Mathematical Fundamentals

(Part 1)

Mathematics
Chapter 1

ALGEBRAIC OPERATIONS
(+)(+) = POSITIVE
(-)(-) = POSITIVE
(+)(-) = NEGATIVE
(-)(+) = NEGATIVE

axb
= ab
a x (-b) = -ab

a(b + c) = ab + ac
a(b - c) = ab ac
(a + b)c = ac + bc

a+b = b+a
ab ba
73 37

EXPONENTS
104 =

10 x 10 x 10 x 10

102 =

10 x 10

101 =

10

100 =

20 =

a0 =

(3 x 10)0

3 x 100 =

x0 =

MULTIPLICATION
102 x 103 = 105
10-3 x 107

= 10-3+7 = 104

10 x 10 = 101+1 = 102
a3 x a5 = a8
ax x ay = ax+y

-2

-3

-5

2 x2 =2 =
3 2

1
25

1
32

(2b ) = (2b ) (2b ) = 4b

n

(a )(a ) = a

n+m

RULE: Like Bases Are Added

DIVISION
5

a
53
2
a a
3
a
2

10
2-5
-3
5
10 = 10 = 10

3 3 = 3
4

4-6

-2

= 3

1
32

1
= 9

8 10 2
8
26
8

10

10
6
2 10
2

a a =a
n

n-m

RULE: Like Bases Are Subtracted

RADICALS
1
2

9 9 3
6
2

10 10 10
6

8 2 2
3

3
2

( 8) 8 3 8 8 8 8
3

15
15

3
5
5
3

62 6

1
3

2
3

CHANGING POWERS
10 1
0

1
1
10 1
.1
10 10
1

7
2
7 10
2
10

a 3 b3
3
3
b
a

460 0.00003 100,000

9000 0.0062
(4.6 102 ) (3 105 ) (105 )

(9 103 ) (6.2 103 )

4.6 3 102 105 105

9 6.2
103 103
102 55
0.25
103 3
102
0.25 0 25
10

Linear Equation 1 Unknown

ax + b = 0

2
1
5
x 3x
3
4
6

8 x 3 36 x 10
28 x 7
x 1

Linear Equation - 2 Unknowns

2 x 3y 1
3x 5 y 27
By Substitution:

3y 1 2 x
1 2x
y
3 3

b g

3x 5 13 23x 27
3x 53 103x 27
9 x 5 10 x 81
x 4
Subst. X=-4 in equation #1

bg

2 4 3 y 1
8 3 y 1
3y 9
y3

b1,2gb1,2g
b4,3gb4,3g

Quadratic Formula
Solve 5x2 - 8x = -3 using the quadratic formula. We first find
standard form and determine a, b, and c:

5x2 - 8x + 3 = 0,
a = 5, b = -8, c = 3

We then use the quadratic formula:

b b 2 4ac
x
2a

b g b8g 4 5 3

2 5

8 64 60
x
10
8 4
x
10
82
x
10
3
x 1 or x
5

5x 8 x 3 0
(5x 3)( x 1) 0
5x 3 0 or x 1 0
5x 3 or x 1
3
x or x 1
5
2

RATIO
It is required to find how many feet of rolled thread stock
would be needed to produce 1500 knurls if 50 of these
knurls can be made from 25 feet of material.
50:25 = 1500:x
50x = 37,500
x = 750 ft.

Assume a job shop produces a given number of

stampings in 72 hours per week with a work force
of 300 people. Work hours are to be cut back to
54. How many additional people will be needed to
maintain production? Note that the number of
people and the time involved vary inversely with
each other. As the number of people increase, the
time decreases. Thus:
300:x=54:72
54x=21600
x=400 people required
100 additional people required

PERCENTAGE
By purchasing a new piece of equipment, 120 pieces can be
made in the same length of time normally used for 90. Express
in percent the gain in production from the new piece of equipment
over the previous method used.
30
120 90 30 100 33%
90

An alloy contains 372 pounds of copper and 15.5 pounds of

nickel. What percent of the alloy is copper?
372 +15.5 = 387.5 lbs.
372
.96
387.5
.96 100 = 96%

AREA
h

A = bh

1
A bh
2

1
A ( a b) h
2

A r
2

D
4

VOLUME

A r h
2

VOLUME

A h( R r )
2

SLOPE OF A LINE

rise 3
slope

run 4

Intercepts:
X axis: 4
Y axis: -3

SLOPE INTERCEPT FORM

y = mx + b
m = slope
b = y intercept
Given:
3x-4y = 12
-4y = 12-3x
4y = -12+3x
y = 3/4x-3

INTERCEPT/INTERCEPT FORM
x y
1
A B
x y

1
4 3

3x-4y = 12
-4y = 12-3x
4y = -12+3x
y = 3/4x-33

Given: A= 4 , B= -3

Given 2 points:
Point 1: (3,-7)
Point 2: (-4,5)

y2 y1 y y1

x2 x1 x x1
5 (7) y (7)

