index is
never put in the tables (except from 1 to 100, and need not be put
It is always one less than
there), because we always know what it is.
100, is 2.00000, &c.

the

number

of digits in the whole number.

has 3 for the index to

4 digits

that

Thus, the number 3754

logarithm, because the

number

consists of

the logarithm is 3, and some decimal.

347.921 has 2 for the index of its logarithm, because

is,

The number
number

its

between 347 and 348, and 2 is the index for the loganumbers over 100, and less than 1000.
All numbers consisting of the same figures, whether integral, fractional, or mixed, have logarithms consisting of the same decimal part.
The logarithms would differ only in their indices.
the

rithms of

Thus,

is

all

number 7956.
number 795.6
the number 79.56
the number 7.956
the number .7956
the number .07956

the

has

3.900695 for

the

has

2.900695

its log.

"

has

1.900695

"

has

0.900695

"

has

1.900695

"

2.900695

"

has

ELEMENTS OF

158

we perceive that we must take the logarithm out of the

mixed number or a decimal, the same as if the figures
expressed an entire number ; and then, to prefix the index, we must
consider the value of the number.
From

this

table for a

The

decimal part of a logarithm

is

becomes negative when the number

is

always positive but the index

a decimal ; and the smaller the
;

decimal, the greater the negative index.

To prefix the index to a decimal, count the decimal point as
every cipher as 1, up to the first significant figure, and this

1,

and

is

the

negative index.

For example,

decimal .0000831.

find the logarithm of the

Num. 0000831

5.919601

log.

The point is counted one, and each of the ciphers is counted one
therefore the index is minus Jive.
The smaller the decimal, the greater the negative index
the decimal becomes 0, the logarithm is negatively infinite.
Hence, the logarithmic sine of

is

negatively infinite,

and when

however great

the radius.

The logarithm of any number consisting of four figures, or

taken out of the table directly, and without the least difficulty.

less, is

Thus, to find the logarithm of the number 3725, we find 372, at the
and run down the column marked 5 at the top, and

side of the table,

we

find opposite the former,

and under the

latter,

.571126, for the deci-

mal part of the logarithm.

Hence, the logarithm of 3725
the logarithm of 37250
the logarithm of 37.25

is

3.571126

is

4.571126

is

1.571126, &c.

Find the logarithm of the number

This number

can

find the

bers are the

is

so large that

we

numbers 8347 and 8348.

same

834785.

cannot

find it in the table, but

The

as the logarithms of the

logarithms of these

we

num-

numbers 834700 and 834800,

except the indices.

Difference,

Now,
numbers

Or,

log.

5.921530

834800

log.

5.921582

52

100

our proposed number, 834785,

and, of course, its logarithm
;

logarithms
thus,

834700

is

between the two preceding

between the two preceding

lies

and, without further comment,

100

1.

85=52

44.2

.85=52

44.2

we may

proportion to

it

PLANE TRIGONOMETRY.
To

the logarithm

5.921530

Add

44

Hence, the logarithm of 834785

is

5.921574

the logarithm of 8.34785

is

0.921574

From

159

we draw

the following rule to find the log. of any

consisting of more than four places of figures.
this

RULE.
the table,

Take out

and

the logarithm

number

of the four superior places, directly from

take the difference between this logarithm

and

the next greater

logarithm in the table.

Multiply this difference by the inferior places of
figures in the number, as a decimal.

Example.

Find the logarithm of 357.32514.

"

The
The

difference

the logarithm of 3573. decimal part is .553033

this and the next greater in the table, is 122.

between

figures not included in the above logarithm, are

.2514

...

Multiply by

122

5028
5028

2514
30.6708

This result shows that 31 should be added to the decimal part of the
that is, the logarithm of the proposed number,
;
357.32514 is 2.553064

logarithm already found

The

357325.14

logarithm of

5.553064

is

We will now give the converse of

problem ; that is, we give the

decimal part of a logarithm, .553064, to find the figures corresponding.
The next less logarithm in the table, is .553033, corresponding to
the figure 3573.
The difference between our given logarithm and the

one next

less in the table, is 31;

this

and the difference between two con-

secutive logarithms in this part of the table, is 122.

122, and write the quotient after the number 3573.

That

is,

Now divide

31 by

122)31. (254

244_
660
610
500
488

The

figures, then, are

logarithm

.553064

depend on the index

3573254, which corresponds to the decimal

and the value of these figures

to the logarithm.

will, of

course,

ELEMENTSOF

160

From

this,

we draw

the following rule to find the

number correspond-

ing to a given logarithm.

RULE.
and

If

the

given logarithm

is not

in the

table, find the

one next

less,

and if more than four figures

given logarithm and the next less

take out the four figures corresponding;

are required, take the difference between the

in the table, and divide that difference by the difference of the two consecutive

logarithms in the

one

table, the

other greater than the given loga-

less, the

rithm; and the figures arising in the quotient, as many as

must be annexed to the former figures taken from the table.

may

be required,

EXAMPLES.
Given, the logarithm 3.743210, to find
true to three places of decimals.
1.

2.

Given, the logarithm 2.633356, to find

true to
3.

its

its

two places of decimals.

Given, the

3.291746, to

logarithm

corresponding number
Ans. 5536.182

corresponding number
Ans. 429.89

find

its

number.

TABLE

corresponding
Ans. .0019577

II.

This table contains logarithmic sines and tangents, and natural sines

We

and cosines.

shall confine our explanations to the logarithmic

sines and cosines.

The

sine of

every degree and minute of the quadrant

directly, in the table,

head of the table

commencing
and from 45

increasing backward.
The same column that
at the

bottom

examined the

The

is

marked

and the reason

at

0, and

to

90,

extending to

given,
at the

at the foot of the table,

marked cosine

sine, at the top, is

for this is

is

45,

apparent

to

any one who has

definitions of sines.

two consecutive logarithms is given, corresponding

Removing the decimal point one figure, will give the
difference for one second
and if we multiply this difference by any
proposed number of seconds, we shall have a difference corresponding
difference of

to ten seconds.

number of seconds, above the logarithm, corresponding to the

preceding degree and minute.
For example, find the sine of 19 17' 22".
to that

The
The

sine of 19 17', taken directly from the table, is

difference for 10" is 60.2; for 1", is 6.02X22

Hence, 19

17'

22" sine

is

9.518829
.

133

9.518952

From this it will be perceived that there is no difficulty in obtaining

the sine or tangent, cosine or cotangent, of any angle greater than 30'.

PLANE TRIGONOMETRY.

161

Given the logarithmic sine 9.982412, to

Conversely.

find its corres-

ponding arc. The sine next less in the table, is 9.982404, and gives
The difference between this and the given sine, is 8,
the arc 73 48'.
and the difference for 1", is .61 ; therefore, the number of seconds cor8, must be discovered by dividing 8 by the decimal .61,
which gives 13. Hence, the arc sought is 73 48' 13".
These operations are too obvious to require a rule. When the arc
is very small, such arcs as are sometimes required in astronomy, it is

responding to

necessary to be very accurate

and

for that reason

we

omitted the

difference for seconds for all arcs under 30'.

Assuming that the sines

the same proportion as the arcs

and tangents of arcs under 30' vary in

themselves, we can find the sine or tangent of any very small arc to
great accuracy, as follows :
The sine of 1', as expressed in the table,

Divide this by 60

that

is

subtract logarithm

is,

The logarithmic sine of 1", therefore, is

Now, for the sine of 17", add the logarithm
Logarithmic sine of 17",
In the same manner

For example,

1.778151

4.685575

of 17

logarithmic sine of 1",

Add logarithm of 861.5

any other small

find the sine of

find the sine of 14'

To

1.230449

5.916024

is

we may

Logarithmic sine of 14'

6.463726

21^"; that

is,

arc.

86l"5
4.685575

is,

2.935255

2l"

7.620830

Without further preliminaries, we may now proceed

to practical

EXAMPLES.
2. In aright angled triangle, A BC, given
the b&8e,AB, 1214, and the angle A, 51 40'
30", to find the other parts.

To
As

radius
tan.

::
:

N. B.

When

AB
BC

find

51

40'

1214
1535.8

BC.
10.000000

30" 10.102119
.

3.084219

3.186338

term of a logarithmic proportion is radius,

the resulting logarithm is found by adding the second and third
logarithms, rejecting 10 in the index, which is dividing by the first term.
In

all

cases

we

the

first

add the second and third logarithms together; which,

terms together; and from that sum

in logarithms, is
multiplying these

14

ELEMENTS OF

162

we

subtract the

by the

first

logarithm, whatever

To
As

sin.

C, or cos.A 51
:

::

To

AB

ABC

AC

4.

is

dividing

3.084219

10.000000
3.291742

we

subtracted the

first

logarithm

index to be 13.

its

represent any plane triangle, right angled at B.

AB

Given

angle

C 40

A 49

12'

20"; required the other

BC 55.46, and AB 47.87.

47' 40",

51 26' 17", to find the other

469.34, and the angle
38 33' 43",
C 752.9.
588.5, and

Ans. The angle

parts

which

9.792477

1957.7

Ans. The angle

2.

3.

AC 73.26, and the

Given

parts

parts

1214

Radius

from the second, conceiving

1.

be,

AC.

find

30"

40'

find this resulting logarithm,

Let

may

it

term.

first

AB 493, and

BC

C 20 14'; required the remaining

A 69 46', BC 1338, and AC 1425.
Let AjB=331, the angle A=49 14'; what are the other parts 1
Ans. AC 506.9, BC 383.9, and the angle C 40 46'.
Given

Ans.

AC=45,

5. If

parts
6.

Given

ing parts.

C=37

what

are the remaining

the angle

52

AC 4264.3, and the angle A 56 29' 13", to find the remainAB 2354.4, BC 3555.4, and the angle C 33 30' 47".
Ans.

A=31

12' 49",

what

are the other

AC 51.68, BC 26.78, and the angle C 58

AB=8372.1, and -BC=694.73, what

47' 11".

are the other parts!

AC 8400.9, the angle C 85 15', and the angle A 4

AB be 63.4, and AC be 85.72, what are the other parts

Ans.
9.

If

10.

11.

45'.

Ans. .BC57.7, the angle

Ans.

38'.

Ans.

8. If

22',

AB 27.31, BC 35.76, and

A.B=42.2, and the angle

7. If

parts

angle

and the angle

Ans.

the angle

The

Given

BC

AC 7269,

and

6546, the angle

Given
Ans.

AB

C 25

47

42',

and the angle

3162, to find the other parts.

47' 7", and the angle
64

42

18'.

12' 53".

AC 4824, and BC 2412, to find the other parts.

angle A 30 00', the angle C 60 00', and AB 4178.

The

PLANE TRIGONOMETRY.

103

OBLIQUE ANGLED TRIGONOMETRY-

EXAMPLE
ABC,

In the triangle

angle

A=48

given AJB=376, the

=40

and the angle

3',

1.

14',

to find the other parts.

As

the

sum

of the three angles of every

180, the third angle, C,

triangle is always

must be 180

I7'=9l

88

43'.

To
As
:

::

sin.9l

find

AC.

43'

AS 376
sin. AS 40

9.999805

2.575188

'

14'

9.810167

12.385355

AC243

'.

To

::

AB

3'

as the cosine of

43'.

EC.

find

376

sin.A48

same

43' is the

Assin.9143'
:

2.385550

Observe, that the sine of 91

9.999805

2.575188
9.871414

12.446602

EC

279.8

2.446797

EXAMPLE
to

In a plane triangk, given two sides, and

determine the other parts.

Let

AD=1751.

given sides.
19", and the

feet,

The angle
side

one

an

angle opposite one of them,

of the

D=31

opposite,

2.

17

1257.5.

these data, we are required to

the other side, and the other two

From
find

angles.

In this case

we

do not

know whether

AC or AE

represents 1257.5, because

is the
If we take
for the other given side, then
other required side, and
is the vertical angle.
If we take

DC

AC
DAC

AC=AE.

DE

for the other

given side, then

vertical angle
but in such cases
;

AE

is

we

the required side, and

DAE

determine both triangles.

is

the

ELEMENTS OF

164

To find

As

(Prop. 4.)

AC=A=1257.5

log.

3.099508

sin.

9.715460

31

AD

::

E=C.

the angle

19"

17'

1751

3.243286

log.

12.958746

E=C
From

= 133

46

18'

take 46

180

9.859238

sin.

and the remainder

18',

is

the angle

DCA

42'.

DAC=ACED

The angle

DAC=46
The

angles

(th. 11, b. 1); that is,

31

18'

17'

19"=15

and E, taken from 180, give

0'

41"

DAE=IQ2

24' 41".

To find DC.

As
:

::

sin.i) 31

AC

17' 19'

1257.5

sin.DAC

15

0'

9.715460

log.

41"

log.

3.099508

log.

9.413317
12.512825

DC 626.86

2.797165

To find DE.

As sin.D
:

::

AC

31

17'

17"

9.715460

3.099508

1257.5

sin.102

24' 41'

9.989730
13.089238

N. B.

AS,

DE 2364.5

To make

3.373778

the triangle possible,

the sine of the angle

D, when

DA

AC

is

EXAMPLE
In any plane

triangle, given two sides

must not be

made

less

than

radius.

3.

and

the included angle, to find

the other parts.

Let AZ)=1751 (see last figure), DjE=2364.5,and the included angle

Z>=41 17' 19". We are required to find DE, the angle DAE, and
angle E. Observe that the angle E must be less than the angle DAE,
because

it is

From

TakeD
Sum

of the other two angles

i sum

By

....
....

opposite a less side.

proposition 7,

180
31

17'

19"

=148

42'

41"

74 21' 20"

(th. 11, b. 1)

PLANE TRIGONOMETRY.
DE+DA DEDA= tan.74

21' 20"

That

tan4(DAE

165
)

is,

4115.5

613.5= tan.74

Tan.74

21'

21' 20"

\(DAE E)

20"

10.552778

2.787815

613.5

13.340593

3.614423

4115.5 log. (sub.)

\(DAE

tan.28

1'

9.726170

36"

to

But the half sum and half difference of any two quantities are equal
and the half sum, less the half difference,
the greater of the two

is

equal the less.

Therefore, to

74

Add

28

21' 20"

36

DAE=W2

22'

56"

E=

19

44

46

To find AE.

As

DA

46

sin.JE

19'

1751

sin.D 31

::

17'

9.859323

44"

3.243286

9.715460

19"

12.958746

AE

1257.2

EXAMPLE
Given

the three sides

3.099423

4-

of a plane triangk

to

find the angles.

Given AC=1751, C-B=1257.5, AJ5=2364.5

If

we

take the formula for cosines,

compute the greatest angle, which

correspond with the formula,
,

cos.*C=
take

The

R s(s
^
2

is

c )

we

will

C.

To

we must

'-

ab

a=1257, 6=1751, and c=2364.5

half

sum

of these

s=2686.5

is,

R*

c=322

20.000000

s=2686.5

3.429187

c=322

2.607856

Numerator,

log.

25.937043

ELEMENTS OF

166

20.000000

s=2686.5

3.429187

c=322

2.507856

25.937043

Numerator, log.
a 1257.5 3.099508
3.243286

b 1751.

Denominator,

6.342694

6.342794

log.

2)19.594249

JC=

51

11' 10"

C=102
The remaining

angles

cos.

9.797124

22 20

may now be

found by problem 4.

We give the following examples for practical exercises

Let ABC represent any oblique angled triangle.
AB

Given

1.

697, the angle

30' 10", and the angle

81

40

30' 44", to find the other parts.

Ans.

AC=720.8,

2. If

AC

534,

the angle

BC

813, and the angle

A=70

6'

57

59' 6".

22", and the angle JS=59

35' 36", required the other parts.

Ans.

BC

Given

3.

AB

643.2,

BC

785.8, and the angle

980.1, the angle

50

26' 26", and the angle

19' 2".

106

2' 23", to find the other parts.

Ans.

AB

Given

4.

AB

7284,

896.2,

BC

AC

7613.3, and the angle

328.4, and the angle

113

66

51' 11".

45' 20", to

find the other parts.

Ans.

AC 712, the angle A 19 35' 48", and the angle B 46 38' 52".
AC 4627, BC 5169, and the angle A 70 25' 12", to find

Given

5.

the other parts.

AB

B 57 29' 56", and the angle C 52 4' 52".

Given AB 793.8, BC 481.6, and AC 500.0, to find the angles.
Ans. The angle A 35 15' 32", the angle B 36 49' 18", and the

Ans.

4328, the angle

6.

angle
7.

107

Ans.

8.

55' 10".

AB

The

100.3,

angle

Ans. The angle

angle

BC

AC 100.3, to find the angles.

B 60, and the angle C 60.
Given AB 92.6, BC 46.3, and AC 71.2, to find the angles.

Given

101

55' 8".

29

100.3,

60,

and

the angle

17' 22", the

angle

48

47' 31", and the

PLANE TRIGONOMETRY.
Given

9.

AB

BC

4963,

Ans. The angle A 57

angle C 54 4&' 56".
10.

angle
11.

AC

54

5621, to find the angles.

angle

614.7, and

AC

67

and the

42' 36",

583.8, to find the angles.

32' 52", the angle

50

40' 58",

and the

46' 10".

Given

AB

25' 30'

83.29, and

AC 111.42, to find the angles.

B 76 45", and the angle

46 30' 45", the ang.e

3'

AB

Given

BC

96.74,

The angle

57
12.

74

BC

728.1,

The angle

Ans.

AB

Given

Ans.

5124, and

30' 28", the

167

BC

363.4,

148.4, and th

angle

102

18' 27", to

find the other parts.

Ans. The angle A 20

C 57 32' 16".

9' 17",

the

AC. =4208,

side

and the

angle
13.

Given

other parts,

Ans.

BC

AB

632,
494, and the angle
being acute.
angle C 26 18' 19", the angle

20

the

16', to find

The

133

25' 41",

AC

and

1035.86.
14.

Given

AB

AC

53.9,

46

21

and the angle

B 58916,' to find

the

other parts.

Ans.
15.

Given

The angle

AB

2163,

38

58', the

BC

angle

82

46,

1672, and the angle

BC

and
112

34,16.

18' 22", to

find the other parts.

AC 877.2, the angle B 22 2' 16", and the angle A 45

AB 496, BC 496, and the angle B 38 16', to

Ans.
16.

39' 22".

Given

find the

other parts.

AC 325.1, the
Given AB 428, the

Ans.
17.

find the other parts, the

The

Ans.

and

BC

18.

angle

angle
angle

angle

38

A
C

70

52'

49

16',

and the angle

and

C70

(AC+BC)

52'.

918, to

being obtuse.

44' 48", the angle

AC 564.49,

B 91

59' 12",

and

(AB BC)

353.5.

Given

AC

126, the angle

29

46',

43, to find

the other parts.

Ans.

and

19.

The

BC

angle
210.54.

Given

AB

55

1269,

51' 32", the angle

AC

C 94

1837, and the angle

22' 28",

53

AB 253.05,

16' 20", to find

the other parts.

Ans. The angle

1482.16.

83

23' 47", the angle

43

19' 53",

and

BC

ELEMENTS OF

168

APPLICATION OF TRIGONOMETRY TO MEASURING THE HIGHT AND DISTANCES OF

VISIBLE OBJECTS.
In this useful application of trigonometry, a base line is always supposed to be measured, or given in length ; and by means of a quadrant,
sextant, circle, theodolite, or some other instrument for measuring
angles, such angles are measured as connected with the base line,
and the objects whose hights or distances it is proposed to determine,
enable us to compute, from the principles of trigonometry, what those

hights or distances are.

Sometimes, particularly in marine surveying, horizontal angles are

determined by the compass ; but the varying effect of surrounding
bodies on the needle, even in situations little removed from each other,

and the general construction of the instrument itself, render it unfit to

be applied in the determination of angles where anything like precision
is

required.

The

following examples present sufficient variety to guide the student

what will be the most eligible mode of proceeding in

in determining

any case that

is likely to

occur in practice.

EXAMPLE
C

1.

Being desirous of finding the distance between two distant objects,

and D, I measured a base AB, of 384 yards, on the same horizontal

12',

and

CAB=89

87

4'.

It is

C and

DAB=^8

At A, 1 found the angle

was 46 14', and
the angle
required from these data to compute the distance between

plane with the objects

and D.

18'; at

ABC

D.

From

the angle CAB, take the angle DAB; the

remainder, 41 6', is the angle CAD. To the angle
DBA, add the angle DAB, and 44 44', the supplement of the sum, is the angle ADB. In the same

way the angle A CB, which is the supplement of

the sum of CAB and CBA, is found to be 44 28'.
Hence, in the triangles ABC and ABD, we
have

As
:

::

sin.

AS
sin.

A CB

44

384 yards
46

ABC

28'
.

14'

9.845405

2.584331

9.858635
12.442996

AC

395.9 yards

2.597561

ABD

PLANE TRIGONOMETRY.
As
:

::

sin.

AB
sin.

ADB

44

44'

9.847454

4'

9.999431

169

2.584331

384 yards
87

ABD

12.583762
:

AD

544.9 yards

2.736308

Then, in the triangle CAD, we have given the sides CA and AD,
and the included angle CAD, to find CD; to compute which we
proceed thus

The supplement
and

CAD

of the angle

the

is

sum

of the angles

ACD,

ADC;

Hence,

-=69

27', and,

AsAD+AC
AD AC

940.8

2.937497

149

2.173186

27'

10.426108

00
22

,.

tan.

by proportion we have,

12.599294
tan.

ACD ADC

the angle
the angle

As
:

::

54

A CD

sum 92 21

ADC

diff.

46

sin. ADC 46
33'
AC 395.9 yards

41

33

9.860922

2.597585

sin.CAD

9.625797

9.817813

6'

12.415398
:

CD

358.5 yards

2.554476

EXAMPLE

2.

To determine

the altitude of a lighthouse, I observed the elevation of

top above the level sand on the seashore, to be 15 32' 18", and
measuring directly from it, along the sand 638 yards, I then found its
its

elevation to be 9

Let
above

first station,

CBD

56' 26"; required the hight of the lighthouse.

CD represent the hight of the lighthouse

the level of the sand, and let B be the
is

and

15

32'

the second
18",

is

is

the difference of the angles

5 35' 52".

is

then the angle

and the angle

56' 26"; therefore, the angle

15

CAB

A CB, which

CBD

and

CAB,

ELEMENTS OF

170

As sm.A CB

Hence,

::

AB

638

sin.

angle

35'

52"

8.989201
2. 80*4821

A9

56'

26"

9.2371U7
12.041928

BC

As

radius

BC

10.000000

3.052727

1129.06

ein.CBD

::

3.052727

1129.06 yards

15

9.427945

32' 18"

12.480672

DC

302.46 yards

2.480672

EXAMPLE

3.

Coming from sea, at the point D,l observed two headlands, A and B,
and inland, at C, a steeple, which appeared between the headlands.
I found, from a map, that the headlands were 5.35 from each other
that the distance from A to the steeple was 2.8 miles, and from B
to the steeple 3.47 miles
and I found with a sextant, that the angle
;

ADC was

BDC

and the angle

15 30'.
Required
from each of the headlands, and from the steeple.
12

my

distance

point as determined, and join CD.

we have all the sides, and, of course,
In the triangle

we can

15',

CONSTRTTCTIOM.
The angle between the two headlands is the
sum of 15 30' and 12 15', or 27 45'. Take
the double, 55

30'.

Conceive

AB

to

be the

chord of a circle, and the segment on one side

of it to be 55 30 ; and, of course, the other will

30'.
The point will be somewhere in
the circumference of this circle.
Consider that

be 304

ABC

45')

C is

)=152

Join

and

15',

without the

and

ACB

the angle
is less than (180
(27
then the circle cuts the line CD, in a point E, and

find all the angles

if

circle.

AE, BE, AD, and DB.

AEBD

is

a quadrilateral in a

circle,

AEB+.ADB=18Q.

The

angle

half the arc

ADE= the angle ABE, because

AE.

