Graphical Discussion of the Roots of a Quartic Equation

Author(s): E. L. Rees
Source: The American Mathematical Monthly, Vol. 29, No. 2 (Feb., 1922), pp. 51-55
Published by: Mathematical Association of America
Stable URL: http://www.jstor.org/stable/2972804
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1922.]

THE ROOTS OF A QUARTIC EQUATION.

51

44' 0"f,and ao =900 + Doo. The data 'inthelastfourrowsfulfill

theexpectation
thatthe curvedrayhas sensiblyreachedits asymptotenot onlyfortheearth's
orbitbutevenforan observerat thedistanceoftheinferior
planet.'

GRAPHICALDISCUSSION OF THE ROOTS OF A QUARTIC

EQUATION.
ofKentucky.
By E. L. REES, University

which
It is thepurposeofthisnoteto givea graphicalstudyoftheconditions
the natureof the rootsof a quarticequation. Using the reduced
determine
formf(x) = x4+ qxl + rx+ s = 0, withq, r and s real and withdiscriminant
the
regarding
are criteriae
A,we havetypesofthequarticforwhichthefollowing
natureoftheroots:
A < 0, rootsdistinct,
tworeal,twoimaginary;
A > 0, rootsdistinct,
all realor all imaginary;
q < 0, 8>
8

-,

rootsimaginary;

q2

< - , rootsreal;

q 0,.rootsimaginary;
A = 0, at leasttwoequal roots;

q < 0,s > 92, twoequal realroots,twoimaginary;

2

1 q 2<8s<
=

8=-

q> 0, 8>
8S =
8

q = 0, 8

=
>

~, roots real,twoand onlytwoequal;

4- twopairsofequal realroots;

-i2, rootsreal,threeequal;
0, r $ 0, twoequal realroots twoimaginary;
q2

ro=0, twopars ofequal imagnaryroots;

twoimaginary;
0,twoequalrealroots,

0, twoequal realroots,twoimaginary;
0, fourequal realroots.

oftheroots
is theproductofthesquaresofthedifferences
The discriminant
to
' The deviationofa rayfromits originaldirectionat thestaris obtainedby adding2m/po
to asymptote
the valueofD givenin thetable,and the totaldeviation,1.745"',fromasymptote

is.fwioe the valuei-of TD aiven in the lat twn lint df the tahle.-ErnToRs.
2 CompareL.

ofEquations,1914,p. 45.
Theory
E. Dickson,Elenwntary

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52

[Feb.,

THE ROOTS OF A QUARTIC EQUATION.

theorem'whichgivesa geometric
of f(x) = 0. We provefirstthe following
interpretation
ofthediscriminant
thatwillbe usedlaterin thediscussion.
The discriminant
of a real quarticequationf(x) = 0 withleadingcoefficient
ofthegraph
oftheturning
points2
unityequals256 timestheproducet
oftheordinates
ofy = f(x).
Denotingby ai or ac the rootsoff(x) = 0, and by ak;' thoseof f'(x) = 0,
we have

fI
(ai
H
i j>i
=

44l i [Ik

(ai -

ak')

11
1 (ai
i j i

= 44

II
fI
k *

aj)
(ak'

=
-

ff'(ai)
i
ai) =

44

]k

f(ak').

Sincef(ak') are the ordinatesof the turningpointsof y = f(x), the proofis

thefollowing
results:
complete. We maynowstateas a corollary
A < 0, ordinates
all negative;
oneordinate
twopositive;
negative,
oneordinate
twoimaginary;
negative,
A > 0, ordinates
all positive;
oneordinate
positive,
twonegative;
twoimaginary;
oneordinate
positive,
A = 0, at leastoneordinate
zero.
Assumethe graphofy = f(x) drawn. Let a linestartin thepositionofthe
x-axisand revolveabout the originintothe positionofthe liney = - rx,and
leteach pointofthegraphmovein a verticallineat sucha ratethatitsdistance
measuredverticallyfromthe revolvingline remainsconstant.3The resulting
withrespectto the y-axisand is the graphof the equation
curveis symmetric
y = x4+ qx2+ s, whichwe shall call the auxiliaryquartic. The roots of
ofthelineand thiscurve.
f(x) = 0 are theabscissasofthepointsofintersection
The turning
to thosepointsofthetranspointsoftheoriginalcurvecorrespond
formedcurveat whichthe tangentis parallelto the liney = - rx. We shall
call thesepointsofthegraphoftheauxiliaryquartictransformed
turning
points.
The inflection
the
to
inflection
of
other
of
curve
the
points
points one
correspond
curve. The proofsofthesestatements
the
reader.
are quitesimpleand areleftto
factsconcerning
By theusualcalculusmethodwe easilydeducethefollowing
theauxiliaryquarticcurve.
1 Thecorresponding
theorem
forthen-icxl

+ c1xn-I+

...

