Physics and Engineering Sciences

(Part 2)

Units of Measure
Chapter 2

United States Measurement

Systems
International System of Units (SI) Metric

U.S. Customary System

SI Base Units

T 2-1

Metric Values

T 2-3

U.S. Customary System

T 2-6

U.S. Customary System

Conversions

T 2-7

Light
Chapter 3

Electromagnetic Radiation
Light is electromagnetic radiation

Light is that portion that is visible to the

human eye

Light

F 3-1 Electromagnetic Spectrum

F 3-2 Sensitivity of the eye to light

The product of the wavelength and frequency of light is

equal to its speed:
C= v
Where c is the speed of light in a vacuum in m/s, is the
wavelength in m, and v is the frequency in cycles per
second or hz.

Ray Theory

A ray of light is a straight path that the

light travels in from one point to another
Two basic types:
1. Reflection
2. Refraction

Reflection

F 3-3 Reflected light

Refraction

F 3-4 Light refracted

Various indices of refraction

T 3-1

Material

Air

1.00

Water

1.33

Fused Quartz

1.46

Flint Glass

1.66

Diamond

2.42

sin 1 2

sin 2 1
sin 45 1.33

sin 2 1.00

sin

1 .707

2
1.33

2 32
F 3-5 Light refracted

Sound
Chapter 4

Sound
Sound is the transmission of mechanical
waves in matter
Sound can only be transmitted through
matter and cannot be transmitted in a
vacuum

Wave Nature of Sound

Sound is comprised of longitudinal
mechanical waves traveling through matter
Sound waves are generated by the
successive compression and rarefaction of
the media that is transmitting it

Sound

F 4-1 Generation of sound waves

Intensity of Sound
The intensity of sound P is a measure of the
energy that it transmits. Intensity is defined
as:
Energy
Time

Power
I INTENSITY

Surface Area
Area

Relative Intensity
I
Relative Intensity (dB) = 10 log
Io
where,
I actual intensity( w / m 2 )
I o 1012 w / m 2

Frequency of Sound
The frequency of sound is normally referred
to as its pitch. Pitch describes the audible
effect that a frequency of sound waves has
on the human ear. Pitch is normally
measured in hertz (Hz) or cycles/second.

Sound

rev 1 min 48holes(cycles)

pitch 1200

min 60s
rev
cycles
960
960 Hz
s
Ex 4.3.1

Typical Sound Intensities

Sound Type

Intensity
W/m2

dB

Jet Aircraft (close range)

120

Jackhammer

10-2

100

Automobile on Highway

10-4

80

Normal Speech

10-6

60

Whisper

10-10

20

Response of The Human Ear to Sound

F 4-2 Response of average human ear to sound at different frequencies

Electricity/Electronics
Chapter 5

Electricity/Electronics
Electricity and electronics are interrelated
phenomena. They are involved in the
generation, transmission, and storage of
power in numerous applications.

Electrical Circuits
Electrical circuits contain a source of
electrical power, passive components which
dissipate or store energy, and active
components which change the form of
electrical power.

Electrical Currents
Direct current (DC) - current and voltage
does not vary with time
Alternating current (AC) - current and
voltage varies (usually sinusoidally) with
respect to time

Electrical Quantities
Charge (Q)

Electrical charge is an energy carrying quantity

that is measured in units of coulombs.

Current (I)

Electrical current is the time rate of flow of

charge past a point in a circuit and is measured

in Amperes.
Voltage (V)

Voltage is the change in energy per unit charge.

The unit of measure is the volt.

Energy (W)

Electrical energy is the capacity to do

work. Energy is measured in joules.

Power (P)

Electric power is the time rate of energy

flow. Electrical power is measured in

watts.
Resistance ()

Resistors are energy absorbing components. Resistance is measured in ohms.

Circuit Components
Resistors are energy absorbing elements
Inductors are energy storing components where energy is
stored in a magnetic field
Capacitors are energy storing components where energy is
stored in an electrical field

Circuit Connections

F 5-2 Parallel and series connections

Circuit Rules

Ohms Law
E = IR

I = E/R
R = E/I

Calculate Equivalent Resistance

1
R

1 1
R R
1 1

3 7
R 21
.