Also,

EDB=EAB, for a

both are measured by

similar reason.

Now, in the triangle AEB, its side AB, and

known and from thence AE can be computed.
;

all

its

angles, are

Then, having the

PLANE TRIGONOMETRY.
two sides

AC and AE

CAE, we

AED.

two angles

The

can

Then,

find the

AEC,

angle

AED

in the triangle

AED

and

ADE, from

computation, at length,

is

171

AEC,

and the included angle

and, of course, its supplement,
we have the side AE, and the

of the triangle

which we can

as follows

find

AD.

To find AE.
angle
angle

EAB
EBA

15

30'

12

15

As sin.AEB 152
:

27 45

::

AB 5.35

ein.A-RE

12

15'

9.668027

15'

9.326700

.728354

180
angle

AEB

10.855054

152

AE 2.438

15

To find

BC
AB
AC

the angle

BA C.

3.47
5.35

log.

2.80

log.

.728354
.447158
1.175512

2)11.62

BC

.387027

5.81

log.

.764176

2.34

log.

.369216

20
21.133392
2)19.957880
17

41' 58"

cos.

9.978940

2_

angle
angle
angle

BAG
EAB
EAC

35

23 56

15

30

19

53 56

180

2)160

80

AEC+ACE

the angles AEC and ACE.

5.238
.719165
AsAC+AE
AC AE
.362
1.558709
AEC+ACE
tan.
2"
80
10.755928
-s

To find

3'

::

10.314637

AEC ACE
tan.

21 30 12

9.695472

ELEMENTS OF

172
angle

AEC

angle

A CE

101

A CD
CD A

or

angle

sum

33' 14"

58 32 50
12

diff.

15

70 47 50 supplement 109
35

12'

10" angle

23 56 angle

73 48 14 angle

CAD
CAB
BAD

To find AD.

Assin.ADC

AC

::

2.8

12

15'

9.326700

32'

50"

9.930985

.447158

sin.ACD 58

10.378143

AD

1.051443

11.26 miles

EXAMPLE

4-

The elevation of a spire at one station was 23 50' 17", and the
horizontal angle at this station, between the spire and another station,
was 93 4' 20". The horizontal angle at the latter station, between
the spire and the

first station,

the two stations, 416 feet.

Let

was 54

28' 36", and the distance

Required the hight of the

be the spire, A the first station, and B

is 23
then the vertical angle
;
and as the horizontal angles CAB and

CD

CAD

the second
50'

17";

CBA

spire.

are 93

the angle A
32 C 27' 4".

4'

CB,

20", and 54

28' 36" respectively,

the supplement of their sum, is

To find AC.

As sin.BCA

AB

side

::

32

416

sin.A-BC 54

27' 3"
.

28' 36"

9.729634

2.619093
9.910560
12.529653

side

AC

2.800019

631

To find DC.

As

radius

10.000000

AC

side

::

tan.DAC 23

DC

2.800019

631

278.8

50' 17"

9.645270

2.445289

between

PLANE TRIGONOMETRY.

173

the application of the fourth

By

example we can compute the

dif-

ferent elevations of different planes,

provided the same object

is visible

from them.

For example, let

be a prominent tree or rock near the top of a
mountain, and by observations taken
at

A, we can determine the perpendicular Mn. By like observations

can determine the perpendicular Mm. The difference between

we

these two perpendiculars,

between the two points

and n, or

corrections

nm, or the difference in the elevation

and B. But if the distances between A

is

and m, are considerable, or more than two or three miles,

must be made for the convexity of the earth ; but for less

distances such corrections are not necessary.

EXAMPLES FOR EXERCISE.

Required the hight of a wall whose angle of elevation is observed,
Ans. 135.8 feet.
at the distance of 463 feet, to be 16 21' T
2.

The

angle of elevation of a

hill is,

near

its

bottom, 31

18',

and

214 yards further off, 26 18'. Required the perpendicular hight of the
hill, and the distance of the perpendicular from the first, station.
Ans. The hight of the hill is 565.2, and the distance of the perpendicular from the first station,
3.

The

is

wall of a tower which

drawn from the top of

angle of 57
of the tower

21'.

it

What

929.6.
is

149.5 feet in hight, makes, with a line

on the horizontal plane, an

to a distant object
is

the distance of the object from the bottom

Ans. 233.3

feet.

From

the top of a tower, whose hight was 138 feet, I took the
angles of depression of two objects which stood in a direct line from
the bottom of the tower, and upon the same horizontal plane with it.
4.

The

depression of the nearer object

that of the further, 18

bottom of the tower

52'.

was found

What was

to

be 48

10',

and

the distance of each from the

Ans. Distance of the nearer 123.5, and of the farther 403.8

feet.

Being on the side of a river, and wishing to know the distance

of a house on the other side, I measured 312 yards in a right line by
the side of the river, and then found that the two angles, one at each
end of this line, subtended by the other end and the house, were 31
15' and 86 27'.
What was the distance between each end of the line
5.

and the house

Ans. 351.7, and 182.8 yards.

ELEMENTS OF

174

Having measured a base of 260 yards in a straight line, close by

river, I found that the two angles, one at each end of

6.

one side of a

the line, subtended by the other end and a tree close to the opposite
and 80. What was the breadth of the river 1

bank, were 40

Ans. 190.1 yards.

of 268 feet, in perpendicular hight, the angle
of depression of the top of a steeple which stood on the same horizontal plane, was found to be 40 3', and of the bottom 56 18'. What

From an eminence

7.

was the hight of the steeple J

8. Wanting to know the distance between two

Ans. 117.8
objects

feet.

which were

separated by a morass, I measured the distance from each to a point

I could see them both ; the distances were 1840 and 1428 yards,

where

and the angle which, at that point, the objects subtended, was 36 18'
Ans. 1090.85 yards.
Required their distance.

24".

9. From the top of a mountain, three miles in hight, the visible horizon appeared depressed 2 13' 27". Required the diameter of the earth,
and the distance of the boundary of the visible horizon.
Ans. Diameter of the earth 7958 miles, distance of the horizon

154.54 miles.
10. From a ship a headland, was seen bearing north, 39 23' east.
After sailing 20 miles north, 47 49' west, the same headland was
observed to bear north, 87 11' east.
Required the distance of the

headland from the ship at each station 1

Ans. The distance at the first station was 19.09, and at the second
26.96 miles.
11.

The

top of a tower, 100 feet above the level of the sea,

was

seen as on the surface of the sea, from the masthead of a ship, 90 feet
above the water. The diameter of the earth being 7960 miles, what

was

the distance

between the observer and the object!

Ans. 23.9 plus

for refraction

= 25.7 miles.

the top of a tower, by the seaside, of 143 feet high, it was

observed that the angle^>f depression of a ship's bottom, then at anchor,
12.

From

measured 35; what, then, was the ship's distance from the bottom of
Ans. 204.22 feet.
7

the wall

13. Wanting to know the breadth of a river, I measured a base of

500 yards in a straight line close by one side of it and at each end of
this line I found the angles subtended by the other end and a tree close
12'.
to the bank on the other side of the river, to be 53 and 79
What,
;

was the perpendicular breadth

Ans. 529.48 yards.

of the river 1
the perpendicular hight of a hill, its angle of elevation,
taken at the bottom of it, being 46, and 200 yards further off, on a
then,

14.

What

is

level with the bottom, the angle

was 31?

Ans. 286.28 yards.

PLANE TRIGONOMETRY.
15.

Wanting

know

to

175

the hight of an inaccessible tower

at the

on the same horizontal plane, I took its angle of

58; then going 300 feet directly from it, found the

least distance from

it,

elevation equal to
angle there to be only
it at the first station.

32;

required

its

hight, and

distance from

my

307.53.
Hight
(Distance 192.15.
(

.
'*

16. Two ships of war, intending to cannonade a fort, are, by the shal.owness of the water, kept so far from it, that they suspect their guns
cannot reach it with effect. In order, therefore, to measure the dis-

tance, they separate from each other a quarter of a mile, or 440 yards,
then each ship observes and measures the angle which the other ship
and fort subtends, which angles are 83 45' and 85 15'. What, then,
.
is the distance between each ship and the fort 1
$ 2292.26
y aras '
I 2298.05
,

point of land was observed by a ship, at sea, to bear east-byand after sailing north-east 12 miles, it was found to bear southIt is required to determine the place of that headland,
east-by-east.
17.

south

;*

and the ship's distance from

it

at the last observation

Ans. 26.0728 miles.

18.

Wanting

know my

to

the other side of a river

distance from an inaccessible object, 0, on

and having no instrument

for taking angles,

but only a chain or chord for measuring distances ; from each of two
stations, A and B, which were taken at 500 yards asunder, I measured
;

in a direct line from the object 0, 100 yards, viz.,

equal to 100 yards

the diagonal

BC

from each station

also the diagonal

560.

What,

then,

AD

AC

and

BD,

each

measured 550 yards, and

was the distance of the

and B'\

"

5
\

AQ
BO

object

536.25.
500.09.

19. A navigator found, by observation, that the vertex of a certain

mountain, which he supposed to be 45 minutes of a degree distant, had
an altitude above the sea horison of 31' 20". Now, on the supposition

that the earth's radius

is

3956 miles, and the observer's dip was 4' 15",

Ans. 3960 feet.
]

what was the hight of the mountain

N. B. This should be diminished by about

its

one-eleventh part

the influence of horizontal refraction.

* That

is,

one point south of

east.

point of the compass

is

11

15.

for

SPHERICAL

176

SPHERICAL

TRIGONOMETRY,

SPHERICAL GEOMETRY is nothing more than the general principles

of geometry applied to the various sections of a sphere ; and spherical trigonometry, is but the general principles of plane trigonometry applied to triangles resting on a surface of a sphere, and the
planes of the sides of the triangles passing through the center of

the sphere.

DEFINITIONS.
A sphere

a solid whose surface is equally convex in every

and every point of the surface is equally distant from one point
within, and this point is called the center. A sphere may be con1.

is

part,

ceived to be generated

by the revolution of a semicircle about

its

diameter.
If the center of the semicircle rests at the
tion of the diameter

may be

in

any

same

point, the posi-

direction or position,

revolution of the semicircle will describe the

and the

same sphere.

2. Any plane that passes through the center of the

sphere, divides the solid and the surface into two equal parts.

3.

Any

two planes that pass through the center of a sphere, inon the opposite points of the sphere, because the

tersect each other

any two planes is a right line (th. 2, b. 6).

great circle on a sphere, is one whose plane passes through
the center of the sphere.
5. Every great circle has poles, two points on the sphere directly
section of
4.

opposite to each other and equally distant from every point on the

great

circle.

The

distance from any pole to its equator in any direction,

fourth of the whole distance round the sphere.
6.

Any

7.

point on a sphere

may be

a pole to some great

is

one

circle.

formed by the intersection of three

Conceive three radii, drawn from the

is

spherical triangle
great circles on a sphere.
three angular points to the center of the sphere, thence forming a
solid angle.
The angles of the three planes which form this solid

angle at the center, are the three angles which measure the sides
of the triangle, and the inclination of these planes to each other

form the angles of the triangle.

TRIGONOMETRY.

177

8. The
complete measure of a spherical triangle, is but the
complete measure of a solid angle at the center of a sphere and
this solid angle is the same, whatever be the radius of the
sphere.
;

9.
Every great circle, or portion of a great circle on the surface
of a sphere, has its poles ; conversely, every
pole, or the point

where two

circles intersect, has its equator 90

distant, and the
of
this
the two sides
between
the
two
or
sides,
portion
equator

produced, measures the spherical angle at the pole.

The inclination of two tangents of two arcs formed at their point

of intersection, also measures the spherical angle. (Def. 5, to b. 6).

We

10.

can always draw one, and only one great

circle

through

any two points on the surface of a sphere for the two given points
and the center of the sphere, give three points, and through three
;

points only one plane can

be made

to pass (cor. th.

PROPOSITION
Every

is

b. 6).

1.

of a sphere by a plane

section

1,

is

circle.

If the plane passes through the center of the sphere, the section
evidently a circle, for every point on the surface of the sphere is

These sections are great circles,

equally distant from the center.
and all great circles on the same sphere are equal to each other.
Now let the cutting plane not pass through the center. From
the center C,
to the plane

let fall

Cn perpendicular

and when a

line is

perpen-

dicular to a plane, it is perpendicular

to all lines that can be drawn in that

plane (th. 3, b. 6);

as

nm

Cn.

therefore,

any

line

in the plane, is at right angles to

Hence

nm=,JCm

Cn3

But nm is any line in the plane, from the point n to the surface
of the sphere, and this value for nm is invariable, and it is the
radius of a circle whose center is n.
N. B. These

circles are called

small

circles,

and are greater or

they are nearer or more remote from the center C.

Small circles on a sphere, are never considered as sides of spheri-

less, as

cal triangles.

We

again repeat, that sides of spherical triangles

must be portions of great

than 180.

circles,

and each

side

must be

less

SPHERICAL

178

PROPOSITION
Any

2.

two sides of a spherical triangle are together greater than the

third.

Let

AB,AC,

and BC, be the three

and

the triangle,
The arcs AB,

sides of

D the center of the sphere.

AC, and BC,

are measured

by the angles of the planes that form the solid

angle at D. But any two of these angles are
together greater than the third (th. 10, b. 6).
Therefore, any two sides of the triangle are together, greater than

the third.

Q. E.

D.

PROPOSITION
The sum, of

the three sides

circumference of a great

Let

AB C

AB, AC,

of any spherical triangle

is less

than

tlie

circle.

be a triangle

produced,

3.

will

the two sides

meet

at the point

on the sphere which is directly opposite

to A; and the arcs ABD, and A CD, are

But by
together equal to a great circle.
is less than the
the last proposition,
two arcs
less

than

BD

and

BC
D C. Therefore, AB, B C,

ABD-\-A CD;

that

is,

less

and

than a great

PROPOSITION

A C,

are together

circle.

Q. E.

D.

4.

Every right angled spherical triangle must have a complemental,

supplemental, and four quadrantal triangles in the same hemisphere.

ABC,

be a right angled spherical

triangle, right angled at B.

Let

Produce the sides

AB

and AC, and

meet at A', the opposite point on

they
Produce BC, both ways, 90
the sphere.
will

from the point B, to

P and

therefore, poles to the

spherics).

arc

P' which are

,

AB

(def. 9,

Through A, P, and the center of the sphere, pass a

plane cutting the sphere into two equal parts, forming a great circle
on the sphere, which great circle will be represented by the plane

TRIGONOMETRY.

179

PAPA

on the paper. At right angles to this plane, pass

another plane, cutting the sphere into two equal parts ; this great
circle is represented on the paper, by the straight line
OP'.
circle

and A', are the poles

to the great circle

ABA'

poles to the great circle

As PC,

CPD

is

PD and

P
A
P OP'. P and P', are the

are portions of great circles on a sphere,

a spherical triangle, and it is complemented to the given

CD,

ABC; because CD is the complement of AC, CP the

is the
0, or of the ancomplement of BC, and
complement of
gle A. Again, the triangle A'BC, is supplemental to ABC, because
A'=A; A'Cis the supplement of AC, and A'B is the supplement
triangle

PD

of

AGP

AB.

a quadrant, and

is

a spherical triangle, and one of its sides, AP, is

therefore called a quadrantal triangle. So also,

it is

CP,
CP', and P' CA', quadrantal triangles.
In every triangle there are six elements three sides and
three angles, which are sometimes called parts.

are the triangles A'

Cor.

ABC

are known, the parts

Now, if all the parts of the triangle
of the complemental triangle PCD, are also known, and the sup-

plemental triangle

When

A'BC, must be

the triangle

are also known, for

PCD

as completely

known.

PC

known, the triangles A CP and A'

the side PD, measures the angles PA C and
is

PA' C, and the angle CPD, added to the right angle A'PD, gives
the angle
PC, and CPA, is supplemental to this. Hence a
solution of any right angled spherical triangle, is a solution to its

complemental, supplemental, and

all its

quadrantal triangles.

Every triangle, together with its supplemental triwhat is called a Lune. Thus, the triangles ABC, and

Definition.

angle, form

A'BC, form

P'A C,

a lune

PCD

and P'CD, form a lune

It is obvious, that the surface of the

surface of the sphere, as the arc

AB,

is

lune

there be three arcs

points of a spherical

of great

circles

PAP'B,

to the

PROPOSITION
If

PAC

and

also form a lune.

is

to

the

whole circumference.

5.

whose poles are the angular

triangle, such arcs, if produced, will

form

another triangle, whose sides will be supplemental to the angles of the

first triangle,
tlie

and

the sides

angles of the second

of

the first triangle will be supplemental to

SPHERICAL

180

Let the arcs of the three great

circles

be

GH, PQ, KL, whose

poles are respectively A,

Produce the three arcs until they

B, and C.

meet

We

E, D, and F.

in

are

now

to

show,

the pole to the great circle AC;

the pole to
the pole of the great circle
C;
the great circle AB.
Also, that the side EF,
that

is

is

supplemental to the angle

DF to

angle C; and
that, the side

A C,

is

A;

the angle

ED

to the

B; and

also,

E, &c.

supplemental to the angle

pole is 90 from any point on its great circle, and therefore,

is the
as
pole to the great circle GH, the point A, is 90 from
the point E. As C is the pole of the great circle LK, C is 90 from

Any

any point in that great circle therefore, G is 90 from the point

E, and E, being 90 from both A and C, it is the pole of the arc
A C. In the same manner, we may prove that is the pole of
;

BC, and Ffhe pole of AB.

Because A is the pole of the arc GH, the arc
angle A (def. 9 spherics); for the same reason,
angle B, and

....

Because

the pole of the arc

jE'is

Or,

For a

LK measures the angle

like reason,

C.

AC, JEff=9Q

EG+GH=W>
FH-r #"=90

these two equations, and observing that

Adding

afterward transposing one A,

we

like

manner,

....

And,
But the arc (180
finition of arcs

A),

is

GH=A,

and

have,

EG+ Gff+Fff=
Or,

In

OH measures the
PQ measures the

80

A.

EF=1BOA
FD=180B
ED=180C

a supplemental arc to A,

-\

(a)

by

the de-

therefore, the three sides of the triangle EDF, are

supplements of the angles A, B, C, of the triangle ABC.
C, the whole
E, is
Again, as E, is the pole of the arc
;

angle

measured by the whole arc LH.

But,
Also,

By

addition,

A C+ CJJ=dO
AC+AL=90
A C+A G-}- Cff+AL=

80

TRIGONOMETRY.
By

A C+
....

is,

CH-\-AL= \

transposition,

That

In the same manner,

80^ C

Lff, or

jE=l8Q

AC

F=IQO

AB
EC

Z>=180

And,
That

the sides of the

is,

first

6.

the three angles

than two right angles, and

of any spherical triangle,

than six right angles.

less

to equations (a), of the last proposition,

The

first

member

ignate

The other member

S.

greater

and add them

to-

be the

sum we may

des-

be 6 right angles (there

each 180) less the three angles A, B,

being 2 right angles in

and

is

of the equation so formed will

gether.
sum of three sides of a spherical triangle, which

by

(5)

D.

PROPOSITION
Turn

^
V

triangle, are supplemental to the

Q. E.

angles of the second triangle.

The sum of

181

will

C.

That

By

is,

fore, to

it

add

Then,

Drop 4

s,

=6

right angles

sum

(^4+^+ C)

than 4 right angles; therea sufficient quantity to make 4 right angles.

proposition 3, the

S,

is

less

4 right angles=6 right angles (A-\rB-\-C)-{-s

members, and transpose (A+B-\- C')

right angles from both

Then,

A+B+C= 2 right angles+s

(

is, the three angles of a spherical triangle, make a greater

than two right angles by the indefinite quantity s, which quanis called the
spherical excess, and is greater or less according to

That

sum
tity

the size of the triangle.

Again the sum of the angles is less than 6 right angles. There
are but three angles to any triangle, and no one of them can come

up to 1 80, or 2 right angles. For an angle is the inclination of

two lines or two planes and when two planes incline by 1 80, the
planes are parallel, or are in one and the same plane therefore, as
;

neither angle can equal 2 right angles, the three can never equal

6 right angles.
Q. E. D.
Scholium.
By merely inspecting the figure to proposition 4, we
perceive that the triangle PAB, has two right angles one at A,
;

the other at B, besides the third angle

The

P'A'O, has right angles. The triangle

angles, each greater than a right angle.

triangle

has two of

its

APB.

A'P'C,

SPHERICAL

182

PROPOSITION.
With

the sines

the sides,

of

and

7.

of ONE SIDE of any

the tangent

right angled spherical triangle, two plane triangles can be

and

will be similar,

ABO,

Let

formed

that

similarly situated.

be a spherical triangle, right

be the center of the

angled at B; and let
Because the angle CBA, is a right
sphere.

CDB,

angle, the plane

is

perpendicular to the

plane DBA. From C, let fall CH, perpendicular to the plane DBA, and as the plane CBD
is
perpendicular to the plane DBA, CH will

CBD, and be perpendicular

DB, and perpendicular to all lines

the plane

lie in

to the line

the plane

DBA,

Draw HO-

from the point

perpendicular to

CDA

wholly in the plane

(ila..

DA,

that can be

drawn

in

3, b. 6).

and

&C
CHG is

OC;

join

and

(def. of planes),

will lie

a right

angled triangle, right angled at H.

We

now demonstrate

will

that the angle

A CHG,
right angled A D Gff,

The
The

right angled

gives

DGC,

is

Cff*+ffG

(1)

By subtraction,
2
By transposition,
But the first member of the equation (4),
cause CDH, is a right angled triangle
.

right angle.

DG +HG =DH
2
Cff
DG =CG Dff*(3)
Cff +Dff =CG +I>G (4)
2

gives

=CG

equal to CD" ; be-

is

CD

Therefore,

Hence, CD,

=GC +DG
2

the hypotenuse to the right angled triangle

is

D GC

(th. 36, b. 1).

From

DB,

right angles to
in the line
in the
to

draw

the point B,

DC.

in the

As
;

is

DA,

BF at
F being
and E

and

the point

is
CD A,
CD A. Now we are

in the plane

in the plane

CHG is similar, and similarly situated to the

BEF.

HQ

and

and as

BE

CH

DA,

are both at right angles to

and

BH are both

they are paral-

at right angles to

DB,

they are

and by reason of the parallels, the angles GffC and

are equal
but GffC is a right angle therefore, EBF is

parallel

EBF,

CDB extended

EF, and as
the line EF, is

show, that the triangle

lel

plane

at right angles to

Join

same plane,

triangle

BE

also a right angle.

TRIGONOMETRY.
Now as

OH

BE

and

are parallel, and

183

CH and BF parallel,

-we

DH DB=HO BE

have,

And,

DH: DB=HC BF

Therefore,

HG BE=HC BF
HG HC=BE BF

Or,

(th. 6, b. 2)

Here, then, are two triangles, having an angle in the one equal to
an angle in the other, and the sides about the equal angles prothe two triangles are therefore equiangular (th. 20, b. 2);
portional
and they are similarly situated, for their sides make equal angles
;

H and B with the same

at

Scholium.

By

perceive, that

BF

its

CH

DB.

line,

DH

CO is

Also,

BE

same

arc.

With

AC, and

the sine of the arc

tangent
is the sine of the arc
;

D.

Q. E.

the definition of sines, cosines, and tangents, we

is the sine of the arc BC,
is its cosine, and

this figure

AB, and

we

DE

is

DG

its

cosine.

the cosine of the

are prepared to demonstrate the

following theorems.

PROPOSITION
In any

THEOREM

7.

1.

right angled spherical triangle, the sine of one side is to the

tangent of

tJie

other side, as radius is to the tangent

the

of

angle

adjacent to the first-mentioned side.

Or, as the sine of one side

the cotangent

tangent of the other side, so

is to the

of the angle, adjacent

to the

is

first-mentioned side, to the

radius.