+ cn = 0 (c's-real)is

n(n-1)

A=(_

1)

ofturning
points).
n8* (product
ofordinates

2 In thisdiscussion
withhorizontal
tangent
is
weshallunderstand
thata pointofinflection
to be considered
a multiple
turning
point.
I Thisof courseis thesameas addingtheordinates
oftheliney =-rx andthecurve
is to replacetheoriginal
quartic
y = f(x). Theeffect
ofthistransformation
in ourdiscussion
tothegraph
oftheauxiliary
bytheauxiliary
quartic
curvewhiletheliney =-rx initsrelation
in a certain
quartic
sensereplaces
thex-axis.

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THE ROOTS OF A QUARTIC EQUATION.

1922.]

The threeturningpointslare (0, s), (

tionpointsare (4

s-3

8,s-

53

) and the two inflec-

q2).

If q < 0, theseturning
pointsand inflection
pointsare all real and distinct.
The difference
betweenthe ordinateof the middleturningpoint and the
commonordinateoftheothertwois q2/4.
The distancebetweenthe y-intercept
pointof the curveand that of the
inflection
tangents= q2/12.
The y-intercept
oftheinflection
tangentsis s + q/12 = I.
If q = 0, they-intercept
pointofthe curveis a tripleturning
point(double
inflection
point).
If q > 0, thereis onlyone real turningpoint; the inflection
tangentsare
imaginary
andmeetinsidethecurveat thepoint(0, I); and thereis a realdouble
tangenty = s - q2/4,
withconjugateimaginary
pointsofcontact.
formsand
We shall studythe variouscases corresponding
to the different
oftheauxiliary
to thesignofq andthevalueof.9.
positions
quarticcurveaccording
The corollary
of the theoremon discriminants
provedabove maynowbe
different
restatedin a slightly
and moreusefulform,namely:
At leastone and possiblythreereal transformed
turningpointslie aboveor
as A is greater
thanor lessthan0; and at least
belowtheliney = - rx according
lies on thelineif A = 0.
one transformed
turning
point(realwithone exception2)
inmind,an examination
ineachcasewillmake
ofa figure
Bearingthiscorollary
of quartics,equivalentto that givenat the
clear the following
classification
beginningof this paper.

Cae

I.

q < 0,
s> -

A < 0, tworootsrealand distinct;

A = 0, tworootsrealand equal;
A > 0, no realroot;

s= 4

A < 0, tworootsrealand distinct;

A = 0, twopairsofequal realroots;

O<

q2

s < _-

s = 0,
-

12 <s<

A < 0, tworootsrealand distinct;

A =0, all rootsreal,twoequal;
0, A > 0, all rootsrealand distinct;

1 Not the "transformed

turningpoints" mentionedin the precedingparagraph,but the
turningpointsofthe auiliary quarticitself.
2 It willbe seen (nextfoot-note)
thatthereis one case whenA = 0 in whicha real turning
point(theothertwobeingimaginary)is not on theline.

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54

THE ROOTS OF A QUARTIC EQUATION.

S=-

12'

[Feb.,

A < 0, two rootsreal and distinct;

A = 0, all rootsreal,threeequal;
i < 0, two rootsreal and distinct.
A

s <-

Case II.

q=

0,
8

> 0,

8 = 0,

Case III.

s < 0,
q> O,

A < 0, tworootsrealand distinct;

A = 0, tworootsrealand equal;
A > 0, no realroots;
A < 0, tworootsrealand distinct;
A = 0, fourequal realroots;
A < O,tworootsrealand distinct.

A < 0, tworootsrealand distinct;

A = 0, tworootsrealand equal;'
A > 0, no realroot;
A < 0, tworootsrealand distinct;
= 0,
A = 0, tworootsrealand equal;
A < 0, tworootsrealand distinct.
s K 0,
If I < 0, thens < - q2/12and the quartichas two real and distinctand
roots.
twoimaginary
For a triplerootit is necessaryand sufficient
be an
thatthe liney =-rx
I
oftheinflection
it follows
inflection
tangent. beingthey-intercept
tangents,
that I = 0 is a necessaryconditionfora tripleroot; and sincethe slopesof
8 >