R R R R
21
. 5 .4
R 7.5
1

+
-

30 V

Calculate Equivalent Resistance

E
I
R
30

I
7.5
I 4A

+
-

30 V

Calculate Equivalent Resistance

R R R
5 19
R 24
1

1
R

1 1
R R
1 1

24 8
R 6

Calculate Equivalent Resistance

R R R
6 15
R 21
1

1
R

1 1

R R
1 1

21 9
R 63
.
1

Calculate Equivalent Resistance

R R R R
R 6.3 2 .2
85
.
1

E
I
R
17

85
.
I 2A

F 5-3 Parallel and series connections of various components

Circuit Analysis Using

Kirchoffs Laws
Kirchoffs Loop Rule (KLR) is a statement of
conservation of energy. It states that the sum of
voltage rises or drops around a closed path or loop
must be zero.
Kirchoffs Point Rule (KPR) is a statement of
conservation of charge. It states that the flow of
charges (current) into or out of a point (junction of
electrical connections) must add to zero.

Statics
Chapter 6

Statics
Analysis of mechanical equilibrium of
rigid bodies subjected to force systems
Analysis is restricted to bodies at rest

Statics

F 6-1 Transmissibility of forces

F 6-2 Resultant of two forces

F 6-3 Reaction to an applied force

F 6-4 Rectangular components of a force

Given: Three Forces: F1, F2, F3

Find: Resultant and Force

F 6-5 Forces applied to an eyebolt

tan
150

73
64

Ry
Rx
R 73 150
R 167
2

Moment of Force
A moment is the tendency to rotate that a
force imparts to a rigid body
The magnitude of the moment is the product
of the magnitude of force and the
perpendicular distance between the line of
action of the force and the point or axis of
rotation

Moment of Force

F 6-6 Moment of a force about a point

Force Couples
A couple is formed when two forces of
equal magnitude and opposite sense
with parallel lines of action

Force Couples

F 6-7 A couple resulting from a system of forces

Free-Body Diagram
Procedure
Isolate the body from the ground of any
bodies in contact with it
Indicate all external forces acting on a body
Identify the magnitude and direction of
reactions from the ground or other bodies in
contact by the application of Newtons First
Law

Free-Body Diagrams

F 6-8 Simple supported beam and corresponding free-body diagram

Friction
The force of friction acts opposite to the
direction of any impending motion that
would result from an applied force
To overcome friction and cause a body to
move, a force F must be applied that is
greater than or equal to force of friction
F = uN
u = coefficient of friction and N = the
normal force

Friction

F 6-11 Conditions for frictional forces

Dynamics
Chapter 7

Dynamics
(Bodies in Motion)
Kinematics: the study of the motion of particles
and bodies.
Kinetics: the study of the forces and moments
required to induce motion.

Rectilinear Motion
An automobile skids to a stop in 200 ft. after its brakes are
applied when it was moving at 60 miles per hour. Find the
acceleration in units of ft/s2, assuming the deceleration is
constant.
Solution: The initial velocity must be put in appropriate units.

v0

60miles 1hour 5280 ft

hour 3600s mile

The following equation of rectilinear motion will be applied:

v 2 v02 2as

If the final velocity is taken as zero, this equation can be

algebraically rearranged to yield:
v02
882
a
19.4 sft2
2s
(2)(200)
The negative sign indicates that the vehicle is decelerating.

Angular Motion

F 7-1 Angular Motion

Energy Methods
Work is defined as the product of an applied force,
F, and the distance over which the force is applied,
s. For a constant force, this relation is given by:

W=Fs

Energy
Kinetic
Energy
For a body in linear motion, this is given by:

1 2
KE mv
2

For a body in angular motion, this is given by:

1 2
KE I
2

Strength of Materials
Chapter 8

Strength of Materials
Strength of materials is the study of
deformable bodies subject to applied
forces and moments.

Issues: Strength of Materials

How much load can be safely applied to a
structure or component?
What material should be chosen to fabricate a
component to safely withstand a particular load?
How much will a component deflect under load?

Stress/Strain Loading
Axial Loading: If an object is subjected to a
positive strain in one direction, it is normal for the
object to contract or experience a negative strain
in another direction.

Torsional Loading: Shafts and other machine

elements that are subjected to equilibrating
couples at each end (torque) are in torsion.

Stress/Strain Loading
Beam Loading: Beams are machine elements
that are typically much longer than they are wide
and are loaded in a direction that is perpendicular
to their long dimension.

Column Loading: A column is a long slender

member that is loaded axially in compression.