EBF, we

In the right angled plane triangle

EB BF=R
That

sin. c

is,

have,

ttm.BEF

tan.a=J2

tan. ,4

Q. E.

D.

modification of this proposition demonstrates the latter part of

the theorem.
By reference to equation (5), plane trigonometry,

we

cot.A=JR 2;

shall find that, tan.^4.

therefore, tan. A==

jp
7

coi.A

Substituting this value for tangent A, in the preceding proposiand -dividing the last couplet by JR, we shall have.

tion,

sin. c

tan.a=l

cot.^1

Or,
Or,

sin. c

...

tan.a=cot.-4

R sin. c = tan. a

cot.

Q. E.

(1)

D.

SPHERICAL

184

Cor.
By changing the construction, drawing the tangent to B,
place of the tangent to JBC, and proceeding in a similar manner,

in

we

R sin.a=tan.c cot.

have,

PROPOSITION
In any

tJie

of

(2)

THEOREM.

8.

2.

angled spherical triangle, the sine of the rigM angle

riglii

to the sine

(7

the hypotenuse, as the sine

of the other angles

either

of

is

to

sine of the side opposite to that angle.

N. B. For the sake of perspicuity,

if

not of brevity,

we

will repre-

sent the angles of the triangle, by A, B, C, and of the sides or arcs

opposite to these angles by a, b, c; that is, a opposite A, &c.
The sine of 90, or radius, is designated by R.

In the plane triangle CHQ, we have,

sin.CffG: CG=sm.CGff:

That

is,

Or,
Cor.

tangent

sin.=sin.^4

J2sin.a=sin.5 sin.^4

By a change in the
to AB, &c., we shall

Or,

and

2,

we
(

have,

5=sin.

Q. E. D.

sin.c

_Ksin.c=stn.& sin.

(4)

drawn from

have,
)

R sin.c=tan.a cot.^1
C

(2)

jRsin.a=tan.c

(3)

_Rsin.a=sin.5 sin.-4

(4)

cot.

sin.c=sin.i sin.

These equations refer

ABC;

triangle
for any right

to the right angled

but the principles are true

angled spherical triangle.

Let us apply them to the right angled tri-

PDC,
ABC.

angle
to

Making

the

complemental triangle

this application,

D.

(3)

Collecting the four preceding equations

Scholium.

theorems

Q. E.

construction of the figure, drawing a

sin.

CH

sin.a

equation

becomes,

(2) becomes

R sin. CD=iva.PD cot. C

R sin.PZ>=tan. CD cot.P

(3) becomes

JJsin.PZ>=sin.PC

sin.(7

(o)

(4) becomes

^2sin.(7Z)=sm.PC'sin.P

(p)

(n)
(m)

TRIGONOMETRY.
By observing that
And that

sin.

CD=cos.A (7=cos.i,

tan.PZ>=cot.J9 0=cot.A,

185

<fcc

and

by

running equations (n), (m), (o), and (p), back into the triangle
ABC, and we shall have,
-Kcos.5=cot.-4

(5)
(6)

(7)

R cos.-4=cos.o sin. C
R cos.5=cos.a cos.c

(8)

By

cot.

It cos.-4=cot.5 tan.c

observing equation (6),

we

find that the second

The same

refers to sides
adjacent to the angle A.
in respect to the angle C, and gives,

R cos.C=cot.b tan.a

(9)
the

Making

member

relation holds

same observations on (7), we

(10)

cos.

infer,

C= cos.c sin. A

1
Several of these equations can be deduced geowithout
the
least difficulty.
For example, take the figmetrically
ure to proposition 6. Observe the parallels in the plane DBA,

OBSERVATION

which

is,

A result

identical with equation (8),

As

DB DH=DE DO
R cos.a=cos.c cos.6
:

give,

That

thus

radius

side, to the cosine

is to cosine

of

and

of one side, so

in

words

is

is the cosine

expressed

of

the other

the hypotenuse.

Equations numbered from (1) to (10), cover

that can occur in right angled spherical trigcase
every possible
the
are too various to be remembered,
combinations
but
onometry,

OBSERVATION

2.

and readily applied to practical use.

We can remedy this inconvenience, by taking the complement of
the hypotenuse, and the complements of the two oblique angles, in
place of the arcs themselves.

Thus
Then,

is

the hypotenuse, and let

5+6'=90

cos.5=sin.5'/
is

the

complement

Then,

and

to

or,

b'

be

J=90

tan.6=cot.5'.

its

V;

complement.
and,

sin.i=cos.i',

In the same manner if A'

A,

sin..4=cos..4'/ cos,^=sin.^i'/ a&d,t&n.A=cot.A';

similarly, sin.

16

0=cos.C';

cos.

C= sin. C'

and

tan.

(7= cot. (7.

SPHERICAL

186

Substituting these values for b, A, and C, in the foregoing ten

andc remaining the same), we have,

equations (a

CIRCULAR PARTS.

NAPIER'S
(11)

(12)

fi sin.a=tan.c tan. C"

(13)

J? sin.o=cos.J' cos..4'
JjJ

(14)

Omitting the consid-

sin.c=tan.a tan.,4'

eration of the right angle

there are five parts.

Each

sin.c=cos.fl' cos. C"

R sin.5'=tan.^i' tan. C'

R sin..4'=tan.5' tan.C
R sin.^'=cos.a COS.C"

(15)
(16)

(17)

by

taken

as

one equation, and

extreme parts by

to its

another equation

72sin.i'=COS.acos. C

'
(18)
v

part

middle part, is connected to its adjacent parts

and

therefore, ten equations

(19) ^sin.C"=tan.5'tan.a
sm.C'=COS.C COS.A'
(20)

are required for the combin ations of all the parts.

These equations are very remarkable, because the first members

all composed of radius into some sine, and the second members

are

are

all

composed of the product of two

tangents, or two cosines.

To condense

these equations into words, for the purpose of assistthe

ing
memory, we will refer them, any one of them, directly to
the right angled triangle AEG, in the last figure.

When

the right angle

is left

triangle consists of five parts

out of the question, a right angled

and two angles. Let any

three sides,

one of these parts be called a middle part, then two other parts
will lie adjacent to this part, and two opposite to it, that is, separated
it
by two other parts.
For instance, take equation (11), and call c the middle part, then
A' and a will be adjacent parts, and C' and b' opposite parts.

from

Again, take a as a middle part, then

and A' and

will

b'

be opposite parts

and C' will be adjacent parts,

and thus we may go round

the triangle.

Take any equation from (11)

part in the first

member

to (20), and consider the middle

of the equation, and we shall find that

they correspond to these two invariable and comprehensive

1

of

The

radius into the sine of the middle part equals the product

the tangents
2.

of the adjacent parts.

The radius

the cosines

rules.

of

into the sine

of

the opposite parts.

the

middle part equals the product of

TRIGONOMETRY.

187

These rules are known as Napier's Rules, because they were first
who was also

brought forth by that distinguished mathematician,

the inventor of logarithms.

We

caution the pupil to be very particular to take the complements

of the hypotenuse, and the complements of the oblique angles.

OBLIQUE ANGLED SPHERICAL

TRIGONOMETRY.
THE preceding

have had reference to right angled

but the application of these prin-

investigations

spherical trigonometry only

cover oblique angled trigonometry also, for every oblique

angled spherical triangle may be considered as made up of the
ciples

sum
this

or difference of two right angled spherical triangles.

explanatory remark,

we

give,

PROPOSITION

THEOREM.

9.

In

all spherical triangles, the sines of tlie sides are to

the sines of the angles opposite to them.

2,

With

3.

each other, as

This was proved in relation to right angled triangles in theorem

and we now apply the principle to oblique angled triangles.

Let

ABC,

be the triangle, and

CD

let

AB

be perpendicular to AB, or to
produced as represented in the margin.

Then by theorem 2, we have,

R sm.A C=sm.A
:

Also,

By

sin.

sin.

CB R=sm. CD:
:

CD

sin.,5.

multiplying these two proportions

term by term, and leaving out the com-

mon factor R, in the first couplet, and the

common factor sin. CD, in the second, we
have,
Cor.

gin,

From

at the base of

CB

sin.

4 C==sm.A

the truth of this theorum,

sin..5.
it

Q. E,

D.

follows, that the angles

an isosceles triangle are equal, and that in every

spherical triangle the greater angle

is

opposite the greater side.

SPHERICAL

188

PROPOSITION
In any spherical

triangle,

10.

if an arc

THEOREM
be

let

fall

4.

from any

angle to

the opposite side as a base, or to the base produced, the cosines

of the

other two sides will be to each other as the cosines

of the segments
the base.

By

we

the application of equation (8) to the last

figure,

have,

R cos.AC=cos.AD cos.DC
R cos. B C=cos.DC cos.BD

Similarly,

of

Dividing one of these equations by the others, omitting

numerators and denominators, we have,

common

factors in

cos.^4

cos.AD

cos.C~cosJ3D
Or,

COS.AC

cos.JBC=cos.AD

PROPOSITION

11.

cos.D.

Q. E. D.

THEOREM

5.

If from any angle of a spherical triangle, a perpendicular be let

fatt on the base, or on the base produced, the tangents of the segments
of

the base will be to each other recipro'cally proportional to the cotan-

gents of the segments of the angles.

By

the application of equation (2) to the last figure,

have,

R cos.CD=ta.n.AD cot.ACD
R cos.CD=tw.BD cot.ECD

Similarly,

we

Therefore, by equality,
tan.

Or,

AD cot.ACD=ten.BD cot.ECD

tan.^D

tan.5D=cot.jB(7j9

PROPOSITION
of

the segments

cotACD.

THEOREM

Q. E.

D.

6.

construction remaining, the cosines of the angles at the

The same
extremities

12.

the segments

of

of the base, are

to

each other as the sines of

the opposite angle.

to the triangle
CD, gives
Equation (7) applied
cos..4=cos. CD sm.A CD

(*)

Also,

(t)

R
R cos.JB=cos.CD sm.SCD

TRIGONOMETRY.
Dividing equation (s) by

Or,

cos.S

(t),

The same

gives

cos.A=s\n.CD

PROPOSITION

189

Bm.ACD.

THEOREM

13.

D.

Q. E.

7.

construction remaining, the sines of the segments of the

base, are to each other as the cotangents

A CD, gives

Equation (1), applied to the triangle

Similarly,

Dividing (s) by

the adjacent angles.

of

R sin.^lZ>= tan. CD coi.A

R sinJ5Z>= tan.GZ) cot.jB
(t),

(s)
(t)

gives

sm.AD

cot.,4

cot.3

Or,

sm.ED sin.^D=cot.5

PROPOSITION

Q. E.

the cotangents

D.

8.

of the two sides are

as the cosines of the segments of the angle.

Equation (9), applied

Similarly,

cot.^.

THEOREM

14.

The same construction remaining,

to each other

to the triangle

ACD,

gives

R cos.ACD= cot.AC tea.CD

R cos.BCD=cot.EC tzn.CD

Dividing (s) by

(t),

(*)
(t)

gives

cos.ACDcot.AC
Or,

cot.

AC cot.C=
:

cos.

ACD

cos.BCD.

Q. E.

D.

The preceding theorems enable us to solve any

spherical triangle, right angled or oblique, when any three of the
six parts are given.
But oblique angled spherical triangles we have
REMARK.

thus far considered as composed of two right angled triangles ;

and it is sometimes a little troublesome to select the theorems or
equations which apply to the case in question.

To remedy

this

SPHERICAL

190

we

inconvenience,

and

cosines of

will at

once seek a relation between the cosines

an angle of any spherical

sines of

sides.

its

we

Therefore,

triangle,

and the

investigate

sines

the

and

following

propositions.

PROPOSITION
and show

Investigate,

a spherical

and

the sines

cosines

of

of an angle of

its sides.

be a spherical triangle, and

a perpendicular from the angle C

CD

AB,

to the side

produced.
cos.

PROBLEM.

ABC

Let

on

and

triangle,

15.

the relation between the cosine

AC

or

on

to the

cos.CB=cos.AD

side

Then, by proposition

When CD

falls

AB

10, th. 4,

cos.BD (1)

within the triangle,

BD=(AB AD)
When CD

without the triangle,

falls

BD=(AD AB)
Hence,

Now,
is

cos.BD=cos.(AD

cos.

AB)

AB), because each

sm.AD.
cos.AD-}-sm.AB
(Plane trig.

(AB AD)=cos.(AD

equal to cos.

AB

This value of cos.BD, put hi proportion

cos.-4(7

cos.

CB=cos.AD cos.AB
:

Dividing the
that

By

cos.AD

AC

cos.C!#=l

we have
tan.-4

cos.

cos.^^-f sin.^4^

tan.

by

tan.

A CD, taking the radius

(k)

(eq. 5, plane trig.)

A C,

(3)

(/)

observing equation

(Z),

and

tan..4(7cos.^=tan.-41>

Substituting this value of ta.n.AD, in proportion (3),

cos..4<7

AD

A= cot. A C tan. A D

C coi.A C= 1

Multiply equation (k)

we have

eq. 10.)

gives

(2) by cos. AD, observing

applying equation (6) to the triangle

But,

),

'-^==i?a\.AD, and we have

cos.

as unity,

them

cos.AD-\-sin.AB sin.^lD (2)

last couplet of proportion

of

cos.(7J3=l

cos.A-}-sm.AB

tan.-4

we have

C cos. A

(4)

TRIGONOMETRY.

191

Multiplying extremes and means, gives

cos.

C=cos.A C cos.-d.5+sin../4.Z?(cos..4 C ten. A C)cos.A

sin A. C

But,

Therefore,

Hence,

lan.AC=

cos.

cos.^4

--r>,, or, cos.^4(7tan.^(7=sin.-4(7

cos.,4 (7

C=cos.ACcos.AJS-{-sm.ASsm.A C cos. A

= cos.CB

cos.

sm.AB

AC cos. AB-

sin.

AC

By processes perfectly similar, like theorems

the angles
and (7.

(F)

may

final result.*

be deduced for

and

If the sides opposite the angles

represented

by

and

a, b,

A, B,
C, be respectively
the formula will be expressed thus :

c,

cos. a

cos. b cos.c'
:

sm.o sm.c
cos. a cos.c

cos.5

cos..C=

I-

sm.a sm.c

_
COS.

C'=

(S)

cos. a cos.6

cos.c
-

-j

sm.a sm.w

As this equation has been denominated" The fundamental formida

of Spherical Trigonometry" and as it is susceptible of a more geometrical demonstration, we give the following, which we believe will be
very acceptable to every lover of mathematical science.

ABC

be a spherical triangle, and

the center of the sphere.
From the .angle A, draw
tangent

Let

AD

to the arc

arc

AC.

AB, and

OD

AE

and OE,

tangent to the
drawn from the

center of the sphere to the extremities of

the tangents, are, of course, secants.

OD

is

the secant of

Because

AD

AB, and
is

the same reason

OA

is

the

OE

the secant of the arc

AC.

For
it is perpendicular to the radius OA.
perpendicular to the same radius OA. But
and AOC,
intersection of the two planes

a tangent,

AE

common

is

AOB

and hence, by definition

of the two planes
spherical angle A.

DAE

is the inclination
book 6, the angle
AOB and AOC, and is, therefore, equal to the
As is customary, let the side opposite to A be

designated by a, opposite

5,

by

b,

opposite

by

c.

SPHERICAL

192

These formulas are not adapted to the use of logarithms and

and cosines would lead to tedious operations;
;

the use of natural sines

we must,

therefore,

make some advantageous

equations will be useless

we

In equation (35), plane trigonometry,

_,
,
Therefore,

cos.a

cos.

mutations, or the

hence the following investigations

i-4=H

find

cos.o cos.c

sm.o

sin. c

cos.o cos.c)+cos.a

(sin.o sin.c

sin. 6 sin.c
.
But,
cos.(o-f-c)=cos.o cos.c sin.c sin.o
(9), plane
trigonometry.
By comparing this last equation with the second
member of equation (m), we perceive that equation (m) is readily

reduced to
O

Qg

cos.a

i y4

cos(o-l-c)
X
'
'

sin.6 sin.c

OD= sec.c, O-E= sec.b.

tan.c, AE= tan.
DE
and
measured
observe that the angle BOC
Designate
by x,
by the arc BCa.
we apply equaNow, to the two plane triangles ODE and ADE,
Then,

AD=.

6,

is

if

tion (i), proposition 8, plane trigonometry,

cos.a=

sec.

a-J-sec.

we

shall

x3

have

2 sec.c sec.6

cos.A=

x2

tan. 2 a-J-tan. 2 b
i

2 tan.c

tan. 6

Clearing these two equations of fractions, and subtracting the

2
from the former, and observing, that for any arc, sec. 2 tan. 2

=R

if

is

unity, as

it is

in this case,

2 sec.c sec.6 cos.a

we

latter
;

and

shall have,

2 tan.c

tan.Z>

cos.A=2

Dividing by 2, and substituting the values of the secants and tangents from equations (4) and (5), plane trigonometry,

Namely,

sec.=

tan.=

cos.a
cos.c cos.6

sin.c sin.6

',

cos.

cos.

cos.A

cos.c cos.6

..

we

shall then have,

TRIGONOMETRY.

193

Considering (o+c) as one arc, and then making application of

equation (18), plane trigonometry,

2sm

we

have,

a-\-b-\-c

--

sm.o sm.c
But,

resent

6-f-c
--

-2

we

A
The

2
right

we put

S to

rep-

a)-

sm.o sm.c

cos.

if

~--

~A= s'm.S--sm.(S
2

Or,

and

have

shall

COS

----a;
= 5-f-c-fa

=JNlsm.Ssm.(&
-7-^
sm.o sm.c

hand member

a)'

of this equation gives the value of the

Clearing of fractions, transposing, and changing signs, will give

sin.c sin.6
1

m
P
Therefore,
,

cos.<? cos.6

cos.o

cos.c cos.b

cos.A=

cos.A=cos.o

sin.c sin. 6

For the sake of the mathematical exercise,

I will

the three sides of a spherical triangle, as follows

a=70

4' 18",

6=59

require the angle

16' 23",

and c=63

suppose

we have

21' 27", from

which we

A, and we have no other formula except the above

equation, and logarithms are not yet invented.

From

the table of natural sines and cosines,

we

find

cos. a=0. 34090

By

cos.&=0.51191

sin.5=0.8791

cos.c=0.44840

sin.c=0.8938

the multiplication of decimals, retaining only five places,

cos.6 cos.c=0.22953,

From cos.a
.
Take cos.6 cos.c

and

we

find,

sin.6 6in.c=0. 76786

0.34890

0.22953

0.76786)0. 1 1 137(0. 14505=cos. A

By comparing
corresponds to 81

17

this

decimal with the table,

40'.

The

true value of

we
is

81

find it very nearly

38'

20"

IJR'sm.S sin.(S-a)

TRIGONOMETRY.

195

Dividing the preceding equation by 2, and making these substitutions,

we have,
sin.(S c)sm.(S
^i T-. s
sm.o sm.c

sm.lfA=

When

radius

is

IE?

Similarly,

sin.l5= J

And,

"
sm.C=\l

To apply
shall

when radms

is

unity.

sin.c

^sm.aa)sin.(S
sm.c

sin.(

sm.(Sa)sm.(St>)
x'
p
sin.a sm.o

to our tables,

show the

c)'

&

'-.

IK*

We

,.

-.

R, we have

.i

i)

IP must be put under

the radical sign.

and those in

application of these formulas,

equations (S), hereafter.

From

we have

(30), plane trigonometry,

sin.

sin.^A cos.^A

sin.M=4 sintyA

Squaring,

A=2

cos.

^4

(<)

Square the first equation in (T), and multiply it by the square

of the first equation in ( U), and four times their product is
.

sin.

\A

cos.

-kA=

/?* sin.

/S'

sin. (A^

first

member

A= 4 H* sin.jSsin.f/S'
.

<z)sin.(
v
,
2

.5=

IPsm.S

(<),

o)sin.f

(u)

c)
7
-

with the several equations in

sm.( Sa)sm.(
Si>)sm.(i
'
,
\
sin/ a sm.'c

c)-

we have

6)sin.($
^

sin/c

By operating in the same manner

(T) and (7), we have
2

o sin. c

with equation

sin. b

sin.

a)sin.(&
5-

sin.

Comparing the
sin.

'-

Sc)

'-

(v)

The numerators of the second members of (w) and (v), are the
same and if we divide (u) by (v), and extract the square root.
;

we

shall

Or,

have

sin. .5

demonstrated in proposition

sin.>4

sin.a

s'rn.H

sin.b

sin.^4=sin.6

sin.a,

a truth that was

9, spherical trigonometry.

SPHERICAL

196

We

have again demonstrated it in this manner, to show that

equation (f), from which all the preceding equations arose, is
really the fundamental equation of spherical trigonometry.

spherical triangle consists of six parts ; three sides, and three

angles ; and there are certain relations existing between them ; but
the combinations of these relations have their limits ; and when

we have gone through these relations, if we continue to combine

equations, we shall only fall on truths previously demonstrated,
and

this is exemplified

by our

last operations.

APPLICATION.
SOLUTION OF RIGHT ANGLED SPHERICAL
TRIANGLES.
1.

At a

certain time the sun's longitude

What
27' 32".

obliquity of the ecliptic 23

was 40
was the

29' 30",

and the

declination

Ans. 14

This example presents a right angled spherical triangle, ABC.

29' 30", and the angle
hypotenuse, A C=40
.A.=23

27' 32", and the side,

CB, is

58' 52".

The

required.

C=a.
our system of notation, A C=b,
This can be solved by equation (3) or (13),
which are essentially the same that is.
By

sin.a=sin.& sin.A

sin.fe=sin.40

sin.A=sin.23
Ans. sin.a=sin.l4

29' 30"

9.812470

32"

9.599985

58' 52"

27'

Rejecting 10 in the index, is the

the equation requires.
2.

At

same

9.412455

as dividing by the radius, as

a certain time, the difference between the longitude of the sun

10' 20", and the moon's latitude, at the same time,

and moon, was 76

was

9'

12" north.

What was

the centers of the sun and

moon

the true angular distance between

Ans. 76 13' 45".

This problem presents a right angled spherical triangle, whose base

AJ3=76 10' 20", and perpendicular B C=5 9' 12".

AC, is required. Equation (8) or (18) solves it.
c=76

10'

20"

cos.

9'

12"

cos.

fc=76

13'

45"

cos.

a=

9.378406
9.998241

9.376647

The hypotenuse,

TRIGONOMETRY.
3.

An

astronomer observed the sun

when

day

to pass his

197
meridian on a certain

his astronomical clock gave 2 h. 9 min. 33 sec. for the siderial

was such as to give the declination of 13 5' 6"

the sun's longitude, and what was the obliquity of
Ans. Lon. 34 39' 46". Obliq. eclip. 23 27' 26".

time, and the altitude

What was

north.

the ecliptic

This problem presents a right angled spherical triangle, giving its

base and perpendicular, and demanding the hypotenuse, and the angle
at the base.

m. 33 s.=c=32

h. 9

o=13
i=34
To

find

23 15

cos.

cos.

9.988575

39 46

cos.

9.915146

A, we apply equation

9.726571

(3) or (13), as they are

one and the

same.
.Rsin.o

sin.6

A=23
At a

(subtract)

27' 26"

19.354869

9.754918
9.599951

certain time the sun's longitude will be 150

33' 20",

and the

Required its right ascension and

Ans. R. A. 152 37' 28"; Dec. 11 17' 7" N.

obliquity of the ecliptic 23

declination.

OBSERVATION.

27' 29".

This problem presents a

right angled spherical triangle, whose base

and hypotenuse are each greater than 90 ;

and in cases of this kind, let the pupil observe, that the base is greater than the hypotenuse, and the oblique

In

angle.
lune.

