10/21/2009

Where Nickel is Used

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Where Nickel is Used

Nickel, Nickel Everywhere

Nickel Institute Reprint Series No. 14048
Reprinted from M aterials World, September 1998.
It is an unsung metal, yet it plays many vital roles in modern materials applications. Peter Cutler raises the curtain on nickel.
Nickel-containing materials make major contributions to many aspects of modern life,
but these often go unrecognised. The list is very long, and includes applications in
buildings and infrastructure, chemical production, communications, energy supply,
environmental protection, food preparation, water treatment and travel. All these areas
rely, to some degree, on nickel's unique combination of properties.
Nickel is found in the first transition series of elements in the periodic table, and this
position gives rise to its metallurgical make-up:
has a high melting point of 1453C
forms an adherent oxide film
resists corrosion by alkalis
is face-centred cubic, conferring ductility
forms alloys readily, both as solute and solvent
is ferromagnetic at room temperature
is readily deposited by electroplating
exhibits catalytic behaviour

FIGUR E 1: Ele ctro form e d nick e l m icro -ge a r

in the e ye of a ne e dle

As this article shows, these properties mean that there are an enormous number of nickel-containing materials employed in a great variety of

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applications.

Where Nickel is Used

Nickel's role as a catalyst in chemical processes is perhaps the least-known of its uses.
However, finely divided nickel-based catalysts are key to several important reactions,
including the hydrogenation of vegetable oils, the reforming of hydrocarbons, and the
production of fertilisers, pesticides and fungicides.
At the other end of the spectrum, nickel electroplating is extremely well-known and
widely applied. The technique has long been used to provide both corrosion-resistant
and decorative finishes, and is also used to create the substrate for chromium coatings.
E 2: Sta inle ss ste e l roofing on the
Plating on plastics has enjoyed considerable growth recently. The success of the process FIGUR
Tham e s Barrie r
depends on suitable etching of the plastic to provide good adhesion to the first metallic
deposit. Once this conducting layer is in place, the component can be electroplated in the normal way to produce a very durable, lightweight
item. Nickel provides the corrosion resistance and lustrous appearance. Automobile trim, bathroom fittings and electronic connectors are just
three ways this process is being exploited.

Nickel electroplating can also be used to make items by building up thick deposits on a substrate. The surface detail of the substrate is
reproduced very faithfully on the deposit when the materials are separated (Figure 1). This process is known as electroforming and is widely
used to produce items as diverse as moulds for pressing compact discs and security holograms, and screens for carpet printing.
Nickel can also be deposited from solution without using electric current. These 'electroless' nickel deposits are very uniform in thickness and
contain phosphorus, which provides superior wear and corrosion resistance. The hardness can be increased by heat treatment, making these
coatings well-suited to many pump and valve applications. Other materials can be co-deposited -- for example, PTFE to increase lubricity,
and silicon carbide to increase wear resistance.
A major application of electroless nickel today is in computer hard discs. It forms an extremely uniform, smooth, stable, non-magnetic
substrate for the magnetic recording layer, as well as providing corrosion protection for the underlying aluminium disc.
Nickel's resistance to corrosion is one of its most valuable properties. The estimated annual cost of corrosion in the U.S.A. alone is $300
billion -- equivalent to 4% of gross national product. Far and away the largest use of nickel alloys is in the area of corrosion prevention.
Two-thirds of all nickel produced goes into stainless steel, to promote a stable, ductile, austenitic structure as well as contribute to corrosion
resistance. The most common austenitic grades used are Type 304, which contains 18% chromium and 8% nickel, and the more corrosionresistant Type 316 (18% Cr, 10% Ni, 2% M o). The combination of corrosion resistance, cleanability, ease of fabrication, appearance and
availability means that these steels are the materials of choice for many hygienic applications in food processing, beverage production and
medicine. They are also increasingly popular among manufacturers of domestic kitchen equipment and utensils. These stainless steels are
commonly found in many architectural applications (Figure 2) and are widely used in the transport, chemical processing and energy
industries. The stability and toughness of the austenitic structure also allows these stainless steels to be used for cryogenic applications.
Stainless steels are highly cost-effective when all costs, including maintenance and repair,
are taken into consideration over the whole life of a product. This is partly why the use
of stainless steels continues to grow. For example, some highway authorities are now
considering selective use of stainless steel reinforcing bars in concrete bridges to avoid the
corrosion problems caused by de-icing salt.
Further additions of alloying elements to the standard austenitic stainless steels,
particularly nickel, chromium, molybdenum and nitrogen, result in a series of steel grades
with higher resistance to general corrosion, as well as pitting, crevice and stress
corrosion. These grades are suitable for the more aggressive environments encountered in
certain marine applications, and in the oil, gas, power and chemical industries.
Increasingly, these industries are also using duplex stainless steels, (which typically
contain 5-7% nickel) and in which the mixed ferrite/austenite structure provides a
combination of high strength and resistance to corrosion (particularly stress corrosion).
Copper-nickel alloys have a long history of combating corrosion in marine environments.
Typical applications include large desalination plants, which provide the water essential
to development projects in various parts of the world.
The most economical way to use all these corrosion-resistant alloys is often as surface