Tension

Compression

Shear

Rivet Under Shear Stress

LOAD FORCE ON A STEEL BEAM

LOAD
FORCE

STRAIN

PERMANENT DEFORMATION

ELASTICITY

Combination of Forces on a
Structural Member

Torsional Load

Torsional Loading

F 8-4 Shaft loaded in torsion

Torsional Loading

F 8-5 Steel rod in torsion

Thermodynamics and
Heat Transfer
Chapter 9

Thermodynamics
and
Heat Transfer
The thermal properties of matter are
controlled by temperature
Temperature is a measure of the
tendency of an object to absorb or
dissipate energy in the form of heat

Temperature Conversions
K = C + 273
C = 5/9 (F - 32)
F = 9/5 C + 32

Thermal Expansion
The dimensions of most solid materials will
expand and contract with increasing and
decreasing temperatures. The change in a linear
dimension, such as length or diameter, is
proportional to the change in temperature of the of
the object T, its length L and a constant , the
coefficient of expansion.

Expansion of an Object

F 9-2 Expansion by increase of temperature

A brass sheet has a 2.000 inch diameter hole at 70F. The sheet is
heated to 300F. Find the new diameter of the hole.
The change in diameter can be found as:

D a

F10.6x106I
b
g
J
e
j
DT G
2
.
000
in
230
F
G
J
H F K

.005 in
**Therefore, the new diameter is 2.005 in.**

Coefficients of Expansion
Material

(m/m/C = 1 / C)

Glass

9 x 10 -6

Concrete

10 x 10 -6

Iron

12 x 10 -6

Brass

19 x 10 -6

Aluminum

25 x 10 -6

T 9-1

Heat Capacity
The heat capacity of a material defines the amount
of energy that is needed to change its temperature.
The temperature change that will occur with a
given amount of energy.

Heat Units
Calorie (cal)
The amount of heat required to raise the
temperature of one gram of water by one
degree Celsius.
British Thermal Unit (BTU)
The amount of heat required to raise the
temperature of one pound of water by one
degree Fahrenheit.

Heat Units

Laws of Thermodynamics
1. Energy can neither be created or destroyed; the sum total of all
energy remains constant.

Q = U + W
Q - quantity of heat

U - change in internal energy

W - the work performed.

Thermodynamics

F 9-3 The first law of thermodynamics

2. Conversion of heat to work is limited by the temperature at

which conversion occurs.

Wout = QH - QL
QL - Quantity of heat from cold object.
QH - Quantity of heat from hot object.

Thermodynamics

F 9-4 Thermodynamic cycles

Heat Transfer
Conduction: Energy transfer from a high temperature
region to a low temperature region through a solid object.

Convection: Energy transfer from a surface by the flow

of a fluid over an object.

Radiation: Electromagnetic radiation carries energy

from one body to another.

Heat Transfer

F 9-5 Heat transfer by conduction

Heat Transfer

F 9-6 Heat transfer by convection

Fluid Power
Chapter 10

Fluid Dynamics
Study of the flow of fluids:
Velocity
Pressure
Force
That cause fluids to move

Fluid Properties
Density, , is the ratio of mass, m, to volume, V, of a
substance.
m

Specific Volume, , is the volume occupied by a unit mass of

substance.

Specific Weight, , is the force of gravity on a mass per unit

volume.

g
Specific Gravity, S, is the ratio of the density of substance to
the density of water.
S

H O
2

H O 1 cmg
2

Pressure

F 10-1 Pressure definitions

Atmospheric Pressure at
Sea Level
14.7 lb/in2
29.92 in. of Hg
76 cm of Hg
1.013 x 105 N/m2
Pa = N/m2

Pressurized Fluid in a
Sealed System

F 10-2 Pascals law

Principles of
Fluid Dynamics
Conservation of mass is described by the continuity
equation:

A1v1 = A2v2

where A is the area that the fluid flows through, v is the

velocity of the fluid and the subscripts refer to the point
here the fluid enters and exits the system.

Conservation of energy is described by the energy

equation, also known as the Bernoulli equation:
v12 p1
v22 p2
z1

z2
2g
2g

where p is the pressure of the fluid and z is the elevation of

the system relative to a datum. It will be assumed that
flow is steady state and incompressible with a uniform
velocity profile.

Water flows through a 100 mm diameter pipe at 8 m/s.

Downstream, the pipe is reduced in diameter to 40mm. Find
the velocity of the water in the smaller diameter.

A1v1 A2 v2

d
4

2
1

v1

d
4

2
2

v2

d12
1002
v2 v1 2 8 2 50 ms
d2
40