It is

traversed.

all

180
It is

ACA;

ecliptic

angle opposite the base,

cases, a triangle

and

from one pole to

its

is

greater than a right

supplemental triangle, make a

opposite, whatever great circle be

its

along the equator ABA', and also 180 along the

and the lune always gives two triangles; and when
180

90, we take its supplemental

operate on the triangle A' CS.
is greater than A'B; therefore,
is greater than AC.
But
The angle A'CB is less than 90; therefore,
is greater than
90, because the two angles together make two right angles.
the sides of one of

them

triangle, as in this case

are greater than

we

AC

These

AB
ACS

by saying, that the

affection*', and if the two

sides and

facts are technically expressed,

opposite angles are of the

same

sides of a

right angled spherical triangle are of the same affection, the hypotenuse

* Same
affection

affection : that is, both greater, or both less than

the one greater, the other less than 90.

90.

Different

SPHERICAL

198

90; and

be less than

will

of different affection, the hypotenuse will be

90.

greater than

we make a natural construction of the figure

common judgment, it will be impossible to doubt whether an
arc must be taken greater or less than 90.
We now solve the triangle A'CB, A'C=29 26' 40".
in every instance,

If,

and use

To

find

BC.

b sin. 29

Eq. (3) or (13).

A
a

To

find

A'B, we use equation

26' 40"

9.691594

23

27'

29"

9.599984

sin. 11

IT

7"

9.291578

sin.

(1) or (11), thus

tan.

11

17'

7"

9.300016

cot.

23

27' 29"

10.362674

27

22' 32"

9.662590

c sin.

180

AJS=152

We

select the following

37'

28"

examples to exercise the pupils in right

Angled spherical trigonometry:

In the right angled spherical triangle
118 21' 4", and the angle
given

1.

AB

ABC,

40' 12", to find the other parts.

23

Am.

AC

116

17' 55", the

59 26", and J?C21

5'

angle

100

42".

AB

2. In the right angled spherical triangle ABC, given

20", and the angle A 91 25' 53", to find the other parts.
53 15' 8", and
91 4' 9", the angle
Ans.
91

AC

3.

53

BC

AB

In the right angled spherical triangle ABC, given

A 113 14' 37", to find the other parts.

14'

47' 11".

102

50'

25", and the angle

Ans.

AC

84

51' 36", the angle

101

46' 57",

and

BC

113

46' 27".
4.

16",

In the right angled shpherical triangle ABC, given

59 38' 27", to find the other parts.

and

Ans.

AB

48

24'

BC

A C 70

23' 42", the angle

66

20' 40",

and the angle

C 52

32' 55".
5.

9",

In the right angled spherical triangle

and

Ans.
31

BC
AC

52' 50".

16

147

ABC,

given

AB

151

23'

35' 14", to find the other parts.

16' 51", the

angle

117

37' 21",

and the angle

TRIGONOMETRY.

199

In the right angled spherical triangle ABC, given

86 12' 15", to find the other parts.

6.

AC
BC 76

AB

73

4'

31", and

Ans.

51' 20", the angle

77

24' 23",

C 73

and the angle

29' 40".

AB

In the right angled spherical triangle

C, given
47 26' 35", to find the other parts.

7.

12",

Ans.

56

AB
BC 134

AC

118

32'

and

56' 20", the angle

126

19' 2",

and the angle

AB

18'

58' 44".

In the right angled spherical triangle ABC, given

100 3' 7", to find the other parts.

8.

23", and

40

AC

Ans. The angle

A 98

38' 53", the angle

41

4' 6",

and

BC

103

13' 52".
9. In the right angled spherical triangle ABC, given
and the angle A 49 28' 12", to find the other parts.
Ans.
49 36' 6", the angle C 60 29' 19", and

AC 61

3'

BC 41

AB

22",

41' 32".

AB

10 In the right angled spherical triangle ABC, given

29
37 26' 21", to find the other parts 1
50", and the angle
Ans. Ambiguous ; the angle
65 27' 58" or its supplement,

12'

53

24' 13" or its supplement,

11. In the right

its

46

14' 20", to find

AC

100

9'

supplement, and the angle

55" or

AC

55' 2" or its supplement.

ABC, given
the other parts.

angled spherical triangle

and the angle C 90

Ans. Ambiguous

3",

or

BC

its

supplement,

AB

BC

100

19'

10*

53"

21' 8" or its supplement.

ABC,

12. In the right angled spherical triangle

given
61 2' 15", to find the other parts.
35", and the angle

AB

54

21'

BC

AC

129 28' 28" or its supplement,

111
Ans. Ambiguous;
47' 44" or its
34" or its supplement, and the angle A 123

44'

supplement.
angled spherical triangle ABC, given AB 12
and the angle C III 14' 37", to find the other parts.

13. In the right

26' 25",

AC

Ans. Ambiguous; the angle A 136 0' 3 or its supplement,

140 30' 56" or its supplement.
15' 38" or its supplement, and
'

BC

66'

The solution of right angled spherical triangles includes, also, the solution of quadrantal triangles, as may be seen by inspecting
the adjoining figure.

When

we

have

quadr anted triangle, we have four, which

Jill

one

up

the whole hemisphere.

To

effect the solution of either of the four

quadrantal triangles

APC, AFC,

A' PC, or

200

SPHERICAL

A'P' C,

it is

sufficient to solve the small right

angled spherical triangle

ABC.
To

APB, we

the half lune

add the triangle

ABC,

and

we have

the

quadrantal triangle AP' C; and' by subtracting the same from the equal
C.
half lune APB, we have the quadrantal triangle

PA

When we have

plement, A' C, which

When we

A C, of

triangle, we have its supa side of the triangle A' PC, and of A'P' C.
have the side, CB, of the small triangle, by adding it to 90,

tha

side,

same

the

is

we have P' C, a side of the triangle A'P" C; and subtracting

90, we have PC, side of the triangle APC, and A' PC.

it

from

a.

EXAMPLES.
In a quadrantal triangle, there are given the quadrantal side, 90, a side
31'.
21', and the angle opposite this last side, equal to 36
adjacent, 42
1.

Required

the other parts.

By this enumeration we cannot

APC,

is

triangles.

We
To

the one required, for

The

angle

decide whether the triangle

A C=42

APC=AP'C=36

find the angle

Then,

A,

31'=AB.

ABC.

operate wholly on the triangle

call it the middle part.

R cos.( CAB)R sin.PA C=cot.A C.t&n.AB

cot.AC= 42

21'

10.040231

tan.AJ3= 36

31

9.869473

COB.CAB=

40 51

35

9.909704

90

PAC=

54

19

P'AC=125
To

find the angle

C, call

the middle part.

R cos. A CB=sin. CAB

sm.CAB=
cos. A B=
cos.ACB=

40 51

it

cos.AB

35

40 51"

36

31

62

2 45

180

ACP=A'CP'=117

57 15

9.765869
.

APC or

21' belongs equally to both

9.905085

9.670954

TRIGONOMETRY.
To

find the side

BC,

201

call it the middle part.

s'm.BC=tan.AB cot.ACB.

i&n.AB=
cot.ACB=

36

31'

0"

9.869473

62

2'

45"

9.724835

sin. .8(7=

23

8'

11"

9.594308

90

PC=

66

51' 49"

P'C=113

11"

8'

We now have all the sides, and

all

the angles of the four triangles

in question.
2.

In a quadranlal

90, an

spherical

adjacent side,

115,

having given

triangle,

09',

and

the quadrantal side,

the included angle,

115

55', to find

the other parts.

This enunciation clearly points

particular triangle A'

out the

PC. A'F=9Q;

A'C=115 09'.
P'A'C=115 55'=P'Z).

Then

conceive

From

the angle P'A' C take 90

is the angle

We
ABC.
To

or

P'A'B,

OA'D=BA C

and the remainder

=25

and

the angle

55'.

here again operate on the triangle

.
.
A'C, taken from 180, gives
find

BC, we

call

it

645l'=AC

the middle part.

sin.-BC=sin.AC sin.BAC.

sin.AC= 64

Bm.BAC=

25

sin.BC= 23

51'

55'

9.956744
9.640544

18' 19"

8.597288

90

P'C=113
To

find

AB

we

call

it

18' 19"

the middle part.

sin.A.B=tan.JSC cot.BAC.

tan.BC=

23

18'

cot.AC=

25

55'

8in.AJS= 62

26'

8"

33'

52"=the angle A'P'C

19"
.

9.634251

9.313423

9.947674

180

A'J?=117

SPHERICAL

202

To

find

the

angle

C,

we

call

the middle, part.

it

cos.C=cot.AC t&n.BC

cot.AC= 64

51'

tan.jBC= 23

18' 19"

9.671634

9.634251

cos.C= 78

9.305885

180

19'

53"

P'CA'=101

40'

7"

Thus we have found the side P'C=113

The angle A'P'C=117

18'

19" )

52" V Ans.
40' 7"
33'

In a quadrantal triangle, given the quadrantal side, 90, a side

3', and the included angle, 49
18', to find the other
adjacent, 67
3.

parts.

Ans. The remaining side is 53 5' 46", the angle opposite the quad32' 27", and the remaining angle, 60 48' 54".

rantal side, 108

given the quadrantal side, 90, one angle

and
the
side opposite this last mentioned angle,
40'
118
36",
adjacent,
113 2' 28", to find the other parts.
4. In a quadrantal triangle,

Ans.
2' 35",

The remaining side is 54 38' 57", the angle opposite, 51

and the angle opposite the quadrantal side is 72 26' 21".

5. In a quadraatal triangle, given the quadrantal side, 90,

two adjacent angles, one 69

13' 46", the other

72

and the

12' 4", to find the

other parts.

Ans. One of the remaining sides

is

70

8'

39", the other

29", and the angle opposite the quadrantal side

6.

cent

is

96

is

73

17'

13' 23".

In a quadrantal triangle, given the quadrantal side, 90, one adja86 14' 40", and the angle opposite to that side, 37 12' 20",

side,

to find the other parts.

Ans. The remaining side is 4 43' 2", the angle opposite, 2

and the angle opposite the quadrantal side, 142 42' 2".

51' 23",

7. In a quadrantal triangle, given the quadrantal side, 90, and the

other two sides, one 118 32' 16", the other 67 48' 40", to find the

other parts

Ans.

The

the three angles.

angles are 64 32' 21", 121

3'

40", and 77

11' 6"; the

greater angle opposite the greater side, of course.

In a quadrantal triangle, given the quadrantal side, 90, the angle

opposite, 104 41' 17", and one adjacent side, 73 21' 6", to find the
8.

other parts.

Ans.
are 47

The remaining
32' 39",

and 67

side is

49

56' 13".

42' 18",

and the remaining angles

TRIGONOMETRY.

203

OBLIQUE ANGLED SPHERICAL

TRIGONOMETRY,
may be solved by
because every oblique angled

ALI, cases of oblique angled spherical trigonometry

right angled trigonometry, except

spherical triangle

is

two

composed of the sum or difference of two right

angled spherical triangles.

When a side and, two of the angles, or an angle and two of the sides
are given, to find the other parts, conform to the following directions :
Let a perpendicular be drawn from an extremity of a given side, and
opposite a given angle or its supplement ; this will form two right
angled spherical triangles ; and one of them will have its hypotenuse
and one of

its

be computed

adjacent angles given, from which all its other parts can
and some of these parts will become as known parts to

the other triangle, from which all its parts can be computed.
To facilitate these computations, we here give a summary of the
practical truths demonstrated in the foregoing propositions.

The

1.

sines of the sides of spherical triangles are proportional to the

sines of their opposite angles.

The

2.

sines of the segments of the base,

made by a perpendicular from

the

opposite angle, are proportional to the cotangents of their adjacent angles.

3. The cosines of the segments of the base are proportional
of the adjacent sides of the triangle.

The tangents of

4.

the tangents

the segments of the base are proportional

of the opposite segments of the vertical angles.

5. The cosines of the angles at the base, are proportional

of the corresponding segments of the vertical angles.
6.

to the cosines

The

The two
2d.

the

to the sines

cosines of the segments of the vertical angles are proportional

to the cotangents

1st.

to

of the adjoining sides of the triangle.

cases in which right angled triangles are not used, are,

are given to find the angles ; and,
the three sides
the three angles are given to find the sides.

When
When

The first of these cases is the most important of all, and for that
reason great attention has been given to it, and two series of equations,
(T) and (17), have been deduced to facilitate its solution.

We

now apply the following equation to

A EC, whose sides are a, b, c. a=70

triangle

c=59

16' 23".

is

opposite A, b

is

find the angle

4'

18".

6=63

opposite B. and c

is

A, of the
21' 27".

opposite C.

SPHERICAL

204

=\/
\

We write the

sin./S sin.(S
~j

a)

sin.c

R \~
sin.-S

The

second member of this equation thus

-77
J\T7~R
sin. & /
showing four

R
-sm.6

V sin.c /

sin.GS

a)

distinct logarithms.

R
logarithm corresponding to

is

the

sin.Z>

subtracted from

R
10

and

^ *c
sin

is

the

sin.c

subtracted

from

10,

which we

stn.complement.

BC=a=
AB=c=
AC=b=

70

4'

59

16'

23" sin.com.

0.065697

63

21'

27" sin.com.

0.048749

2)192

42

S=

18"

96

21

4" sin.

Sa=

26

16

46

4A=

40

49 10
2

sin.

call

TRIGONOMETRY.

205

By the other equation in formula (7'), we can find the angle C; but,
for the sake of variety, we will find the angle
by the application of
the third equation in formula ((/).

sin. *(?:=

IR 2 sin.(S
;

6)~ sin.(S

a)

r-

sin.o sin. a

c=

59

a=

70

4 18

sin.com.

.026817

6=

63

21 27

sin.com.

.048479

2)192

16'

42

23"

SPHERICAL

206

A=
B=

38

19'

C=121

We

now

18"

supplement

141

40' 42*

10

supplement

131

59 50

supplement

58

51 54

48
8

whose

find the angles to the spherical triangle,

sides are

these supplements.

Thus,

42"

141

40'

131

59 50

sin.com.*

.128909

58

51 54

sin.com.

.067551

2)332

32 26

166

13

sin.

9.375375

24

35 31

sin.

9.619253

66

47'

16

2)19.191088

37"

cos.

9.595543

2_
angle
supp.

=133

35 15

24

46

In the same manner

we

45=a of
6=60

the original triangle.

find

25"

14'

c=89

1'

14"

EXAMPLES FOR EXERCISE.

1.

14",

ABC, whose

In any triangle,

c=120

18' 33",

sides are a,

b, c,

and the included angle .A=27

given

6=1182'

22' 34", to find

the other parts.

a=23

Ans.
2.

57' 13", angle

A=81

Given

the sides a,

and

b,

38' 17",

a=70

4'

Ans.

A=94

Given two

9'

38", and

sides,

18", ft=63

a=93

Given the three sides

14' 50", to find the angles

4.

5=70

and

26' 44",

C=64

C=102

5'

54".

46' 32", to find

c.

Ans.
3.

5=91

21' 27",

=100

27' 34",

and c=59
4' 26",

16' 23".

and

c=96

A, B, and C.

=100

39' 4",

&=84

16',

c=81

32' 19", and

12',

C=96

58' 36".

and the angle

C=80

28', to find the other parts.

Ans. The result

acute or obtuse.

#=83
a=21
*

11'

If

The

of 480

ambiguous, for
the

angle

24", and

a=96

obtuse,

then

is

19'

is

If

we may

is

consider the angle

acute, then

A=97

as

13' 45",

13' 33".

A=21

16'

44",

J5=96

48'

36", and

29"

sine

'

10".

complement of 131

59' 50", is the

same

aa the sine

complement

TRIGONOMETRY.
5. (riven

B=52,
Ans.
6

one

side,

c=64

207

and the angles adjacent,

26',

.4=49, and

to find the other parts.

5=45

56' 46",

Given the three

A, B, and C.
7. Given the two

29' 49", and C=98 28' 5".

a=90, 6=90, c=90, to find the angles
Ans. A=90, 5=90, and C=90.

a=43

sides,

sides,

a==77

c=128

25' 11", and

and

13' 47",

the angle C, to find the other parts.

Ans.
8.

i=84

Given the three

and r=112

29' 24",

A=69

sides, a, b, c,

16' 32", to find the angles

Ans.

A=45

26' 12",

14',

a=68

5=41

and

34'

5=72

13",

6=59

28' 46'.
21' 18,

A, B, and C.
11'

6",

C=134

54'

27"

APPLICATION.
Spherical trigononometry becomes a science of incalculable
in its connection with geography, navigation, and
astronomy; for neither of these subjects can be understood without

importance

and to stimulate the student to a study of the science, we here

;
attempt to give him a glimpse at some of its points of application.
Let the lines in the an-

it

nexed figure represent circles in the heavens above

and around
Let

us.

be the zenith, or

the point just overhead, Hch

the horizon, PZIf the meri-

dian in the heavens,

P the

pole of the earth's equator ;

then Ph is the latitude of
the observer, and

PZ

is

the

Qcq is a portion
of the equator, and the dotted, curved
co.latitude.

line,

mS'S,

parallel to the

the parallel of the sun's declination at some

particular
time; and in this figure the sun's declination is supposed to be
north.
By the revolution of the earth on its axis, the sun is
equator,

is

:
apparently brought from the horizon, at S, to the meridian, at
and from thence it is carried down on the same curve, on the other

side of the meridian

other celestial body)

and

this

apparent motion of the sun (or any

makes angles

at the pole

direct proportion to their times of

description.

P, which are

in

SPHERICAL

208

The apparent straight line, Zc, is what is denominated, in astronomy, the prime vertical; that is, the east and west line through the
zenith, passing

through the

east

and west

points in the horizon.

When

the latitude of the place is north, and the declination is

also north, as is represented in this figure, the sun rises and sets

on the horizon to the north of the east and west points, and the
distance is measured by the arc cS, on the horizon.
This arc can be found by means of the right angled spherical
triangle cgS, right angled at q.

Sq is

the sun's declination, and the

angle Scq is equal to the co.latitude of the place ; for the angle cPh
is the latitude, and the
angle Scq is its complement.
The side cq, a portion of the equator, measures the angle cPq,
the time of the sun's rising or setting before or after six, apparent
Thus we perceive that this little triangle cSq, is a very

time.

important one.
When the sun
triangle

PZS

ZPS';

'

is
exactly east or west, it can be determined by the
is known,
the side
being the co.latitude; the angle

PZ

PS' is the sun's polar distance.

the hypotenuse and side of a right angled spherical
The
triangle given, from which the other parts can be computed.
ZPS'
is the time from noon, and the side ZS' is the sun's
angle
a right angle, and the side

is

Here, then,

is

zenith distance at that time.

FORMULA FOR
The most important problem

time from the altitude of the sun,

when

the latitude of the observer are given.

This problem will be unby the triangle

derstood

When

PZS.

the meridian,

parent noon.
the

meridian,

termine

the sun

is

we can

the interval

de-

from

noon by means of the

angle

know

PZS;
all

its

on

then apWhen not on

it is

sides

tri-

we can

for
;

and the

angle at P, changed into

time at the rate of 15 to

TIME.

in navigation is that of finding the

the sun's declination and

TRIGONOMETRY.

209

time from apparent noon, when any parTS, may have been observed. PS is known
by the sun's declination at about the time and PZ is known, if
the observer knows his latitude.

one hour,

will give the

ticular altitude, as

Having these three sides, we can always find the sought angle
by the equations already given in formulas (T), or
U); but these formulas require the use of the coJatilttde and the

at the pole,
(

and the practical navigator is very averse to taking the

trouble of finding the complements of arcs, when he is quite
certain that formulas can be made, which comprise but the arcs
co.altitude,

themselves.

The

practical

man,

ing,

we

provided

demands

also, very properly

No

practical results.

matter

how much

labor

arrive at practical brevity

accommodation of seamen, the following formula

has been deduced.

From

the

most concise

spent in theorizand for the especial

is

for finding time

the fundamental equation of spherical trigonometry, taken

from page 191 we have,

COS.PZ C08.PS

COS.ZS
cos.P=-

sm.PZ sin.PS

Now, in place of cos.ZS, we take sm.ST, which is, in fact, the

same thing, and in place of cos.PZ, we take sin.lat., which is also
the same.

In short,

let

observer, and

Then,

But,

A= the altitude of the sun, L= the

D= the sun's polar distance.
.

n s'm.A
cos.P=

latitude of the

sin.Z cos.D
=.

cos.// sm.x>

2sin. 2

Therefore, 2

sin.

P=l

cos.P
s'm.A

\P=

(See eq. 32, page 143.)

sin.Z cos.

cos.L sin.2)
(cos.Z sm.D-^-sin.L cos.D)
COB.L sin.Z)

_sin. (L-\-D)

sin.,4

cos.L sin.Z>

18

sin.-4

SPHERICAL

210

Considering (L-\-D) as a single

we

(16), plane trigonometry,

arc, and applying equation

have, after dividing by 2,

iL+D-\-A\

P=

sm. 2

fL+DA^

-.-)sm.(-_

co,(

cos..// sin.J)

L+DA = L+D+A

rsut,

and

if

we assume

L-\-D-\-A, we shall have,

A)^
4-P= cos.Ssm.(S
=A
cos..// sm.D

...,

sm. 2

S sin

Or,

sin.

This

is

radius
JR ;

/cos.
-A
%P=J^
cos.Z sm.2>

the final result,

is

greater

by

when

the radius

then the

JR,

sin.

is

^P,

unity,
will

and when the

be greater by

and, therefore, the value of this sine, corresponding to our

tables

is,

P=J
y \cos.LJ

sin.

This equation

is

-,

known

f
\

-p:
sm.D

cos.S

sm.(S-A)

as the sailor's formula for time,

and a

it is used
very concise and beautiful formula it is
by thousands
who have little knowledge of how it is obtained, or who know
;

little

of the

When
and

amount of science there

is

wrapt up

in

it.

the observer has logarithmic tables that contain secants

above equation can be modified.

cosecants, the

JR?

=andcosec._D=

sec.L=

Because,

cos.L

sin.Z>

(See equations, plane trigonometry, page 138.)

Therefore,

^P=, j*

Here, then,

we have/owr distinct logarithms

and divided by

2,

which

is

) (

cos.S^.(S-A)

to

be added together

extracting square root.

TRIGONOMETRY.
The

first

211

logarithm is the secant of the latitude, diminished by

the second is the cosecant of the polar distance,
;

the index 10

diminished by the index 10

the third

the cosine of the half

is

of altitude, latitude, and polar distance ; and the fourth is the

sine of an arc, found by diminishing this half sum by the altitude.

sum

Navigators retain this formula

Altitude

latitude

cosecant

cosine

in

memory by the

polar distance

half

sum

following words

remainder; secant

sine.

EXAMPLE.
20" north, when the sun's declination was
12 3' 10", north, the true altitude* of the sun's center was
observed to be 30 10' 40", rising. What was the apparent time ?
In latitude 39

6'

Alt.

30

10'

30"

Lat.

39

20

cos.com.

.110146

'P.D.

77

56 50

sin.com.

.009680

2)147

S=

73

13 40

36 50

cos.

43

26 20

sin.

30

22

sin.

60

44 10

9.450416
9.837299

2)19.407541

P=

9.703770

This angle, converted into time, at the rate of 1 5 to one hour,

or 4 minutes to 1, gives 4h. 2m. 56s. from apparent noon ; and
as the sun was rising, it was before noon, or
7h.

57m.

4s.

A.

were given and applied, we should

such time were compared to a clock

If to this the equation of time

have the mean time

or watch,

good

we

and

if

could determine

its

error.

good observer, with a

instrument, can, in this manner, determine the local time

within 4 or 5 seconds.
*

The instrument

used, the

for refraction, semidiameter,

not belong to a work of this

navigation.

manner of taking

the altitude,

its

correction

and other practical or circumstantial details, do

kind, but to a work on practical astronomy or

SPHERICAL

212

The

great importance of determining the exact time, at sea, is

which is but the difference of the local

to determine the longitude,

time between the observer's meridian and the assumed prime

meridian.

timepiece, of nice and delicate construction, called a chronoits rate of motion and
adjustment, will show the time at-

meter, by

Greenwich, or at any other known meridian to which it refers and

compared with an observation on the sun, will determine
;

this time,

amount of

the

difference in local times,

which

is,

in substance,

longitude.