0,

q - one ofwhichmustequal- r, it results

6
3
0
that 8q3+ 27r2- is also a necessary
condition.
ifI = 0 and 8q3+ 27r2= 0, thequartichas a tripleroot.
Conversely,
Notingthat
q3
qs r2
q
8q3+ 27r2
16 216J 6
\ 6
432
the inflection
tangentsare ?

we see thattheseresultsare equivalentto thefollowing

familiar
theorem:
A necessary
ormore
and sufficient
condition
thatthequarticequationhavethree
rootsequalis I = J = 0.2
The geometric
formostofthecasesofthetheorem
arguments
maybe made
withouttheuse ofthederivative. Forthispurposewe applythetransformation
1 Except when s = q2/4and r = 0, in which case there are two conjugate imaginary double

roots.
2 The methodofthispaperenablesus also to recognize
theorderofsuccessionofthesimple
and multipleroots. Thus by notingthe doublerootcases in whichthe inflexions
of the transformedquarticbothlie belowthe line y = - rx we findas a necessaryand sufficient
condition
fora doublerootseparatingtwosimplerealrootsA = 0, 8q3+ 27r2< 0.
In the othercases whereall rootsare real and thereis one doubleor tripleroot,thiswill
be the greatestor least rootaccordingas r is positiveor negative.-EDITOR.

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1922.]

55

TWO NEW CONSTRUCTIONS OF THE STROPHOD.

= x2,y = y to the parabolay = x'2+ qx' + s, thusobtaining

the auxiliary
quarticcurve. Note that the vertexof the parabolais (- q/2,s - q2/4)and
thattheparabolaand quartichave in commonthey-intercept
s.
The different
forms
ofthequarticcurvedepe-nd
onthepositionoftheparabola
relativeto they-axis. The threecasesfollow.

q < 0, thevertexofthe-parabolais to rightofthey-axis;thequartichas

three
realanddistinct
turning
points,
(0,s), (t4-

0, thevertexoftheparabolais on they-axis;thequartichas a triple

turning
point(0, s).
q > 0, the vertexoftheparabolais to leftofthey-axis;thequartichas
onlyonerealturning
point(0, s).
The arguments
forthe variouscases ofthetheorem
withfewexceptions
are
identicalwiththosesketchedabove.'
q

TWO NEW CONSTRUCTIONSOF THE STROPHOID.

By R. M. MATHEWS, WesleyanUniversity.
(Read beforetheAmericanMathematicalSocietyDecember28, 1920.)

1. The classicconstruction
forthe strophoid
uses a pencilofcircleseach of
whichhas its centeron a "medial" lineg and passesthrough
a fixedpoint,the
node0, on g (Fig. 1). Let each circlebe cut by thatoneofitsdiameters
which
passes througha fixedpoint,the singularfocusF. The curveis the locus of
theseintersections.2
The objectofthisnoteis to makethisconstruction
more
generalforthesamecurve: first,
by usinganylinethrough
thenodeas locusfor
the centersof the circles;and second,by usinga pencilof circlesthrough
any
two conjugatepointsof the curve. In preparation
forthiswe describecertain
wellknownfeatures
ofthecurve.3
1 Instead of addingthe ordinatesof the line y =- rx and the curvey = f(x), the author
mighthave startedwiththe curvey = X$+ qx2 + s and regardedtherootsofthegivenquartic
as theabscissasoftheintersections
ofthiscurveand theliney = - rx. The formofthiscurve
dependsonlyon q; its position,or the positionof the originwithrespectto it, dependson s,
whilethecharacteroftherootsoftheequation,whenq and s are given,dependson r. Thusthe
classification,
based firston q, and thenon s, wouldfinalybe based on r.
The rangeofvaluesofr forany typeofequation,whenq and s are given,dependson those
values whichcorrespond
to the real tangentsfromthe origin. These values of r are the roots
oftheequationA = 0, and forany particular
typeofequationA willhave a particular
signor be
zero. Conversely,
thesignor vanishingofA,withthegivenvaluesofq and s, willusuallydetermine the type of the equation. These considerations
would enable us to dispensewiththe
author'stheoremon discriminants.Resultsobtainedas dependingon r could be interpreted
at once as dependingon A, and so whenthe classification
has beenobtained,the variousclasses
couldbe groupedand arrangedwithrespectto A, q and s if such an arrangement
is morecon-'oniont.

fnr

IT.CP-,VTITMINT

2 Gino Loria,Speziellealgebraische
und transcendente
ebeneKurven,volume1,

Leipzig,1910,
is theright
p. 60. The strophoid
ofourtext-books
theformthiscurvetakeswhenthe
strophoid,
nodeis at thefootoftheperpendicular
fromthefocusto themedian.
a Loria,loc.cit.,chapter8.
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