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Where Nickel is Used
claddings on components. Claddings for pipes may be bonded to the backing steel before
the pipe is formed. Alternatively, claddings on valves and similar components may be FIGUR E 3: Installing a high-alloy sta inle ss
ste e l a nd nick e l alloy line r in a flue gas
applied as an overlay by welding. Extensive use has also been made of a "wallpapering" de sulphurization duct -- Courtesy of
technique for applying high-nickel, corrosion-resistant alloys to protect the inside of flue Mannesmann Anlagenbau
gas desulphurisation units for coal-fired power stations (see Figure 3). Adhesively bonded cladding materials, which are currently being
developed, could also be used in these sorts of applications.
Nickel and its alloys also resist heat. The combination of a high melting point, a facecentered cubic crystal structure, an adherent oxide, and good alloying ability has allowed
nickel to form the basis of a wide range of heat- and creep-resistant alloys that are
essential materials in the chemical and aerospace industries.
For many years, 80% Ni/20% Cr alloys have been used as heating elements. Additional
alloying elements such as cobalt, molybdenum and tungsten provide solid solution
strengthening; aluminium and titanium additions give precipitation hardening; additional
chromium improves corrosion resistance; small amounts of carbon, zirconium and boron
are important for developing strength and ductility; oxide dispersions can provide
additional strengthening; and single-crystal components can offer improved creep
FIGUR E 4: Ca st high nick e l-base alloy
resistance.

bla de s and va ne s in a n industria l ga s

turbine -- Courtesy of Asea Brown Boveri
(ABB)

With all these variables, the composition must be carefully balanced and processing
tightly controlled. This is true whether the materials are for ethylene reformer tubes or the gas turbine blades that make cheap air travel
possible and are used to generate electricity (Figure 4). Remarkably, some of these materials can be stronger at their operating temperatures
than mild steel at room temperature. Yet new materials continue to achieve still-higher operating temperatures -- for example, intermetallics
such as nickel aluminide.
Nickel-based materials have a number of special properties that open up additional applications, Nickel-iron alloys have low expansion
characteristics as a result of a balance between thermal expansion and magnetostrictive changes with temperature. Originally used in clock
pendulums, these alloys are now widely employed as lead-frames in packaging electronic chips and in shadow-masks in television tubes. On
a much larger scale, they provide one way of coping with the thermal expansion requirements of storage and transportation tanks for the
growing liquid natural gas industry (Figure 5).
The soft magnetic properties of nickel and its alloys are employed in electronic devices
and for electromagnetic shielding of computers and communication equipment. Coins and
tokens can be produced with a tailored electromagnetic response, which aids
identification in vending machines.
Equiatomic nickel-titanium shape memory alloys have gone from being mere curiosities
to having real applications. Components are formed into shape at an elevated
temperature. Deformation at the lower service temperature causes a martensitic
transformation -- this can be reversed by reheating so that the components regain their
original shape. The transformation temperatures are determined by composition and
processing. Current applications include actuators, hydraulic connectors and spectacle
frames. Superelastic alloys are closely related materials that can undergo large elastic
FIGUR E 5: Liquid na tural gas storage tank
strains without plastic deformation. M edical devices and mobile telephone aerials are
line d with low e x pansion 35% Ni-Fe a lloy -two applications in which this property is exploited.
Courtesy of Gaz-Transport
Nickel also plays a part in portable power provision. Nickel-cadmium rechargeable batteries containing nickel plates and nickel hydroxide
have been in use for several years. M ore recently, we have seen the introduction of nickel metal-hydride batteries, which employ some nickel
rare-earth alloys to absorb large amounts of hydrogen. These higher-performance rechargeable batteries have, in turn, led to improved
performance from cordless power tools, portable computers and other mobile electronic equipment. The hydrogen storage alloys may find
wider application if greater use is made of hydrogen as a fuel.
The future looks bright for nickel. Recent developments are expected to bring significant new nickel supplies to world markets within the
next four to five years, and so the ready availability of these materials seems set to continue. The next century will pose many technological
challenges. However they are tackled, nickel and nickel-containing materials are well-placed -- as cost-effective, long-lasting materials -- to be
chosen for critical applications in tough environments and for enabling technological innovations to be exploited. Nickel will be contributing
to our lives for many years to come.

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Where Nickel is Used

Dr. Peter Cutler, CEng MiM is Technical Director (Europe), Nickel Institute, Technical Information Centre.

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