The same
is

called

its

triangle,

azimuth

from the north, and

gives the bearing of the sun, which is

that is, the angle
is the azimuth

PZS,
;

its

PZS

supplement, ffZS,

is its

azimuth from the

the true bearing ; and if the bearing per compass

is the same, then the
compass has no variation ; if different, the
amount of difference gives the amount of the variation of the

This

south.

is

compass.

HOW TO MANAGE
We
tion

A LOCAL SOLAR ECLIPSE.

shall touch this subject only so far as to

and

utility

show

the applica-

of spherical trigonometry.

The angular semidiameter of the sun is about 1 5', and that of

same and, of course, when an eclipse of the
sun commences or ends, the apparent distance between the sun and
moon cannot be greater than about 32', or a little more than half
the moon, about the

a degree.

The

nautical almanac, or the astronomical tables, will give us

when the sun and moon fall into line on the same meridian

the time

of right ascension, and give us, also, their difference in declinations,

at the same time, together with all the other necessary elements,

such as semidiameters, horizontal parallax, hourly motions, &c.

Now let us take the time when the moon is in conjunction with
the sun in right ascension, and demand the apparent distance
between the centers of the sun and moon, as seen from any
particular locality.

By

the time as given in the nautical almanac,

we know

eun's distance from the local meridian, either east or west.

the

TRIGONOMETRY.
Look

Then,

Let

at the last figure.

sun's center,

the pole, and

in the triangle

represent the position of the

the zenith of the observer.

ZPS, we know

and from the apparent time, we know

The decimation

of both sun

the two sides,

ZP

and

their included angle,

and moon

is

almanac, corresponding to this time

tical

213

also given in the

;

and

PS;

ZPS.
nau-

their difference

From
gives the space which we represent by Sm, on pur figure.
the triangle
(two sides and angle included), compute Zm and
the angle ZmP.

PZm

The
tion

effect of parallax is to depress the

and

earth,

if

n may

whose zenith

The

arc

body

in a vertical direc-

true place, as seen from the center of the

represent its apparent place, as seen by the observer,
is

mn

is its

Z.
is

computed from the horizontal parallax, by the

following proportion,

Rad.

p
:

representing the lunar horizontal parallax.

cos.

3)

=p mn.
angle ZmP is computed

app.altitude

from
The angle Smn=ZmP, and the
the triangle PZm. Now, the triangle Smn is always very small ;
the sides are never more than a degree in length, and are generally
much less ; and it therefore may be regarded as a plane triangle,
with two sides,
given.

From

and n; and
ters of the

otherwise

if

Sm

and mn, and the angle Smn, between them,

we can compute the distance between S

these data

that distance

is

less

than the

sum

of the semidiame-

sun and moon, the sun must then be in an eclipse

it is

not.

But whether the distance between

and n

is

less, equal, or

greater than the semidiameters of the sun and moon, by it the

computer can assume an approximate time for the beginning or end

of the eclipse, as the case

may

be.

In case the computer wishes to compute the apparent distance

between sun and moon, corresponding to any other time than that
of conjunction in right ascension, he may assume any interval before
or after that period; and by the moon's motion from the sun during
that interval, he can put tie moon in its true
place, at m.
Now, by the help of the spherical triangle PZm, and the moon's

horizontal parallax, the distance

mn

can be computed as before

SPHERICAL

214
and by means of the

The

na and am.

little

distance

triangle

na

mna, we compute the distances

parallax in right ascension, and ma

Parallax increases the moon's
right
is

parallax in declination.
ascension when the moon is east of the meridian, and diminishes
it when west of the meridian.
is

the difference be-

Now,

PS

tween

and Pa,

is

the

apparent difference of declination of the

sun and moon;

and nc

is

of the

same bodies

the apparent difference of right ascension

ca

is

the real difference in right

ascension.
The distances

Sc and en,* expressed

seconds of

in

an as linear units,

form two sides of a right

angled plane triangle ; and
the distance Sn, the hypotenuse,

is

the apparent distance between

moon

the center of the sun and the center of the

and

just at

commencement

or end of an eclipse, that distance will be equal

to the semidiameter of the sun, added to the semidiameter of the

the

moon.

But it would be only accident if an operator should assume the

exact time of the beginning or end of an eclipse ; but the distance
Sn, computed, would indicate whether the eclipse had already com-

menced

would commence or end within some very

or ended, or

short interval of time.

Astronomers, however, are in the habit of taking two intervals

of time, about 10 or 15 minutes asunder, between which they know
the eclipse will commence, and compute the apparent distance, Sn,
for these

two periods

one of them will be

less,

and the other

and thus they find

greater than the sum of the two semidiameters
data to proportion to the commencement or end in question.
;

By

the same principles astronomers compute the beginning and

end of
*

occultations.

The number

of seconds in en

declination, because en

is

must be multiplied by the cosine

an arc of a small

circle.

of tho

TRIGONOMETRY.

215

MISCELLANEOUS ASTRONOMICAL EXAMPLES.

In latitude 40

1.

3h.

37m.

48' north, the sun bore south 79

16' west, at

Required his altitude and

59s. P. M., apparent time.

declination.

Ans. The altitude 36

2.

north, his altitudes, at

were 43

7'-f-,*

the interval, 45
3.

when

In north latitude,

two

and 67

In latitude 16

sun's declination

different times

10' -f-; and, the

Required the

2'.

and declination 15

46',

the

4' north,

32' north.

was 14

20'

on the same forenoon,

change of his azimuth, in

Ans. 34 20' north.

latitude.

when

the sun's declination

is

23

2'

Required the time in the afternoon, and the sun's altitude

and bearing when his azimuth neither increases nor decreases.
north.

Ans. Time
north 73
4.

16

The sun
4'

5.

3h. 9m. 26s. P. M., altitude 45

set south west

The

The

when

his

declination

Ans. 69

1'

was

north.

when on

30' south.

altitude of the

was 10

sun was 20

28' south.

41' at 2h.

Required

Ans. Azimuth south 37

latitude.
If,

and bearing

the equator, was 14 28'-}-,

the
latitude and time.
Required
Ans. Latitude 56 1', and time 7h. 46m. 12s. A. M.

altitude of the sun,

his declination

7.

south,

Required the latitude.

south.

bearing east 22

6.

1',

16' west.

on August 11, 1840, Spica

his

20m. P. M, when
azimuth and the

5' west, latitude

set 2h.

26m.

51

58' north.

14s. before

Arc-

turus, hight of the eye 15 feet, required the north latitude.

Ans. 38 46' north.
8.

If,

on November 14, 1829, Menkar

rise

48m.

3s.

before

Aldebaran, hight of the eye 17 feet, required the north latitude.

Ans. 39 33' north.
9.

23

In latitude 16
18' north, I

north 68

40' north,

when

the sun's declination was

observed him twice, in the same forenoon, bearing

30' east.

Required the times of observation, and hia

altitude at each time.

Ans. Times 6h. 15m. 40s. A. M., and lOh. 32m. 48s. A. M.,
59' 36", and 68 29' 42".

altitudes 9

* Plus means
rising

and, of course, forenoon.

SPHERICAL

210

LUNAR OBSERVATIONS.
The moon revolves through a
in

about 27 days and 8 hours

nate

its

great circle of the celestial sphere

and astronomers are able

to desig-

exact position in respect to the stars, corresponding to any

definite time.

But the observer

center of the earth.

is

supposed

The moon

be

to
is

at the

never seen

by an observer

in exactly its true plane, unless

the observer

in a line

is

between the center of

the earth and the center of the

unless the

moon is in the

in all other positions the

moon

that

is,

zenith of the observer;

moon

is

depressed by

parallax, and appears nearer to those stars which are below her,
and further from those that are above her, than would appear

from the center of the earth.

The true distance between the sun and moon, or between a star
and the moon, can be deduced from the apparent distance, by the
application of spherical trigonometry.

The apparent

two objects must be taken, and

altitudes of the

corrected for parallax and refraction.

Let

be the zenith of the observer,

sun or star, and S its true place also,
;

of the moon, and

its

let

the apparent place of the

m' be the apparent place

true place, as seen from the center of the

earth.

With the observed sides of the spherical triangle ZS'm', we

compute the angle at Z; then, in the triangle ZSm we have the two
sides ZS and Zm, and the included angle at Z, from which we
compute the side Sm, which is the true distance,

To the definite, true distance, there is a corresponding definite

Greenwich time, which the practical navigator can find with the
utmost facility. This time at theirs* meridian, compared with the
local time

deduced from the

altitude of the sun, will of course give

the longitude.

To deduce
a lunar, and

the true distance from the apparent, is called working

a subject of considerable perplexity to the young

is

navigator; but,

by means of

auxiliary tables,

and rules

for delicate

TRIGONOMETRY.

217

approximations, science and art have nearly overcome all difficuland a good operator can now work a lunar in about jive

ties,

minutes.

We

here only give a view of the

For complete

practical

scientific principles involved.

knowledge we must

consult

books

on

navigation.

APPENDIX TO TRIGONOMETRY.
For the

who may

benefit of those

desire to cultivate a taste for

mathematical science, we give the following exercises, which are

designed to strengthen the powers for geometrical investigations.

To demonstrate

equations (7), (8), (9),

and (10), geometrically, the pupil must be

fully
1

2.

made

impressed with the following principles:

An

angle in a semicircle

the sine

of

its

(See proposition

3.

a,

right angle.

Any

chord

is

is

opposite angle, the other

side will be the cosine

3.

is

If one side of a right angled triangle

of

3,

the

same angle.

page 147.)

double the sine of half the arc. (See observation

page 138.)
4. Observe theorem 21, book

3.

Now from A, any point on a circle, take AB, the double of any
arc designated by a, and
C, double of any arc designated by b.
Draw AD, the diameter, and consider its value equal 2, twice

BD

the radius of unity. Join

and DC.
Then, by reason of the quadrilateral in a circle,

But,

we

'

i"

Substituting these values in (1),

4 sin.(o-t-6)=2 sin.o 2
Dividing

by

have,

AD'BC=AB'DC+AC'BD
A5=2sin.a)
AC=Z sin.5
j^ s
BD=2 cos.a
DC=Z cos.5 f
BC=2 sin.(a+i), and AD=2

4,

we have

cos.

6+2

cos.a 2 sin.6

and

sin.(a+6)=sin.o

cos.fi-f-cos.a sin.5

(1)

APPENDIX TO

218

Now

CABZa, and AB=2b; then AC=Za 26

C5=2 sin.a, AC=Zsm.(ab), JBD=Zcos.b

the arc

let

And,

ABZ

&C=2 cos.(a

sin.5,

Substituting these values in equation (

4sin.a=2
Dividing by

To demonstrate equation

Then,

And, by reason of the

5)2 cosj

sin. (a

6)+sin.(a

6)cos.J

6)

quadrilateral,

AB*.DC=BC'AD+AC*BD
But,

6)+2

Let the

(8.)

BC=Z(a

we have

),

2 cos. (a

sin.6

sin.a=sin.J cos. (a

4,

6)

=2
AJB=2

sm.a

BD =2

cos.aj

j^ so
"

=2, and

BC=Z

(2)

ACZ

sin.J
sin.J)

Z>C7=2

cos.J)

'

sm.(a-b)

These values substituted above, and we have

2 sin.a 2 cos.6=4
Dividing

And

let

(a

5)+2

sin.5

2 cos.a

4, transposing, &c.,

sin. (a

Again,

And

by

sin.

6)=sin.a

the arc

the chord

cos.5

AC=Za,

sin.5 cos.a

the arc

(75=26; then the arc

AB=2 sin.(cr4-&)
BD=2 cos.(a+6)
AD=2,

and

ACZ

DC=Z cos.a

sin.a

BC=Zsm.b

in equation (2),
Substituting these values

we

have,

2 cos.a 2 sin.(a-H)=4 sin.6+2 sin.a 2 cos.(a+J)

Dividing by 4,
cos.a sin.(a+&)=sin.6-|- s ui-

cos.(a+6)

To demonstrate the truth of equation (10),

to be 2a, the arc
6gurc, conceiving the arc

AC

we

BD to

use the

be

26.

last

TRIGONOMETRY.
Then the

arc

will therefore

But,

On

BC will be measured by (180

be measured by 90

);

its

half

(a-\-b).

a-f-5)=2 cos.(a+5)= JB(7

2 sin.(90

2(a+5)

this hypothesis,

A (7=2 sin.a Also

DJ3=2 sin.5
A1
AB=2 cos.5 f
02=2 cos.o f
A>=2, and B (7=2 cos.(a+5)

The chord

'

Substituting these values in equation (2),

we hare

2 cos.5 2 cos.a=4 cos. (a+5)-}-2 sin.a 2 sin.5

Dividing and transposing,

sin.a sin.5

cos.(a-f-5)=cos.a cos.5

To demonstrate
the diameter

AD,

Draw

equation (10).

and on one

side of

take the arc

AJB=2a, and on the other

take the arc

DE=2.b.

BE.

From B, draw

center of the circle

the arc

of the arcs

Now,

AB, and

AB

and

it

side

D, AE, and

Join

BGF

through the
then the arc

DEF

EF
DE;

is

the difference

it is

in the quadrilateral

therefore

ABDE, we

measured by 2(o
have

6).

AD'BE=AB-DE+DB-AE
A3=2 sin.a) .,
DE=Zsm.b}
D=2 cos.a f S0> AE=2 cos.5 f
AD=2, and ^^=2 cos.(a b)
J

These values, substituted

4 cos.(a
cos.(a

5)=2

in the last equation, will

give

sin.a 2 sin.

5)=sin.a

5+2

cos.a 2 cos.5

sin.5-f-cos.a cos.5

PROBLEMS FOR EXERCISE.

1.

Show,

geometrically, that

3
rad.'(rad.+cos.^4)=2 cos

A
rad.*(rad

cos.^i)=2 sin*;

that

rad.sin.2^4=2

^
;

that

APPENDIX TO

220

Prove that ta.n.A-}-ta,n.JB=

2.

i, radius

cos.A'cos.Is

being unity.

Demonstrate, geometrically, that rad.'sec.2-4=tan..4 tan. 2.4

3.

+rad

2
.

Show

that in any plane triangle, the base is to the sum of the

other two sides, as the sine of half the vertical angle is to the cosine
4.

of half the difference of the angles at the base.

Show

5.

that the base of a plane triangle

is

to the difference of

the other two sides, as the cosine of half the vertical

angle
the sine of half the difference of the angles at the base.

The

6.

difference of

two

is

to

sides of a triangle, is to the difference

of the segments of a third side, made by a

perpendicular from the
as
the
sine
of
half
the
vertical
opposite angle,
angle is to the cosine

of half the difference of the

angles at the base

required the

proof.

NOTE.
When we give our attention to the relations existing between the
arc of a circle and its sine, cosine, and tangent, it becomes very desirable to find

some law which

with

rically connect the arc

will invariably and unconditionally numetrigonometrical lines ; and the object

its

has been accomplished, though not in as elementary a manner as

desirable for a

work

is

like this.

In the calculus the process is clear and simple ; but simple as it

be, the reader must first understand the calculus before it can

may

be even comprehensible to him.

We

give the following investigation, independent of the calculus,

taken from the French works of Legendre, with our own modifications and illustrations. By a little careful study, any one can thoroughly

comprehend

it,

who

is

familiar with algebraic equations, and under-

stands the binomial theorem.

LEMMA.
If
tities,

an algebraic equation in which the members consist of quanpart real and part imaginary, then the real quantities in the two

there be

members are

N. B.

equal,

and

the

imaginary quantities are

Imaginary quantities contain the

quantities are,

equal.

factor

1,

and such

emphatically, imaginary; they have no real existence.

TRIGONOMETRY.
we have an

Suppose
in the first

member

equation in which the

is

A;

represented by

member by B.

quantities in the second

sum

221
of the real quantities

and the sum of the

sum

Also, the

nary quantities in the first member, suppose represented by

and the sum of the like quantities in the second member by
that

is,

SJ
TJ

1,
1

suppose the following equation to exist.

Then,
If

like

of the imagi-

is

A=B,

SJ^1=TJ^1

and

not equal to E, one must be greater than the other

and as

they are supposed to be real and definite quantities, their difference

must be real and definite ; and, therefore, we can represent it by the
definite quantity

That
becomes

is,

D.

suppose

than

greater

by D;

Strike out

Then,

D=TJ1SJ-1=(TS)J1

from both members, and transpose

then the equation

SJ

That is, a real quantity equal to an imaginary one

and

this absurdity is in

therefore,

we must

consequence of supposing

admit that

a perfect absurdity;
not equal to B;

A=B.

It necessarily follows that

Let a represent any

arc, the radius unity; then,

cos. 2o-j-sin. 2

Conceive the

first

member

as

cos.a-f-A sin. a,

The

a= 1
composed of the two

and cos.o

product of these two factors,

cos.'a

product must equal the

2

cos. a

first

ft

member
sin.

is

sin. 2 a;

and, by hypothesis, this

of the equation

a=cos.

that

o-}-8in.

Dropping cos.'a from both members, there remains

A2

factors,

sin. a

sin. 2 a=sin.

is,

APPENDIX TO

222
Dividing by

sin. 2 a,

and changing signs,

h*=
coefficient, h, is

The
h

different

we

1,

have

which shows that the

imaginary.*

powers of h are

= +ljl, h'=

1,

A3

V~1, A

=+1, A =+V^1, A=
S

1,

the even powers of h are rational quanin short, units, with the signs plus and minus alternating.

Observe that

and so on.
tities

1,

or A=-{-A/

Thus,

A2

1,

all

A=

A=-t-l,

1,

A3

=+l,

and so on.

All the odd powers are imaginary, and the signs alternating.
If we multiply the two similar factors,
cos.a-\-h sin. a

And,

cos. a cos.6-j-( s i n

Product will be,

Now

Ti=J

let

(cos.

a CQS.&

Comparing

we

this

perceive that

and

1,

W=

2
cos.&-}-cos.a 8in.&)A-f-^ sin.a sin.6

1;

then this product

sin.a sin.5)-j-(sin.a cos.6-{-cos.aBin.Z>) >/

expression with equations (9) and (7), page 141,

the same as

it is

we

give to h

its

particular imaginary value,

It is very remarkable that the product

simply adding
If

is

(cos.a-}-A sin.a)(cos.&-f-A sin.a)=cos.(a-|-i)-J-A sin.

Hence,
In case

cos.b-\-h sin. b

the arcs,

we make a=b

which

is

these factors

of
a property analogous

in the preceding equation,

can be found by

to logarithms.

we have

(cos.a-|-^ sin.a)(cos.a-)-A sin.a)=cos.2a-f-A sin.2a

(1)

sin.Sa

(2)

(cos.a+A sin.a)(cos.3a-{-A sin.3c)=cos.4a-|-A sin.4a

(3)

(cos.a-[-A sin.o)(cos.2a-(-&

sin.2a)=cos.3a+A

and so on.

The

first

member

of equation (1),

is
5

(cos.a-)-A sin.a)

* This
investigation shows,

also, that the

sum

regarded as the product of two binomial factors.

of

any two squares may be

TRIGONOMETRY.
The

member

first

of equation (2),

is

3
(cos.a-j-A sin. a) ,

general,

if

and so on.

Therefore, in

taken to represent any entire number whatever,

is

we

shall have,

cos.na-\-h sin.na=:(cos.a-\-h sin. a)"

But,

(cos.a-j-A

sin.a)=cos.a(l-J-A tan. a)"

sin. a

Because,

Hence,

cos. a

=tan.a
I

cos.na-\-h sin.na=cos. 'a(l-J-A tan. a)'

Expanding the binomial

in the second
71

member, we have
n

A 2 ta.n-a-4-n

(1-f-A tan. a)"= !-{-& tan.a-f-Tir

22

(4)

Substituting the expanded binomial in equation (4),

cos.na-{-h

A tan. 2 a-j-~ir~
A

lj

tanX &c.

becomes

it

6in.a=

1
2

c,os.*a(l-{-nh tan.a4-

h3

2
3

rpA
O

tan.'a, &c.)

Calling to mind the principles explained in the preceding lemma,

and recollecting that all the terms containing the odd powers of h must
be imaginary, and all the other terms real, therefore, we may put
cos.na equal to
factor cos.a;

all

the real quantities in the series, multiplied by the

sin. na, must be put equal to

and the imaginary quantity k

the terms in the series containing the odd powers of A, and the
whole multiplied by the factor cos."a.
But as every term of this equation will contain 7t, we can divide by
all

and thus convert every odd power into an even power, and change
the equation from imaginary terms to real terms.
Thus, by equating the parts of the preceding equation, we have
h,

cos.na=

cos"a(l+

A 2 tan. 3a-|-n

n
sm.7ui=cos."a(n tan.a-j-n

n
- 4

h* tan. 5 a-f

Put x=na.

&

2 n

A 4 tan. 4 a-f- &c.)

2
&

h2

tan.'a-J-n

&

2 n

&c.)

Then n=-.

and so on, alternately.

equations become

Also observe that A 2

Making

1,

these substitutions, the

and A 4 =l,
preceding

APPENDIX TO

224
x*x

cos.x=cos."a(l

a tan 2 a

r~

~~V*T

2a)(x

<i)(x

In these equations the arc a

tan. 4 a

&c -)

x(x

J
a
2a) tan.~-

a)(x

-^

a3

1-2'S

may be taken

and when a represents a very small

of any value whatever,

tan.a

arc,

is

when a=0.
when a=0, cos.a=l, and any power
cos."a=l. Making these substitutions, the final

is

3a")

\jJ&

tan. 5 a

4a)

3a)(a^

2a)(x

a)(x

x^x

x(x

x tan.a
r

Bin-r=cos. 1 a

very near unity, and

exactly unity

of

Also,

x2

cos.x=l-

~+ ^^
x'

sm.x=

To

--

is

therefore,

results will be,

Xs
L2.3.4.5.Q

&c.

.2.3.4.5

apply these equations, and show their practical utility in the prifor the natural sines and cosines, we require the

mary computions

3.

natural sine and cosine of

When

unity, the arc of 180 is 3.14159265.

Therefore, the arc of 3 is .052359877.

radius

is

x2
Hence,

And,

-r-=

0.001370733

X4
.

-=

-f 0.000000313

.....

Therefore, from

Take

cos.x=

x=

1.000000313

0.001370733
0.998629580 the cos. of

3.

0.052359877

x3
-3-=
D

Xs

-=

120

sin.x=
In like manner
arc.

0.000023923
0.000000003

0.052335957 the

we may compute

But the greater the

sin.

of

3.

the sine and cosine of any other

arc, the slower the series will converge; and,

TRIGONOMETRY.
case of large arcs, a greater
a result of equal exactness

225

number of terms must be taken

in

the series, however,

is

to obtain

never used for

large arcs, but the combinations of other formulas are then used.
These formulas are more practical than any other hitherto given for
the same object ; but their theoretical investigation is supposed to

require

more power than a learner can

at first possess.

CONIC SECTIONS.

226

CONIC SECTIONS.
DEFINITIONS,
CONIC SECTIONS are the figures made by a plane, cutting a

1.

cone.

There are^ve

2.

cutting a cone,

different figures that

namely
and an hyperbola.

REMAKE.

The

triangle,

can be made by a plane

an ellipse, a parabola,

circle,

three last mentioned are

commonly regarded

as

embracing the whole of conic sections ; but with equal propriety

the triangle and the circle might be admitted into the same family.

On the other hand we may examine the properties of the ellipse,

the parabola, and the hyperbola, in like manner as we do a triangle
or a circle, without any reference to a cone, whatever.
It is important to study these curves

on account of their exten-

astronomy and other sciences.

3. If a
cut
a cone through its vertex, and terminate
plane
of
its base, the section will
any part
evidently be a triangle.
sive application to

4. If

will

a plane cut an upright cone parallel to

be a

its

in

base, the section

circle.

5. If a plane cut a cone obliquely through both sides of the

cone, the section will represent a curve, called an ellipse.
6. If a plane cut a cone parallel to one side of the cone, or

what

side of the
is the same
thing, if the cutting plane and the
cone make equal angles with the base, then the section will represent

a parabola.
7. If a
plane cut a cone, making a greater
with
the base than the side of the cone
angle

makes, then the section

8.

And

if all

is an
hyperbola.
the sides of a cone be continued

through the vertex forming an opposite equal

cone, and the plane be also continued to cut
the opposite cone, this latter section will be the
opposite hyperbola to the former

DEFINITIONS.

227

9. The vertices of any section are the points

where the cutting plane meets the opposite sides

of the cone, or the sides of the vertical trian-

gular section, as

and B.

the ellipse, and the opposite hyperbolas,

have each two vertices ; but the parabola only

Hence

one

unless

we

consider the other as

at

an

infinite distance.

10.

The

diameter of a conic section,

axis, or transverse

line or distance

AB

between the

Hence, the axis of a parabola

a part of

is

the

vertices.

is infinite

in length,

AB being only

it.

THE ELLIPSE,
When we know how to
of

it

and investigate

know how
to

its

its

it

to

properties.

to describe

and investigate
it

describe a circle,

and without conceiving

it,

we can

properties

we can

be a conic

give a definition

section,

So with the

we can go on
When we

ellipse.

give a definition of it, and go on

shall do so without conceiving

and we

be a conic section.

PROBLEM.
To

describe

an

Ellipse.

Take any two points, as

and F'.
Take a thread, longer than the distance between
and F', and fasten

one extremity at the point F, the other

at F'.
Then take a pencil and put it
in the loop,

round the

and move the pencil

fixed

points,

entirely

keeping the

thread at equal tension in every part.

The

pencil thus passing

round the points .Fand F', describes a curve, as is represented in

the adjoining figure, and it is called an ellipse
hence an ellipse
be
defined
as
on
the
may
following page
;

CONIC SECTIONS.

228

DEFINITIONS.
1

the

An

a plane curve, confined by two fixed points ; and

ellipse is
of the distances from any point in the curve to the fixed
is constantly the same.

sum

points,
2.

3.
4.

The two fixed points are called the foci.

The center is the point C, the middle point between

A diameter

is

nated both ways by the curve.

5. The extremities of a diameter are called

DD'

Thus,
6.

is

The major

AA'

Thus,

is

the

foci.

a straight line through the center, and termi-

a diameter, and
axis

is

its vertices.

and D' are

its vertices.

the diameter which passes through the/od.

the major axis.

The minor axis is the diameter at right angles to the major

Thus CE is the semi minor axis.
axis.
8. The distance between the center and either focus is called
the excentricity when the semi major axis is unity.
7.

That

is,

CF
is

-fj-;

L/A

the excentricity

is

the ratio between

CA

and CF; or

The

and, of course, always less than unity.

it

less the

excentricity, the nearer the ellipse approaches the circle.

A tangent is

a straight line which meets the curve in one

and,
being
produced, does not cut it.
only;
point,
10. An ordinate to a diameter is a straight line drawn from any
9.

point of the curve, parallel to a tangent, passing through one of the

vertices of that diameter.

N. B.

diameter and

its

ordinate are not at right angles,

unless the diameter be either the major or minor axis.

11.

The

points into

which a diameter

is

divided

by an

ordinate,

are called abscissas.

12.

The parameter

of a diameter

passes through one of the

13.

The parameter of the major

parameter, or lotus-rectum.

the double ordinate which

is

foci.

axis is called the principal

Thus, FQ

is

one half of the principal

parameter.

14.
subtangent is that part of the axis produced, which is
included between a tangent and the ordinate drawn from the point
of contact.

THE ELLIPSE.

PROPOSITION

229

THEOREM.

1.

The major axis is always equal to the sum of

from any point in the curve to the foci.
Suppose the pencil

at

the two lines

drawn

to revolve

along in the loop, holding the threads

F'D

and

when

FD

at equal tension

arrives at

A,

and

there will be

two lines of threads between

F and A

Hence, the entire length of the threads

will be
measured by
F+2FA.

when

Also,

by

arrives at A', the length of the threads is

measured

FF'+2F'A'.

Therefore,

....

Hence,

From

FF'+2FA=FF'+2F'A
FA=F'A'

the expression FF' -\-2FA, take away FA, and add F'A',
will not be changed, and we have

and the sum

Hence,

FF'+2FA=*A'F'+FF'+FA=A'A
.F'D+FD=A'A
Q. E.

PROPOSITION
The
equal

As
F'F,

half the

major

F'C=GF
therefore,

But,

Or,
Or,

THEOREM.

2.

distance from either focus to the extremity of the

to

Half

and

CD

at right angles to

is

F'D=FD.

the

FD= half

minor axis

is

A'A, or CA.

FGD we have
CJP=F& FC

In the right angled triangled

....

Q. E.

D.

a mean proportional between

the distance from either focus to the principal vertices.

But,

axis, is

.F'D+FD=A'A
2FD=A'A

....
....

Scholium.

minor

axis.

(see last figure),

D.

FD=AC

CONIC SECTIONS.
CD'=AC*FC>

230
Therefore,

=(AC+FC)(ACFC)
=AF'XAF
AF\CD=CD:FA'

Or,.

PROPOSITION
Every diameter

Let

and

THEOREM.

3.

in the center.

is bisected

be any point in the curve,

the

Join

center.

DC, and

From F' draw D' parallel

produce
to FD; and from J^draw FD' parallel
to F'D. The figure DFD'F is a parit.

'

allelogram
fore

its

by construction

and there-

opposite sides are equal.

Hence, the sum of the two sides F'D' and D'F is equal
and DF; therefore, by definition 1, the point D' is in the

But the two diagonals of a parallelogram bisect each other

fore, DC= CD' and the diameter DD' is bisected at the
,

C,

and

DD'

represents any diameter.

PROPOSITION
A tangent to the ellipse
drawn from

lines

Let

any

the point

F and F'

be the

point in the curve.

FD,

Therefore,

makes equal angles with

foci,

Join

ellipse.
;

therecenter,

Q. E.

D.

the two straight

to the foci.

and

F'D

F'D

THEOREM.

4.

of contact

<fec.

to

and

and produce FD to H, making

and join FH. Bisect

FH

DH=DF,
Now

TD

and produce it
by theorem 15, book

Join

in T.

to
1,

t.

the

angle FDT= the angle HDT, and

HDT= its opposite vertical angle, F'Dt.
Therefore,
It

now remains

to

FDT=F'Dt

be shown that Tt

the curve at the point

D.

is

a tangent, and only meets

THE ELLIPSE.
If possible, let

join Ft,

in

some other

point, as

t,

and

and F't.

iff,

By theorem
To each

meet the curve

it

231

book

15,

of these

Then,

add F't;

F't+tH=F't+Ft

But F't-{-tH

Ft=tH

1,

are, together, greater than

line is the shortest distance

the two lines from the

foci,

greater than F'D-\-FD;

FH, because a

between two points

that

is,

are, together, greater than

the point

therefore,

is

straight

F't-\-Ft,

FH,

or

without the

and t is any point in the line Tt, except D; therefore, Tt is

a tangent, touching the ellipse at D, and it makes equal angles
with the lines drawn from the point of contact to the foci.
ellipse,

Q. E.
Cor.

The tangents

D.

at the vertices of either axis are perpendicular

and as the ordinates are parallel to the tangents, it

;
follows that all ordinates to the major or minor axis must cut one

to that axis

axis at right angles,

Scholium.

Any

and be

parallel to the other axis.

point in the curve

may be

considered as a point

in a tangent to the curve at that point.

found by experiment that light, heat, and sound, when they

approach to, are reflected off, from any surface at equal angles; that
It is

is,

any and every

single

ray makes the angle of reflection equal to

the angle of incidence.

Therefore,

if

a light

is

placed at one focus of an

ellipse,

and the

sides a reflecting surface, the reflections will concentrate at the

other focus.

If the sides of a

placed at one focus,

it

room be

elliptical,

and a stove

is

will concentrate heat at the other.

Whispering galleries are made on this principle, and all theaters

and large assembly rooms should more or less approximate to this
The concentration of the rays of heat from one of these
figure.
points to the other,

is

the reason

why

they are called the foci, or

5.

THEOREM.

burning points.

PROPOSITION
Tangents
one another.

to the ellipse, at the vertices

of the diameter, are parallel

to

CONIC SECTIONS.

232

DD'

Let

F the

foci.

be the diameter, and F' and

Join F'D, F'D', FD, and

ffr.

Draw

the tangents, Tt and Ss, one

the
point D, the other through
through
the point D'.
These tangents will be
parallel.

By

F'D' FD

proposition 3,

F'D'F

equal to

is

But the sum of

its

all

a parallelogram, and the angle

is

opposite angle, F'DF.

the angles that can be made on one side of a

equal to two right angles.

Therefore, by leaving out the equal angles which form the
opposite angles of the parallelogram, we have
line, is

sD'F'+ SD'F'=tDF '+ TDF.

But, by proposition 4, sD'F'=SD'F; therefore, their sum is
double of either one of them, and the above equation may be
r

changed

to

Or,

But

2SD'F=2tDF

...

DF'

SD'F=tDF'

and D'Fxrz

in effect, alternate
angles,

parallel

therefore,

SD'jFand tDF'

showing that Tt and Ss are

are,

parallel.

Q. E.

D.

be drawn through the vertices of any two

conjugate diameters, they will form a parallelogram circumscribing
Cor. If tangents

the ellipse.

PROPOSITION
If, from

the vertex

of any diameter,

the foci, meeting the conjugate

conjugate, is equal to half the

Let

DD'

to

K; and

parallel to

major

EE'

EE'

straight lines are

axis.

parallel to

DF, and

from

produce

draw

FQ

or Tt.

Now, by reason of

THEOREM.
drawn through

diameter, the part intercepted by the

be the diameter, and Tt

the tangent.
Draw
Tt.
Join F'D and

DF

6.

the parallels,

THE ELLIPSE.
we have

the following equations

among

233

the angles.

TDF=DFG*>
by

But,

Therefore,

And,

DGF=DFG
DHK=DKH
isosceles; also,
triangle DGF

by

equality,
.

Hence, the

is

Whence,

is isosceles.

Because

tD O= TDF

proposition 4,

HO

Therefore,

Add

DHK

FG, and F'C=CF,

parallel to

is

the triangle

DG=DF, ua&DH

F'H=HG

DF=DG

But the sum of the lines in both members of this equation is

F'D-\-DF, which is equal to the major axis of the ellipse
that is, DH, or
therefore, either member is half the major axis
;

its

equal,

DK,

is

each equal to half the major

PROPOSITION

Q. E.

axis.

D.

THEOREM.

7.

Perpendiculars from the foci of an ellipse upon a tangent, meet tie

tangent in the circumference of a circle, whose diameter is the major
axis.

F'F be

Let

the

foci,

the center, and

through which passes the tangent

produce

F'D

to ff,

making DG=F'D.
major axis, A 'A.

DH=FD,

making
Then F'H and

t.

By proposition 4, the

angle

a point in the ellipse,

Join

F'D

and

and produce

FG

FH, meeting the tangent in T, and

Draw the dotted lines, CT and Ct.

Join
in

Tt.

FD, and

FD

to

G,

are each equal to the

join

F' G, meeting

FDT= the angle F'Dt;

it

and observ-

ing that opposite vertical angles are equal, therefore, the four angles
formed by lines crossing at D, are all equal.

The

triangles

DF'G

F'tlG,

and

FT-TH.

20

DHF are isosceles by construction, and

D are bisected by the line Tt, therefore,

and

as their vertical angles at

CONIC SECTIONS.
triangles F OF and

234

Comparing the

FC

we find
equals the half of
F'F, and F't the half of FG; therefore,
F'Ct,

Ct

is

the half of

hence,

FG.

But

Ct=%A'A=CA.

Comparing the

FCT, we

FF'H

triangles

the sides

find

FH and

T and

cut proportionally in
they are equiangular

CT

A'A=FG;
and

FF'

C; therefore,

and

similar,

and

F'H, and equal to half of it. That is, CT is

equal to CA; and CA, CT, and Ct, are all equal and hence a
circle described from the center, C, at the distance of CA, will
pass
is

parallel to

through the points

and

Therefore, perpendiculars, &c.

t.

Q. E.

PROPOSITION

D.

THEOREM.

8.

the perpendiculars
from the foci upon a tangent,
square of half the minor axis*

The product of
equal

to the

Produce

TO

meet

they will

and

GF'

(see figure to the last proposition),

in the circle, at

S;

FT and F't

for

is

and

are both per-

and
pendicular to the same line, Tt; they are, therefore, parallel ;
and CF'S, having a side, FC, of the one,
the two triangles

CFT

'

CF'

of the other, and their respective angles

equal
is in the circle, and SF'=FT.
therefore CS=CT, and
to

equal,

Now,
a

as

A' A and St are two

circle, therefore, (th.17, b.

lines that intersect

each other in

3)

SF'XF't=A'F'XF'A
FTXF't=A'F'XF'A
But,

by the scholium

to proposition 2,

it is

shown that

A'F'XF'A= the square of half the minor axis.

Hence,

FTXF't= the square of half the minor axis.

Therefore, the product,

Cor. The two
them we have
let fall

of

from

the point

<fec.

D.

Q. E.

FTD and F'tD, are similar, and from

TD Dt=FD DF'; that perpendiculars

triangles,
.

the foci

upon a tangent, are

of contact from the foci.

is,

to

each other as the distances

THE ELLIPSE.

PROPOSITION

235

PROBLEM.

9.

Given the major axis and the distance between the foci of any
to find the relation

between

an

abscissa of the major axis

and

ellipte )
its cor-

responding ordinate.

Let F' and

be the

the

foci,

and put CF', or CF=c, and

Then F'J)=A, and in the

center,

CAA.
triangle

tenuse

F'DC or FDC,

FD

and

then

DC

put

CD=B,

c,

known

FC

if

the hypo-

are both known,

known; therefore, we may

and consider A, B, and

is

quantities.

Take any point on the major

A.
angles to

axis, as

Measuring from the point A', A't

is

t,

and draw tP

the abscissa, and

at right

tP

is

the

corresponding ordinate.

The problem requires us to find the mathematical relation

between these two lines. We can find it by the aid of the two
right angled triangles

Put

Then

And

Put

Then,

F'tP and FtP.

A't=x, and

tP=y
F't=A't A'F'=x (A c)=x+c A
Ft At A'F=x (A+c)=x c A
I<"P=r !ndF'P=r'
f

F'P+FP=r'+r=2A

In the triangle F'Pt

Ay+y*=r"

(x+c
In the triangle

(1)

we have

FPt we

(2)

have

(xcA)*+y*=r*
By

4cx

Or,

(3)

subtracting (3) from (2), expanding and reducing, we obtain

...

4c(*

4cA=r' 3

r*

A)=(r'-\-r)(r'

(4)
r) (5)

CONIC SECTIONS.

236
But the
to

equal

first

factor in the second

member

of equation (5)

is

2A; hence we have

r

But,

(6)

r'+r=2A

>-r=2L(x-A)

(7)

adding (6) and (7), then dividing by 2, and then subtracting

from
(7), and dividing by 2, we have the two following
(6)

By

equations

r'**A+(*-A)

(8)

r=A-(-A)

(9)

should be observed that equations (8) and (9) are expressions

one of which is called rector in astronomy.

It

for lines,

By squaring equation (9), and comparing it with, equation (3),

2
equating the two values of r , we shall then have

Or,
Or,
Or,

3
2
2
c =jB , the square of the semi minor
Observing that
and substituting this value, the preceding equation becomes

Hence,

Or

....
....

We cannot reduce this

to a

more simple form

f=S-j^Ax
j3.

x7 )

y=?r j2A~x^x*
JL

axis,

(10)

(11)

equation to lower terms, or condense

and, therefore,

it

must

rest as

result; and, in the language of analytical geometry,

the equation of the ellipse.

it

it

the final
is

called

THE ELLIPSE.

237

not greater than ZA,

the
equation will give
assigned,
the corresponding value of the ordinate, y, and as y has the double
A' A, or
sign, it shows that y may be drawn both above and below

Any

definite value

may

be assigned to

and when any particular value

shows that the curve

is

x,

is

symmetrical on both sides of A' A.

Now let us

examine the result when particular values are given

At the point A' x=0; and this value of x put in the equa-

to x.
tion,

y=0;

gives

x=2A, and

obviously the proper result. Again, suppose

x put in the equation, gives

this value of

TJ

=::

That is, y=0, for that point, also.

we suppose x=3A, y will come out imaginary; showing that
there is no real value to y beyond the point A; and in this way
If

imaginary equations have real practical utility.

If we suppose x=A, then y will become CD=B.
If

we make A'F'=x,

then

x=A

equation, gives

c;

and

_^____^_^

7}

y=J(2A
A

x)(A

this value put in the

C)

the definition, the double ordinate from either focus,

By

and we perceive by

the parameter;

parameter
For,

is

is

called

equation that the semi

the third proportional to the major and minor axes

.

this

A B=B
:

y;

a proportion

that gives

the

preceding equation.
It is sometimes most convenient to take C, the center of the
ellipse, for the zero point, in place of the point A', one extremity
of the major axis.
If we make this change, it will cause no changes in the ordinate
y, but x, in the equation for the ellipse, must be diminished by A;

and

x,

a measure from that point, can never be greater than A,

can have the double sign plus or minus. At the point A', x
will be equal to minus A, and at the other extremity of the major
but

it

axis,

will

be equal to plus A.

To change

the equation

y*=.lAx

x1 )

into its equivalent

CONIC SECTIONS.

238

when

expression,

'

A=x'

put x
axis

and

If

if

is

the origin of x is changed from A' to (7, we must

Hence, x and x' designate the same point on the
less than A, then x' is negative.

A=x', then xA-\-x'

Hence,
Or,

We may
symbol

for

omit the accent of

x, for x,

or

x', is

only a different

any point on the major axis corresponding to the ordinate

The accent was only taken to avoid confusion while changing

the zero point ; therefore, the following equation is the equation for
the ellipse, the zero point being the center.

y.

In case

A=B,

the ellipse becomes a circle, and the equation

Or,

A y -{-A x =A*
t

becomes

z z

This last equation is obviously the equation of the circle, y being

the sine of any arc, x its cosine, and
the radius.
The change in the zero point from the vertex of the major axis

to the center,

changes equations (8) and (9) into

C2C

Or, without the accent,

r'=A-{

PROPOSITION
The squares of the
the rectangles

of

10.

and r=-4

CX

THEOREM.

ordinate of the major axis are to each other as

their corresponding abscissas.

THEELLIPSE.

239

Let y be any ordinate, and x its corresponding abscissa. Then, by the last pro-

we

position,

y be any

Let

have

shall

other ordinate, and x'

corresponding abscissa,

Dividing one of these equations

factors in the

the

new

its

and by the same proposition we must have

by

the other, omitting

common

numerator and denominator of the second member of

equation,

we have
y*

(ZA-x')x'

y'*

Hence,

y*

y'*=(2^

x)x

we cannot fail to perceive that

the
abscissas
corresponding to the ordinate y,
x),
(2-4
and (2-4 x') and x', are the two corresponding to y'. Therefore,
the squares of the ordinates, &c.
Q. E. D.

By

simply inspecting the figure,

and

x, are

PROPOSITION
If a

drawn common

corresponding to the circle

major axis of

tJie

on

circle be described

ordinate be

the

11.

THEOREM-

major axis of an

to both the circle

is to the

and the

ellipse,

and any

ellipse, the ordinate

part corresponding
minor axis.

to the ellipse

as

the ellipse is to its

On A' A (see figure to last proposition), as a diameter, describe

Draw any ordinate, as OH. The part DH is y, of the

circle.

last proposition.

The proportion in the last proposition is true, and y and y' may
be any two ordinates, whatever. And now suppose y' represents
the semi minor axis
then x' will equal A, and 2-4 x'=A.
;

Taking

this

hypothesis, the proportion referred to becomes

1
JP=(<iAx)x A
:

CONIC SECTIONS.
Changing the means, and observing that

(2Ax)x=GH*
We

GH*=&

have,

(th. 17, b. 3, scholium.)

A*

Taking extremes for means, and extracting the square root of

we have

every term,

GH:y=A:B

PROPOSITION
The area of an
the one described

On

the minor,

the major axis describe a

and draw

in the figure,

and conceive

to

it

Gff,

be a broad

the last proposition

circle, as

any

ordinate,

line,

covering

and the

portions of both the circle

By

:y

= GH'
is,

OH"

Gff', y';

same proportion of

y",

:'

<fec.,

7,

book

2,

to

A B=GH+GH',
A B= area circle

is,

But the area of the

Substituting this,

Or,

is

the

ordinates, each

B.

and

Now, by applying

&c.

circle

on the major

y-f-y',

<fec.

area ellipse
axis, is

*A*

(th. 1, b. 5.)

and the proportion becomes

A
Which

the

we have
:

That

all in

conceive the whole

to

of which are in the proportion of

theorem

are other ordinates,

B; and thus we can

and ellipse, made up of

areas of both circle

all

ellipse.

we have

A '.B=GH

That

THEOREM.

12.

a mean proportional between two circles

and the otJier on the major axis.

ellipse is

on

Q.E.D.

B=itA*

area ellipse

mean

area ellipse.

=*AB

proportional between (*-d

and (nJB2 ), the

THE ELLIPSE.

241

expressions for the areas of the two circles, one on the major
diameter, and the other on the minor diameter.
Q. E. D.

Hence the

Scholium.

rule in mensuration to find the area of

an

ellipse.

Multiply together the semi major and semi minor axes,

RULK.

and multiply that product by 3.1416.

PROPOSITION
If a cone
that

le cut ly

made by

the side

THEOREM.

13.

a plane, making an angle with the base

of the cone, the section is an ellipse.

less

than

a plane passing through the axis of a cone,

nmo,
another plane perpendicular to the former, cutting both sides of the
cone but not parallel with the base of the cone, then the figure

VGH, be

Let

A nmA'o,
to

be an

ellipse,

AA'

being

its

major

axis.

t, and in the plane AnA' draw tn, at right angles

as the plane AnA' is perpendicular to the plane
t
at right angles to all lines that can be

Take any
AA'. and

tn is

drawn
t ;

will

in the

point,

VQH

plane VG-H, from the point

therefore, tn

is

at right angles to

BD.

Through the point t, conceive BD

drawn parallel to the base of the cone,
and it will be a diameter to a circular
section of the cone passing through the

point n.
In the
point in

same manner take any other

as /, and draw Im at
right
A' A, <kc and Gmff will be

AA'

angles to

a circular section passing through the

point m.

Now by

the similar triangles

At
A't

By

AtD, AlH, A'lG, A'

tB,

we have

Al=Dt HI
:

A'l=J3t Gl
:

multiplying these proportions together (th. 11, b. 2), term,

by term, we have

Af A't
21

Al*A'l=Dt*Bt

&

Gl

CONIC SECTIONS.

242

But by
3 reason of the

(th. 17, b. 2).

"
Hence,

BfDt=tn2

BnD,

circle

circle

AfA't Al*A'l=tn-

GmH, Hl'Gl=lm*S
:

lm-

This last proportion shows the same property as demonstrated in

Proposition 10 ; therefore, this section of the cone is an ellipse.
Q. E.

Hence the propriety of

Scholium.

calling

an

conic
ellipse a

section.

PROPOSITION

PROBLEM.

14.

Given (he major axis, the distance between the center and either focus

of an

ellipse,

drawn from
for

and

made

the angle

either focus to

between the major axis

any point in

the ellipse to find

and a

radii

an expression

that radii.

be a focus, and FP any

and put the angle PJFD=v.

Let

From

radii,

proposition 9, equation (m)

we

find that

an equation in which
represents the semi major axis, c the distance FC, and x the distance CD.

Now by

trigonometry

we have
1

Whence,

cos.t'=r : c-\-x

x=r

cos.v

Substituting this value of x in the equation

for

the

have

Hence,

Or,

(A
.

cr cos.v

Ar=A*-}-cr cos.v

cos.v)r=.4

c cos.v

radii,

we

THE ELLIPSE.
This equation shows the value of r in
course

it is

243

known

quantities,

and of

the expression required.

Scholium.

The excentricity of an ellipse is the

when the semi major axis

distance from the

center to either focus,

Designate the excentricity by

then

e,

e=A

taken as unity.

is

c=eA

Hence,

Substituting this value of c in the preceding equation,

r=

A'e'A*

_A(le

we have

cos.v

e cos.w

FP

This equation gives an expression for

t when the angle
than 90
when greater than 90, the expression is

is less

PFD

A(l-e')
cos.v

\-\-e

PROPOSITION
Given the

focus of an

of three

PROBLEM.

different radii,

drawn from,

major axis, or

its

the ellipse, the excentricity,

angle from

and

r, r',

radii,

The angle between

the radii r and the

major axis is supposed

and we therefore, call it

From

to

be unknown,

x.

the last proposition,

we have

the position

one of the given radii.

and r", represent the three

the
angle between r and r'
given
equal m, and between r and r" equal n.
Let

the

ellipse, together with the angles between them, to find the

major axis of

relative

the

relative values

15.

0)

ccos.a:

cos(x-{-m')

of

CONIC SECTIONS.

244

e )

Equating A(\
r

obtained from (1) and (2), and

cos,x=r'

re

r'e

cos.(a;-f-m)
Y

if

Or,

In

r cos.#

like

cos.z=r"

re

4)

cos.(x+m)

manner from (1) and

we have

(3),

r"e cos.(x~\-n)

r"

(5)

r cos.#

r"cos.(x-\-n)

Equating (4) and (5), we have

r

r GOS.X

r"

r'

r cos.

r'cos.(a;+m)
'

r"cos.(x-\-n)

r cos.x

r'cos.(x-{-m)

r"

r cos.a:

r"cos.(a;-|-)

_ rcos.x

cos.w+r'sin.ar sin.m

r'cos.

r"cos.z cos.n+r"sin.a; sin.n

r cos.a;
r

r'cos.wi+r' sin.m

r"cos.-}-r"sin.7i tan.a

tan..r

For the sake of perspicuity and brevity, put r r'=d,

r
And
r"=d'. The known quantity r r'cos.m=a.

And

r"cos.n=b.

Then

the preceding equation becomes,

d
d'

4-j-r"sin.

db-\-dr"sm.n tan.x=ad'-{-d'r'sm.m tan.ar

'

(c?r"sin.n

tan ^r=

The value

of x found

position of the

db

d'r's'm.m')ia.n.x=ad

major

by

this

ad'db
77-7

last

sn.m
equation, determines

the

axis.

equation (4) or (5), will give the excentricity e.

Equations (1), (2), and (3), contain A, the semi major axis as a
common factor, it does not therefore affect the relative values of r, r',

Having

x,

and r", and as

disappears in the subsequent part of the investi-

THE ELLIPSE.

245

it shows that the

angle x and the eccentricity e, are entirely
independent of the magnitude of the ellipse they only determine

gation,

its

To apply

figure.

we propose

the preceding formulas,

the

following

EXAMPLE.
On

the first

longitude

to be

day of August 1846, an astronomer observed the sun's

128 47' 31", and by comparing this observation with

observations made on the previous and subsequent days, he found its

motion in longitude was then at the rate of 5T 24" 9 per day. By
like observations, made on the first of September, he determined the

sun's longitude to be 158

that time 58'

6" 6

and

observed longitude was 196

From

a third

mean

its

on

time,

daily motion for

the \Qth

of October, the

and mean daily motion 59' 22" 9.

longitude of the solar apogee, and

48' 4",

these data is required the

the excentricity

and

37' 46",

at

of the apparent solar

orbit.

demonstrated in astronomy, that the relative distances to the

sun, when the earth is in different parts of its orbit, must be to
It is

each other inversely as the square root of the sun's apparent anguJ
2
and (r")*,
lar motion at the several points
therefore, (r) , (r')
;

must be

57'

Or

in proportion to

24"

9'

6"

58'

and

;,

59'

6'

22"

9'

as the numbers,
1

_1_

.
.

'

3444.9'

3562.9*

3486.6'

Multiply by 3562.9 and the proportion will not be changed, and

we may put

r=
By

3562.9

34445

the aid of logarithms,

'

we soon

r'

$
'

"d * ~

= 1.0 10857 and

rr"=d '=0.016982

r'=d=0.006 125,

m=

3562.9

34863

'

find

r= 1.016982
Hence, r

158

37'

46"

196

48'

128

47

31

128

47

29

50

15

n=

68

4"
31

33

r"=l.

CONIC SECTIONS.

246

To correspond with the

and cosine of

m and

we must

formulas,

take the natural sine

w=29

50' 15" sin. .497542

n=68

33

sin.

.927238

cosine .867440

cosine .374472

r'cos.m=a=0.140172

r"cos.n=6=0.642510

a^'=(0.140172)(0.016982)=0.0023796
i<?=(0.64251)(0.006125)=0.0039358
c?Vsin.wi=0.0085405
rfr"sin.n=0.0056793

dbad'

bd

ad'
rfr"sin.n

d'r'sin.m

rf'r'sin.m

dr"si.u.n

_.0015562_ 155.62
~~.00286l2~~286.12
This numerical result corresponds to radius unity to compare it
with our tables and take out the arc, we must take out the loga;

rithm of the numerator, increase

its

index

by

10,

and subtract the

logarithm of the denominator,

Thus,

155.62 log.

12.192080

286.12 log.

2.456548

tan.

9.735532

x=

From,
Take,

a?

30

23'

40"

....
....

Longitude of the apogee,

The

true longitude at that time

The

result of

any one

128

28

47'
32'

31"
24"

100 14 57

was 99

40*.

but first approxidid not adduce this example to teach

astronomy, but to teach the properties of the ellipse.
To find the excentricity, we apply equation (5), observing that

mations, of course

r"cos.(a:4-n)

but

set of observations, are

we

must be subtracted, but when

(x-\-n)

is

greater than

THEELLIPSE.
90

(as

it is

in this case)

347

becomes negative, and substracting a

it

negative quantity gives an increase,

e

Thus,

value of x

is

little

r"

r cos>a._r

*=0.01696

This gives

Our

//

cos.^-f
its

.016982

_.016982

;887-f. 1U~~ ~T6of

true value

is,

too small which

is

0.01678.
the principal cause

of the difference.

THE PARABOLA,
DEFINITIONS.
1.

A parabola

2.

The given

a plane curve, every point of which

distant from a fixed point and a given straight line.
is

point

is

called the focus,

and the given

is

equally

line is called

the directrix.

To

describe

a parabola.

CD

be the given line, and Fa. given

a square, as DUO, and to
Take
point.
one side of it, GB, attach a thread, and
Let

let

the thread be of the same length as tfa

GB of the square. Fasten one end of

side

the thread at the point G, the other end at F.

Put the other side of the square against the given line, CD, and
with a pencil, P, in the thread, bring the thread up to the side

of the square.
Slide one side of the square along the line CD,
and at the same time keep the thread close against the other side,
As the side of
permitting the thread to slide round the pencil P.
the square, BD, is moved along the line CD, the pencil will describe
the curve represented as passing through the points
and P.

By

subtraction

(JP+PF=

the thread

GP+P=

the thread

PFP=Q

or

This result
is, it is

PF=PB

is true at
any and every position of the point P; that
true for every point on the curve corresponding to definition 1.

Hence,

FV=VH

CONIC SECTIONS.

248

If the square be turned over and moved in the opposite direction,

the other part of the parabola, the other side of the line FH, may
be described.

A diameter to

a parabola is a straight line drawn through any

the
curve
of
Thus, the line
perpendicular to the directrix.
point
3.

HF

is

a diameter; also,

The

4.

EG-

is

a diameter; and

all

diameters are

one another.

parallel to

point in which the diameter cuts the curve,

is

called the

vertex of that diameter.

The diameter which passes through the focus,

principal diameter, and sometimes it is called the
5.

is

called the

axis of

the

parabola.

tangent

point,

and

if

Thus,

AG

is

An

7.

a line touching the curve at a

produced, does not cut the curve.

is

a tangent, at the point B.

ordinale to a diameter

drawn from any point

in the

is

a straight line

curve to meet the

diameter, and

is
parallel to a tangent passing
the
vertex
of that diameter.
Thus,
through
is a diameter, and
an ordinate from the point

ED

ED

E.

is

parallel to the tangent

AB, drawn through the vertex

be proved in proposition 15, that

called a double ordinate.

It will

EG
8.

is

An

abscissa

an ordinate.

is

ED=DO;

B.

and hence,

the part of a diameter between the vertex and

Thus,

BD

is

an abscissa, and

DE

is its

correspond-

ing ordinate.
9.

The parameter

of any diameter

is

the double ordinate which

Thus, Iff, which is parallel to AB, and

passes through the focus.
passes through the focus F, is the parameter of the particular
diameter

BD.

The parameter

to the principal diameter

or
lotus-rectum.
cipal parameter,
10.

is

called the prin-

In a general sense, the parameter, or latus-redum, means the conIn a parabola

stant quantity that enters into the equation of a curve.

it

is

a third proportional to any abscissa, and the square of

ordinate.

its

THE PARABOLA.
11

A normal

lar to a tangent

is

249

a line drawn perpendicu-

from

its

point of contact, and

terminated by the axis.

12.
subnormal is the part of the axis
intercepted between the normal and the coris

responding ordinate.

PC

Thus,

is

and

DC

a normal, and

or line under the normal.

is

the corresponding subnormal,

HD is a line under the tangent,

Similarly,

called a subtangent.

is

PROPOSITION
The latus-rectum

is

four times

THEOREM.

1.

the distance

the

from

focus

to the

vertex.

PVH

the focus, and

Let
be a parabola,
the principal vertex.
Pff, at right angles to DF,
through the point F, is the latus-rectum.

We are

to prove that

Because Pff

DF,

parallel to

is

Pff=4FV.

parallel to

CG, and CP, GH,

CF

the two figures,

and FG, are

parallelograms.
Therefore,

Or,

But by the

CP=DF, and GH=DF

CP+Gff=2DF
(1)

definition of the curve,

DF=2VF, CP=PF,

and

GH=HF

Substitute these values in equation (1), and

PF+FH=PH=*FV.
Cor.

PFD

As
is

CP=PF,

and the angles

Any point
from

Q. E.

D.

F, D, and C, right angles,

a square.

PROPOSITION
directrix;

at

we have

within a parabola

is

2.

THEOREM.

nearer to the focus than to the

and any point without a parabola

the focus than from the directrix.

is at

a greater distance

CONIC SECTIONS.

Let

and

\vithin the curve,

be any point

AB perpendicular to the directrix.

within the curve, AB must necesAs A
curve in some point.
Let P be
sarily cut the

from

draw

it

is

PF and AF.

that point, and join

By

the definition of the curve,

To each
But

of these add

AP-\-PF

are,

because a straight

between two points

line is the shortest distance

AB

therefore,

is

AF.

greater than

A' be a point without the curve

let

Again,

PB=PF.

PA, and AB=AP+PF.

together, greater than AF,

it

is

nearer to the

directrix than to the focus.

Draw A'F; and

A'

as

is

without the curve, this line

necessarily meet the curve in some point, as P.

A'B' perpendicular to the directrix, and join A'B.

Draw

PB

must
and

A'P-}-PB=A'F
But,

A'P+ PB >A'B;

that

A'F>A'B

is,

But A'B, being the hypotenuse of the right angled triangle

A'B'B, it is greater than A'B'. But A'F' is greater than A'B;
much more then is A'F greater than A'B'; therefore, any

D.

Q. E.

point, &c.

PROPOSITION
The

which

line

angle which

bisects the

drawn from any point in

the curve, one

dicular to the directrix,

a tangent

Let

Draw

is

THEOREM.

3.

is

to the

to the

formed by

the two lines

focus, the other

perpen-

curve at that point.

be any point in the curve.

the focus, and
per-

PF to

PB

to the directrix.

pendicular

Let

PT

be so drawn as to bisect the angle

BPF. Then PTwiM touch the parabola at the point P, and be tangent to
the curve.

Join

PBI=

BF, and
the

hypothesis

PBF

angle

is

PFL

an isosceles triangle

hence, the two

therefore, the angle

BP1= the angle FPI, by

and PIF, being equiBPI
triangles

The angle

THE PARABOLA.
PI common,

angular, and having

PI

is

It

line

now remains

APT,

is

to

are in all respects equal, and

BI=FI.

BF, and

perpendicular to

251

be shown that any other point than P,

in the

without the curve.

Take any other point in the line TP, as A, and draw the dotted
and AB. They are equal. (Th. 15, b. 1, scholium.)
lines A
But AB being the hypotenuse of the right angled triangle AB'B

AF

is greater than AB' ; consegreater than AB' ; that is,

is without the curve, as
proved by the last proposition.
quently
In the same manner it may be proved that any other point in
it

is

the line

AT

is

AT

without the curve, except the point P.

therefore, a tangent to the curve at the point

P.

Q. E.

is,

D.

line of light, parallel to the axis, striking the point of

Cor. 1.
the parabola at
will be reflected to F; because the angle of
t
incidence is equal to the angle of reflection ; and the same will be
true at every point of the curve
hence, if a reflecting mirror have

a parabolis surface, all the rays of light that meet it parallel with
the axis, will be reflected to the focus and for this reason many
;

attempts have been made

to

form perfect parabolic mirrors

for

reflecting telescopes.

be placed at the focus of such a mirror, it will reflect

rays in one direction ; hence, in certain situations, parabolic
mirrors have been made for lighthouses, for the purpose of throwIf a light

all its

ing

all

the light seaward.

Cor. 2.

The angle

moves toward

F,

and the tangent

BPF

and

at

at
is

continually increases, as the pencil

it

becomes equal

perpendicular to

two right angles ;

the axis, which is called
to

the vertical tangent.

Cor. 3. Since an ordinate to

any diameter

tangent at the vertex, an ordinate to the axis

the axis.

PROPOSITION
If a tangent

be

duced, the extremities

Let

PT

4.

drawn from any point

of

is
is

parallel to

THEOREM.
in the curve to the axis pro-

the tangent are equally distant from

(see figure to the last proposition)

ing the curve at P, and the axis at T.

PF=FT

the

perpendicular to

t/ie

focus.

be a tangent, meet-

Then we

are to prove that

CO N

252

PB

is

FT;

to

parallel

PTF.

Hence, the angle

TFP

is

PTF=

isosceles,

ECT

(Prop. 3.)
the angle

The subtangent

DT

axis.

the point

parallel to

is

to

the

PB parallel

to

As

bisected at V.

CD, P BCD is

to the

PD

is

a parallelogram.

PB=CD

But,

And,

PB=PF,
PF=FT.

Therefore,

CD=FT

That

By

draw PD, an ordinate

is

it

But,

consequently, the
Q. E. D.

axis is bisected by the vertex.

(see last figure)

Therefore,

is,

the angle

THEOREM.

5.

a subtangent, and

BC, and

BPT=

TPF;

PF=TF.

and

PROPOSITION
From

N S.

the angle

therefore,

BPT=TPF.

But

triangle

by the

definition of the curve.

(Prop. 5.)

DV-\-VC=TV+VF

VC=VF

DV=TV

subtraction,

Q. E.

D.

draw a tangent to any point P, draw the ordinate

and
take
VT=
VD, and join TP; it will be a tangent at P.
PD,
Cor. Hence, to

PROPOSITION

6.

If from any point in a parabola, a

,

THEOREM.

to.ngent

and a normal

both terminated in the axis, these two lines will be chords

of which the focus

is the center,

and

be

of a

the distance to the point

drawn,
circle,

P,

the

radius.

Let

TVC

be the

the

axis.

point,

F the focus, and

PD perpen-

Draw

dicular to the axis, and take

TV= VD

and join TP, which

the tangent from P.
From P draw

(cor. to last prop.)

is

PC,
is

at right angles to TP; then

the normal.
(Def. 11.)

Draw PF.

proposition 4,

PFFT.

Now,

if

FP be made

and a semicircle described, the points T, P, and

the circumference, and TO will be the diameter.

radius,
in

By

PC,

C, will be

THE PARABOLA.
TPC

is a
right angle, and
are chords to this circle ; therefore,

Hence

PC,

FP=FC,

and

TP

from any point

if

Q. E.

PROPOSITION
The subnormal
Take the

equal

to

half the latus rectum.

By

FP=D F-f VF=

Or,

2VF=FPFD
CD=FCFD

the definition of the

(1)

(2)

subtracting (2) from (1), and observing that

But

FP=zFC, we

2VF CD=Q
CD=1VF

have,

Or,

D.

THEOREM.

7.

figure to the last proposition.

curve.

By

is

and

<fcc.

CD

is

therefore, the

the subnormal,

subnormal

and 2

VF

is

half the latus rectum ;

Q. E.

<fec.

PROPOSITION

D.

THEOREM.

8.

If a perpendicular be drawn from the focus to any tangent, the

point of intersection unll be in the vertical tangent.

From the focus F (see last figure), draw FJB

PT, and as the triangle PFT is isosceles (Prop.

perpendicular to
4),

and

PF

and

FT

the equal sides ; the line from the vertex F, perpendicular to

the base, bisects the base
therefore,

T=J3P.

As VB and

PD

are both perpendicular to the axis, they are

therefore parallel.

TV: VD=TB BP

Hence,

But,

Therefore,

(th. 17, b. 2).

TV=VD
TJB=BP

That is, a line from

perpendicular, to PT, and a line from
into two equal
perpendicular to the axis, both cut the tangent
parts, and therefore, meet in the same point, B.

PT

Hence

If a perpendicular,

<fec.

Q. E.

D.

CONIC SECTIONS.

254
Cor.

The two

1.

VBF&ndPBF,

triangles

are similar, for they

PF=the

are both right angled triangles, and the angle

angle

VFB.

VF FB=FB PF

Hence,

That

the perpendicular from the

is,

proportional between the distances of

from

the

tlie

to

any

focus

a mean

tangent, is

the vertex,

from

and

contact.

point of

From

Scholium.

focus

the preceding proportion,

we have

VF'PF=FB

But VF, remains constant

distance

of

from

the

the perpendicular

for the

to the

focus

drawn from

the

PROPOSITION
Find

the equation

any abscissa on

of

same parabola

therefore, the

point of contact varies, as the square

focus upon the tangent.

9.

PROBLEM.

the curve, or the mathematical relation between

the axis,

and

its

corresponding ordinate.

be taken as the zero point.

Put VD=x, PD=y, and let 2p repreLet

sent the parameter.

As TPC,

is

right angled triangle, right angled at

P,

PD

TD

is

mean

and DC.

proportional between

(Scho. to th. 17, b. 3).

But,

TD=Zx

(Prop. 5).

And,

DC=p

(Prop. 7).

Therefore

By

by

multiplication,

T'DC=y*=2px

taking the square root, y=,j2px, the double sign shows

to y, the one above, the other below the axis ;

two equal values

hence, the curve

is

symmetrical in respect to

PROPOSITION
The squares of

10.

its

focus and axis.

THEOREM.

ordinates to the axis are to one another, as their

corresponding abscissas.

By

the last proposition, any ordinate represented

by

y,

and

its

THE PARABOLA.
corresponding abscissa represented by

x, are

connected together by

the following equation.

y*=2px

(1)

Any other ordinate represented by y', and its corresponding abscissa represented by x', have a like connection.
That

is,

y'*=2px'

(2)

Dividing (2) by (1), omitting the

common

factor

2p

and we

have

y
2

Or,

y*=x'

y'

PROPOSITION
As

the

parameter of the axis

is the difference

Q. E.

of those ordinates

THEOREM.

11.

is to the

sum of any two

to the difference

ordinates, so

of their abscissas.

CVE be a portion of a parabola, V

VD the axis, VB and VD abscissas, and PB and ED their correspondLet

the vertex,

ing ordinates.

Put

VB=x,

And

ED=y'

Then,

AR=x'

From

Proposition 10.

By

VD=x',

x,

subtraction,

Or,

Or,
r,

Or,
r,

PB=y,

RE=y'+y,

Zp

Zp

y =2p(x'

rj

y ry=y'
:

and

/J

D.

x)

x'

RE=CR AR
:

x"]

Q. E.

D.

CONIC SECTIONS.

256

Take the product of the extremes and means of

proportion and we have
Cur.

(2p)AR=CR-RJE
But,

(2pX=y

(Prop. 10).

this last

THE PARABOLA.
In

this last proportion the antecedents are

257

equal

therefore, the

consequents are equal.

Hence,

RI*RE=CE'AR

Or,

RI'.AR=CE:RE

By

division,

That is,

(RIAR) AR=(CERE) RE
IA:AR=CR:RE

Q. E.

The same

Cor.

is

true, if

line

D.

be drawn from any other point

of the tangent.
Therefore,

SP:PG=CG:GE

PROPOSITION
If any points
parallel to the

be taken

THEOREM.

13.

on a tangent, and from thence

each other as the squares of the distances of the points

of

contact

measured on

CH

Let

taken upon

We

now to

of

also,

draw

Draw IR

HG

par-

prove, that

the last proposition,

Off'

we have

RE

IA: AR=CR-.

the point

H any points

IA :ffP=CI*:
By

from

be a tangent to a parabola, and / and

it.
V be the axis produced to T.
Let

VD, meeting the curve at A; and

VD, meeting the curve at P.

are

drawn

the tangent.

parallel to
allel to

lines be

axis to meet the curve, the length of such lines will be to

Multiplying the last couplet by CR, and substituting the value

CR'RE taken from corollary to Proposition 11, and

AX- CD*
~VD~~
Dividing the second and fourth terms by AR, and afterward
VT, then
multiplying the same terms by VD, observing that

VD=

we have

IA:
22

VT=CR

i
:

CD*

CONIC SECTIONS.

258
But by

similar triangles,

Therefore,

by

equality,

IA
In the same manner,

TV=CI

CT*

we may prove

that

HP TV=CH*z CT

Dividing one of these proportions by the other, term by term,

Or,

Application.

IA

'HP'

~~CH*'

IA:

Conceive

HP=Cr

CH to

CH*

be the

Q. E.

D.

direction of a projectile,

and undisturbed by the resistance of the air, or the force of gravity,

it would move
along the line CH, passing over equal distances in
equal times. Now let gravity act in the direction of IR, and as
bodies fall in proportion to the squares of the times of descent,
therefore, IA, TV, HP, &c., must be to each other, as the squares
2
3
of C7" 2 CT , Cff , &c; that is the real path of a projectile un,

disturbed by atmospheric resistance must have the same property,

as just demonstrated in this proposition.
In other words, the path
of a projectile is some parabola, more or less curved according to
the direction and intensity of the projectile force.

PROPOSITION
The

abscissas of

14.

any diameter are

to

THEOREM.
each other as the squares of

their corresponding ordinates.

By

the definition of a diameter,

the axis, or parallel to the axis

it

must be

and ordinates

any diameter must be parallel to the tangent

drawn through the vertex of that diameter.
Hence, if CS is a diameter, and CP a tanon the tangent, and I, T, and 0, any points
to

gent, and from thence lines

drawn

parallel to the axis to

meet the

curve, and from thence lines parallel to the tangent to meet the
diameter, the figures so formed will be parallelograms, and their
opposite sides equal.

THE PARABOLA.
CT

Cl 2

the last proposition, IE, TA, <kc., are to each other as

<fec.; that is, CQ, CR, <fec., are to each other as

By
3

QE\ RA\

&c.; or the abscissas are as the squares of their corresponding

Q. E.

ordinates.

REMARK.

This

and

to the axis

its

D.
is

the

same property as was proved

PROPOSITION
If a

drawn parallel

line be

and from

points,

in relation

ordinates in proposition 10.

to

15.

THEOREM.

any tangent, and cut the curve in two

drawn to the axis, and

these points ordinates be

another from the point of contact of the tangent, then the three ordinates
will be in arithmetical progression.

CT be

Let
lel

to

a tangent, and

Draw the

it.

HE paral-

ordinates

EO, CD,

and HI,
Then,

EG+HI=ZCD

From the similar

CDT, we have

HKE,

triangles,

HK KE= CD DT=2AD
2p:KL=HK: KE
:

By

prop. 11,

Therefore,

By

by

(th. 6, b.) 2j

eq. of the curve,

By comparing
must equal 2 CD.

That

is,

2p

it

if

will

CD;

hence,

HE

2AD

ZCD=CD 2AD

in two equal parts;

its

arithmetical
to

we
we

it

and as

HE

is

E. D.

any

QE

and

CD,

between

EG

in value

the diameter

KL

perceive that

MX parallel to

must meet the

is,

find that

mean between

AI, and draw

MX being midway

and HI, and parallel to them,

That
in their midway points.
diameter cutt all

KL=LI+IK=HI=EG
HI+EG=2CD
Q.

As CD is the
we draw CM parallel

equal

KLCD

the two preceding proportions,

But by inspecting the figure,

Scholium.

HI,

lines

CM

HE

cuts

its

and

GI

ordinate

ordinate, therefore, the

ordinates into two equal parts.

CONIC SECTIONS.

260

PROPOSITION

THEOREM.

16.

A parabola is a conic section, the cone being cut by a plane parallel

to its side.

Let the cone be

cut, or

conceived to be cut, by

VMN

the plane
passing through its axis, and
then conceive this plane cut by the plane DAI,

perpendicular to the

first

plane,

that AH shall be parallel to

Draw

and so

My and KL perpendicular to the

make them diameters

of the cone, and

planes are at right angles to the plane

From
draw

inclined

VM.

the points

FO

and

and

ff,

where

HI at

axis

of parallel circles,

whose

VMN.

AH meets KL

AH;

right angles to
is at right angles to the plane VMN,
is at
to KL, and
right angles to MN.

DAI

and

MN,

and because the plane

FO-

is

at right
angles

HI

Now, from

AHN
AF AH=FL HN

the similar triangles,

AFL,

By reason of the
the last couplet

we have

KFMH;

parallels,

therefore,

by

multiplying

we have

AF: AH=FL*KF\HN*MH
But, by reason of the semicircles

MIN

KQL,

KF*FL=FG\ mAM&S2r=3Z* (th. 17, b. 3.)

Consequently,

AF

Aff=FGP

HP

the same property as was demonstrated in proposition 10;

therefore, the nature of the curve is the same.
Q. E. D.

This

is

FG* HI

an A
d

HI

FG*

1S

a third propor-

and a constant quantity, which we have

parameter by definition 10.

called 2p, the

Cor. Hence,

-j-=

tional,

We

-rjf

-j-^r>

or

~rff

REMARK.
might have commenced the subject of the parabola by assuming it a conic section of this kind, and then sought
out its other properties.

THE PARABOLA.

PROPOSITION
Every segment of a parabola
thirds of

its

261

THEOREM.

17.

at right angles with its axis, is two-

circumscribing rectangle.

PT

Let
be any point in the curve, and
a tangent.
Draw the
and DT. Take
small
of
the
any very
portion
tangent, as

PD

PI-

so small as to consider

it

as coinciding with the

Draw 10,

curve, without sensible errors.

Ig,

making the two rectangles BR, HD.

Let us now investigate the relation between
these two rectangles.

As

customary, put

DT=2x.
The

By

VD=x;

PD=y,

PB=x,

then,

and

(Prop. 5.)

and

BR=x(PR),

rectangle

HD=y(RI)

similar triangles

PR RI=y
:

2x

Multiply the first and third terms of this proportion

then have
the second and fourth by y.

by

x,

and

We

x(PR)

y(RI)=xy

Zxy

BVDP

The whole

is divided into two

rectangle
spaces by the
the one within the curve, the other external to it. And we

curve

perceive

by the above proportion that the small

external to the curve,

the curve, as

is

BR,
HD, within

rectangle,

to its corresponding rectangle,

to 2.

taking any other small portion of the curve, as well as PI,

and drawing its external and internal rectangle, we can prove in the
same manner that they will be to each other as 1 to 2; and thus

By

we can
be

to

fill

up the whole external and

each other as

two-thirds of the

to 2.

whole rectangle

BD, and

spaces on the other side of the axis.

dec,

Q. E.

D.

internal spaces,

and they

will

Hence, the space within the curve

the

same

is

is

true of the

Therefore, every segment,

CONIC SECTIONS

262

PROPOSITION
If a parabola
one half of

its

axis, the

solid generated is equal to

on the

solids generated

BR

the two parallelograms

and HD.
a
whose
diameter
cylinder,
generate

by

HD will

parallelogram

and length

its

circumscribing cylinder.

figure to the last proposition, and conceive the parabola

axis VD, and find the relation between the two

Take the
to revolve

on

revolve

THEOREM.

18.

2y,

RL

The parallelogram BR will generate a circular band, whose

is x,

The
is

length

PR.

and thickness

The

solidity of the cylinder

The

solidity of the

band

=riy*(RI)

=(*y

PR)*)x

*(y

These two quantities are in the proportion of

By rejecting the very small quantity

considerable in connection with the other term,

(PRY

Sol. of cylinder

of

sol.

band =y*(RI)

as being very in-

we have

2xy(P)

But, as in the preceding proposition,

PR RI=y
:

...

Or,

Or,

2x

Zx(PR)=y(Rl)

.2xy(PR)=y\RI)

This equation shows that the last terms in the preceding proportion are equal
sol.

Or
same

therefore,

of cylinder

sol.

of

band

=1:1

the solidities of the cylinder and band are equal ; and the
and the sum
true of every pair of corresponding solids

is

the minute cylinders which make up the

solid generated by the revolution of the parabola, (called a
parabaloid); and the sum of all the minute bands makes up the

of the paraboloid

is

all

solid exterior to the parabaloid.

half

its

circumscribing cylinder.

Hence, the parabaloid

Q. E. D.

is

equal to

THE HYPERBOLA.

263

THE HYPERBO-LA,
DEFINITIONS.
1.

An

to a

a plane curve, confined by two fixed points

and the difference of the distances of each and

in the

every point
equal

is

hyperbola

called the foci,

yiven

curve from the two fixed points,

is

constantly

line.

REMARK 1. The distance between the foci, is also supposed to be

known and the given line must be less than the distance between the
;

fixed points

REMARK

that

is,

less

than the distance between the

The

foci.

a curve, confined by two fixed points

ellipse
called the foci,' and the sum of two lines drawn from any point in the
In the hyperbola, the differcurve, is constantly equal to a given line.
2.

is

two lines drawn from any point in the curve, to the fixed points,
equal to the given line. The ellipse is but a single curve, and the
foci are within it but it will be shown in the course of our investiga-

ence of
is

tion, that the

hyperbola consists of two equal and opposite branches, and

the least distance between

2.

The

line

them

is

the given line.

joining the foci,

and produced,

if

necessary,

is

point of the straight line which joins the foci,

is

called the axis of the hyperbola.

3.

The middle

called the center of the hyperbola.

4.

The

5.

A diameter is any straight

excentricity, is the distance

line

from the center to either focus.

passing through the center and

terminated by two opposite hyperbolas.

6. The extremities of a diameter are called

its vertices.

a straight line which meets the curve only in one

tangent
and
point,
being produced, does not cut the curve.
8. An ordinate to a diameter, is a
straight line drawn from any
7.

is

point of the curve to meet the diameter produced,

to the tangent at the vertex of the diameter.

and

is

parallel

9. An abscissa, is the distance between the

tangent point and
corresponding ordinate, measured on the diameter produced.

its

CONIC SECTIONS.

264
10.
focus.

The parameter is a double ordinate, passing through the

The principal parameter passes through the focus at right

angles to the axis.

REMARK.

Draw

Thus,

let

F'F be two fixed

a line between them, and bisect

points.
in C,

it

Take CA, CA', each equal to half the given

line, and CA may be any distance less than CF;
A' A is the given line, and is called the major*

Now let us suppose the

curve already found and represented by ADP. Take any point, as
and PF'; then by Definition 1, the difference beP, and join
axis of the hyperbola.

PF

PF'

tween

conversely

and

if

PF

PF'

must be equal

PF=A'A,

to the given line

P is

then

A' A, and

a point in the 'curve.

PF

PF
A

and
By taking any point, P, in the curve, and joining
a triangle PFF' is always formed, having F'F for its base and A'
for the difference of the sides

and these are

all

the conditions ne-

cessary to define the curve.

As

a triangle can be formed

directly opposite to

be

in all respects exactly equal to

F'F

for

common

side

PF'F, which

it, the two triangles having

the difference of the other two sides of

shall

to A' A, and correspond with the

hence, a curve can be formed about the
focus F' exactly similar and equal to the curve about the focus F.
In short, F' and A' have the same situation
this opposite triangle will

condition of the curve

in respect to
line

FF'

is

(7,

as

be equal

F and A have to

common

to all the points

C,
;

and the

therefore

a curve can pass about the focus F, a like

curve can pass about the focus F', and this is

if

illustrated

by the adjoining

figure, representing

a plane cutting vertical cones.

Any
by the
thus,

line

drawn through

opposite curves,

DD'

is

is

C,

a diameter, and

can prove that

it is

and terminated

called a diameter;

by a very

simple demonstration

we

bisected in C.

*The term major axis implies that there is a minor axis, but where it is, we
cannot at present determine ; when we find such a line, we will give it its
proper name.

THE HYPERBOLA

PROPOSITION
To
Take a

describe

F'H, and

ruler

1.

265

PROBLEM.

an hyperbola.

fasten

one end at the point F', on which

the ruler may turn as a hinge.
At
the other end of the ruler attach a
thread, and let

be

it

less

than the

by the given line A'A. Fasten

the other end of the thread at F.
ruler

With a

P, press the thread against the ruler and keep it

between the points
and F. Let the ruler turn

pencil,

at equal tension

on the point F', keeping the pencil close to the ruler and letting
the thread slide round the pencil the pencil will thus describe a
;

curve on the paper.

If the ruler be changed and

made

to revolve

about the other

focus as a fixed point, the opposite branch of the curve can be

described.

In

all

positions of

be two sides of a

PF will

P, except when at A or A', PF' and

and the difference of these two

triangle,

constantly equal to the difference

but that difference was made equal to the given

Definition

by

1,

the curve thus described,

PROPOSITION

sides is

between the ruler and the thread

2.

line. A'

A;

hence,

must be an hyperbola.

THEOREM.

from a point without an hyperbola

to the foci, the excess of the one above the other will be less than the
major axis; btit if the two straight lines be drawn from a point within
If two straight lines be drawn

an hyperbola
tlian the

to the foci, the excess

EXPLANATORY NOTE.
and

of one above

the other will be greater

axis.

major

In this

all

subsequent propositions,
we shall consider but one branch

of

the

curve

that about the

focus F.

The

distance

between

any

P, on the curve, and the focus F, will be represented by

between P and the focus F' by r.

point,

23

r,

and

CONIC SECTIONS.

266

Let
be a point without the curve ; join IF, IF', and as
is
within the curve, the line IF necessarily cuts the curve at some
Let the line without the curve be represented by

point P.

r'

h.

Put F'I=z', and corresponding to the nature of the curve, put

or r'=r-{-a.
r=a,
Add h to both members of this last equation, and

But the

first

member

of this equation

is

the

sum

of two sides of
'

a triangle, and of course greater than its third side z ; therefore,

increase z' by I to make it equal to r'-f-A.

Then,

Or,

That

is,

HFHF

(r-f-A)=a

the difference between

//"and IF,

In a similar manner, we

axis.

major

z'

..

z'+t=(r+h)+a

greater than

is

less

than

a, the

demonstrate

may

that

Q. E. D.

a.

PROPOSITION
A

is

THEOREM.

3.

tangent to the hyperbola bisects the angle contained by lines drawn

from

the point

Let F',

of contact

F be the foci and P any point on the curve,

PF

and bisect the angle

a tangent at P.

TT' be

If

to the foci,

F'PFby

the line

TT';

draw

PF'

this line will

be

a tangent P, every other

the

point on this line will be without

curve.

Take
bisects

TT'

is

15
(th.
given
join

PG=PF

and join OF,

TT'

GF, and any point in the line

at equal distances from
and G-

b.

By

1).

line.

Now

EF\ EF

Therefore,

EG,

F'G=A'A

curve

take any other point than

and
.

the definition of the

in

TT'

the

as E, and

EF=EG.

EF'EF=EF'EG.

But

EF'EG,

is less

F' G, because

the difference of any two sides of a triangle is

less than the third side (th. 18 b. 1 ).
That is,
is less

than

EF'EF

than A' A; consequently the point

is

without the curve (Prop. 2),

THE HYPERBOLA.

any point on the

and

as

line,

TT' which

is

TT'

line

bisects the angle at

P,

except P; therefore, the

a tangent to the curve at

is

Q. E.

that point.

curve, as

D.

should be observed, that the variable point in the

form a
joined to the two invariable points F' and

Scholium.

It

triangle, and that the tangent of the curve

the angle of that triangle at P.

But when any angle of a

triangle

is

at the point

P,

bisects

bisected, the bisecting line

cuts the base into segments proportional to the other sides

(th.

23

b. 2).

Therefore,

F'P PF=F'T'

Or,

....

But as

r'

r'

T'F

:r=F'T'

T'F

must be greater than r by a given quantity

Therefore,

r+a r=F'T'
:

1+-r

Or,

i-F'T'

a.

T'F

T'F

be observed, that a is a constant quantity, and r a variable

one, which can increase without limit, and when r is immensely

Let

it

great in respect to a, the fraction

is

extremely minute, and the

first

term of the above proportion, does not in any practical sense differ
from the second
therefore, in that case, the third term does not
;

from the fourth; that is,F'T' does not essentially

is immensely
from
differ from FT' when r, or the distance of
at
the
the
Hence,
tangent
any point P, of
hyperbola, can never
great.
essentially differ

cross the line

FF'

at its

middle point, but

the least imaginable distance to that point.

it

may approach

within

CONIC SECTIONS

268

THE ASYMPTOTES.
The direction of a line passing through the center of opposite hyperbolas to which a tangent may approach within the least imaginable
distance is called an asymptote.

PROPOSITION
To draw an asymptote
Let
and

to

4.

PROBLEM.

an hyperbola and find

its

angle with the axis.

FF'

be the foci of an hyperbola

the major axis, and C the

A'A

From F'

center.

as a center with a

radius equal A'A, describe a circle.

a
From the other focus F, draw

FH

tangent to this circle, and from the

center F' and through the point of
contact H, draw the line F'H, and let
it

however

far

may be

they

Now

suppose
toward CP, and

F 'H

CP

From C, draw

be indefinitely produced.

from F, draw FI also parallel to

and FI, are all perpendicular to

parallel to

FH,

and

F'H; then the three lines F'H, CP

FH, and therefore, will never meet,

produced.

and

FI

to

make

the slightest possible inclination

they equally incline, it is evident that they would

meet in the same point P, and the less the inclination from right angles,
if

PHF
PF

would form an isosceles triangle,

P, and
for its equal sides, and if
for its base, and PH,
having
and PF are anything less than infinity, the point P will be in the

the greater tht distance to

FH

PH

hyperbola ; for, by our supposition the infinitely slight inclination at H,

does not prevent us from taking PF'F as a triangle, and the difference
of the sides

PF', PF,

CP

Hence

is

is

FHA'A.

a line to which the curve can constantly approach, but

never meet, or can

meet

only at an infinite distance, and this line

it

called an asymptote.

To obtain
triangle

an expression for

F'HF is

sidered as

known

Hence,

lines,

but

F'F

....
.

angle with FF'

and FF' and

we observe that the

A'A are always con-

A'A=F'H.
A'A=sin. 90

A'A=a,

In analytical geometry

And,

its

right angled at //,

Therefore,

is

sin.HFF', or cos.PCF

and

AF=c;

F'H=a

FF'=a+2c,

FH= V 4 a c+4 T=2 Jwe+c

c

THE ASYMPTOTE.
If

from the point A,

F'HF, CAh,

triangles

we draw Ah

From
tional

The

2 >/ac-f-c 2 =^a

the preceding equation,

between

FA

we

FC,

at right angles to

will be similar,

F'H:HF=CA
That is,

269

the

two

and give the proportion

:

Ah

Ah=J(a-{^)c

perceive that

Ah

is

a mean propor-

and AF'.

double of the line Ah, drawn at right angles to FF' through the
is what mathematicians have arbitrarily termed the minor axis.

point C,

Hence, they give

From

RULE.

this rule for

either vertex

of

and

tJte

minor

to that axis equal to half the

extremity,

drawing an asymptote.
major axis draw a,

line,

at right angles

axis, connect the center

to the other

the connecting line produced is the asymptote.

PROPOSITION
To

describe,

5.

PROBLEM.

an hyperbola by points.

Let F, F' be the foci and A' A the

major axis, and C the center.
From F' as a center with A' A radius, describe a portion of a circle aa

From F',

represented in the figure.

draw any
circle in

draw the

line

F'P, cutting the

as

line

From F,

and join FH.

FP, making

the angle

HFP=PHF
It is obvious, then, that

must be in the curve.

In the same

By joining the points P and

C, and producing it so that PC=Cp, we shall have p, a point in the
opposite branch of the hyperbola, and in the same manner we can find
manner we

find P', or

any other point.

other points in the opposite branch.

PROPOSITION
Find

the equation

6.

PROBLEM.

of the curve in relation to the center and major axis.

Let F' F, be the foci, C the center, and A' A the major axis. Take
any point, P, on the curve, and draw the perpendicular P/f,join PF PF'.

Put CA=a, AF', AF=c, CF=d,

CH=x, PH=y, PF=r, PF'=r'.

Then
tween

FH=xd,

or

and F, then

FH=d

if

falls
a:,

be-

but in

either case the result will be the same,

because (x

d)

=(

CONIC SECTIONS.

270
By

we have

the definition of the curve,

r'r=2a
The A PHF'
The
By

A PHF'

gives

gives

subtraction,

(1)

r2

=(d+ar)

r 2 =(x
r'

r'

d)

+y
+y

(2)

(3)

=4db

(4)

2dx
Divide (4) by (1) and

r'4-r=

Subtract (1) from (5) and

(7)

and

(3)

...

Or,

But the quantity

common
;

(d

(d
2

consent, and

fl

) is

)*

a y

=(d 2

<z

)a

+a y

2
designated by b ; a

it is

(7)

(8)

called the square of half the

therefore,

Or,

By

(6)

2
2
2<fo+a =;r

x 2 =a 26 2-J-a 2 w 2

is

minor axis

half the major

Z>

found.

2a

dx
r=-a

Combining

axis

=2dx

2r

Or,

by

(5)

x2

a 26 2

(9)

the equation

of the curve.

giving different values to x, the corresponding values of y may be

If we make x=a, y becomes o, which shows that the curve

If we make x=a, y again becomes o,

at the point A.
showing the opposite point in the other branch of the curve. If we
make x less than a, y becomes imaginary, showing that there is no
curve in a perpendicular direction between A' and A.

commences

If in equation (8)

eter

we make x=d,

by the definition of parameter.

Or,

d4

Or,

Hence,

That

the parameter

is,

The

be half the param-

equation then becomes

2a 2d 2-f-a<=ay
a 2 =ay

d2

....

Or,

PH or y will

Z>

is

-=y
:

k=b y
:

a third proportional to the major and minor

axes.

There are many other properties of the hyperbola not here demonno practical importance, we omit them.

strated, but being of little or

LOGARITHMIC TABLES;
ALSO A TABLE OF

NATURAL AND LOGARITHMIC.

SINES, COSINES,

AND TANGENTS,

TO EVERY MINUTE OF THE QUADRANT.

LOGARITHMS OF NUMBERS

LOGARITHMS OF NUMBERS.

LOGARITHMS

OF NUMBERS.

LOGARITHMS

OF NUMBERS.

LOGARITHMS

OF NUMBERS.

10

LOGARITHMS

OFNUMBERS.

11

12

LOGARITHMS

OFNUMBERS.

13

14

LOGARITHMS

OF NUMBERS.

15

16

LOGARITHMS

OFNUMBERS.

17

18

LOGARITHMS

OF NUMBERS.

19

20

LOGARITHMS

TABLE

II.

Log. Sines and Tangents.

(0)

Natural Sines.

21

Log. Sines and Tangents.

(1)

Natural Sines.

TABLE

II.

Log. Sines and Tangents.

(2)

Natural Sines.

23

24

Log. Sines and Tangents.

(3j

Natural Sines.

TABLE

II.

TABLE

II.

Log. Sines and Tangents.

(4)

Natural Sines.

Log. Sines and Tangents.

(5)

Natural Sines.

TABLE

II.

Log. Sines and Tangents.

(6~)

Natural Sines.

27

Log. Sines and Tangents.

(7)

Natural Sines.

TABLE

II.

TABLE H.

Log. Sines and Tangents.

(8)

Natural Sines.

29

30

Log. Sines and Tangents.

(9)

Natural Sines.

TABLE

II.

.
1

Log. Sines and Tangents.

(11)

Natural Sines.

TAEI.E

II.

Log. Sines and Tangents.

(12)

Natural Sines

34

Log. Sines and Tangents.

(13)

Natural Sines.

TABLE

II.

TABLE IL

Log. Sines

and Tangents.

(14)

Natural Sinea.

35

36

Jx,g. gineg a nd

Tangents.

(15)

Natural Sines.

TABLE
1

II.

Log. Sines and Tangents.

(16)

Natural Sines.

37

TABLE

II.

Log. Sinea and Tangents.

(18)

Natural Sines.

39

"

TABLE

II.

Log. Sines and Tangents.

(20)

Natural Sines

42

log. Sines and Tangents.

(21)

Natural Sines.

TABLE

II.

'

Log. Sines and Tangents.

(23)

Natural Sines.

TABLE

II.

TABLE

II.

Log. Sines and Tangents.

(24)

Natural Sines.

45

46

Log. Sines and Tangents.

(25)

Natural Sines.

TABLE

II.

Log. Sines and Tangents.

(26)

Natural Sines.

47

Log. Sines and Tangents.

(27)

Natural Sines.

TABLE n.

TABLE

II.

Log. Sines and Tangents.

(28)

Natural Sines.

49

50

Log. Sines and Tangents.

(29)

Natural Sines.

TABLE

II.

Log. Sines and Tangents.

(30)

Natural Sinea.

51

52

TABLE H.

Log. Sines and Tangents.

(32)

Natural Sines.

53

54

'Log. Sines

and Tangents.

(33)

Natural Sines.

TABLE

II.

Log. Sines and Tangents.

(34)

Natural Sines.

55

56

I^g. gines and Tangents.

(35)

Natural Sines.

TABLE

II.

TABLE

II.

Log. Sines and Tangents.

(36)

Natural Sines.

57

58

Log. Sines and Tangents.

(37)

Natural Sines.

TABLE

II.

Log. Sines and Tangents.

(38)

Natural Sines.

59

Log. Sines and Tangents.

(39)

Natural Sines.

TABLE

II.

TABLE

II.

Log. Sines and Tangents.

(40)

Natural Sines.

61

62

Log. Sines and Tangents.

(41)

Natural Sines.

TABLE

II.

TABLE

II.

Log. Sines and Tangents.

(42)

Natural Sines.

63

64

Log. Sines and Tangents.

(43)

Natural Sines.

TABLE

II.

TABLE

II.

Log. Sines and Tangents.

(44)

Natural Sines.

65

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