4 3
x3
12 y 7

7 x 3
12( x 3) 7( y 7)
12 x 36 7 y 49
12 x 13 7 y
7 y 12 x 13
12
13
y x
7
7

2.10 A

RIGHT TRIANGLES
Solving Right Triangles
Solving Right Triangles
B
A

2.10 A

2.10
2.10 A

C A B
2

2
2
2
C 2 (35
A. 2) B 2(2.10) B
2
(35
. ) 2 12
(2..25
10)2 4.41
B 2 B

B 2 B122 .25 4.41

12.25 4.41
2
B 2 12B.25 412
.41.25 4.41
B 2.25
74..84
B 2 12
41
2
B 2.8

SolC

C 2 A2 B 2
(35
. ) 2 (2.10) 2 B 2

12.25 4.41 B 2
C 3.50
C

C 3.50

3.50

B 12.25 4.41
2

2.10 A

B 2 12.25 4.41
B 2 7.84
B 2.8

C 2 A2 B 2

(35
. ) 2 (2.10) 2 B 2

Trigonometry
side opposite a
sine =

hypotenuse
c
side adjacent b
cosine =

hypotenuse
c
side opposite a
tangent =

side adjacent b
hypotenuse
c
cosecant =

side opposite a

sin
cos
tan
csc

ordinate
radius
abscissa
radius
ordinate
abscissa
radius
ordinate

y
r
x
r
y
x
r
x

LAW OF SINES
The Law of Sines
C
a

b
A

a
b
c

sin A sin B sin C

Given:

A = 45
B = 30
C=?

a = 55
b=?
c=?

C = 180 - (45 + 30) = 105

55
b

sin 45 sin 30

55
c

sin 45 sin 105

55
b

.707 .50

55
c

.707 .96

.707b 27.50
b 38.89

.707c 52.8
c 74.68

Probability and Reliability

The probability of A or B occurring is:
P(A or B) = P(A) +P(B) P (A and B)

Mutually exclusive events

if two events cannot occur simultaneously
For example, in a coin tossing experiment if a
head occurs then a tail cannot.
P(A and B) = 0
P(A or B) = P(A) + P(B)

Probability and Reliability

Independent events
if two events can occur in a single experimental
trial however one event does not affect the
probability of the occurrence of the other
For example when tossing a pair of dice, rolling
a four on the first die and a four on the second
die are independent events.
P(A and B) = P(A) P(B)

Measure of Central Tendency

Measure of central tendency is a numeric
value that describes the central position or
location of the data
mean
median
mode

Mean
i 1
n

Xi
N

true mean
N total number of observations in the population
X i individual observations
X i 1
n

Xi
n

X sample mean
n total number of observations in the sample
X i individual observations

Median
The median is the middle observation in a
group of data ordered by magnitude.
The data are ordered in ascending or
descending order and counted.
The median is halfway through this ordered
list.
If there are an even number of observations,
the median is the average of the two in the
middle of the ordered list.

Mode
The mode is the value that occurs most
frequently.

Measure of Variation
Range
Range (R) = Maximum xi - Minimum xi

Variance
measure of the variability in data.

Standard Deviation
more practical to use than variance since the
units of standard deviation usually match the
units in the problem such as inches or pounds
interpretations about the variability are more
easily drawn with standard deviations

Population Variance
N

2
(
x

)
i
i 1

2
x

i
2

i 1

Where,
= the population mean
N = population measurements
xi = each individual data point

Sample Variance
n

s2

( xi x)
i 1

n 1

2
x

n
(
x
)
i
2

i 1

n 1

Where,
x = the sample mean
xi = each individual data point
n = sample size

Population Standard Deviation

N

( xi )
i 1

2
x

i
2

i 1

Sample Standard Deviation

s s2

( xi x)
i 1

n 1

2
x

n
(
x
)
i
2

i 1

n 1

Central Limit Theorem

The Central Limit Theorem states that the
distributions of sample means from an
infinite population will approach a normal
distribution as the sample size increases.
The size of the sample that will give a
nearly normal distribution depends on how
non-normal the population is.

Normal Distribution

Normal Distribution
68.26% of the observations fall between u x
95.46% of the observations fall between u 2 x
99.73% of the observations fall between u 3 x

Standard Normal Distribution

Because the mean and standard deviation of a normal
distribution can take on many different values depending
on the situation it is convenient to work with a standard
normal distribution where z is a standardized normal
x
random variable based on any normal
distribution with
mean u and standard deviation

( X )

Standard Normal Distribution

Using a table which provides areas under a
normal curve the percentage of observations
above or below a certain value can be
calculated.

Example Problem
If the diameter of shafts is normally distributed with a
mean of 1.00 and a standard deviation of 0.01 what is the
probability that a given shaft will have a diameter between
0.985 and 1.005?
1.005 1.000
0.5
0.01
0.985 1.000
z2
1.5
0.01
z1

From a cumulative area under the normal curve table, the

probability will be A1- A2 = 0.6915-0.0668 = 0.6247 or
62.47%.

3t 2 8t 3 0
(3t 1)(t 3) 0
CALCULUSt 3
setvelocity
velocity
set
= 0= 0
s t 3 4t 2 3t
1
2 2
t 330 0
3
t

8
t

3
t

8
t
ds
3
2
3t 8t 3 v
(3(t3
1)(1)(
t t 3) 3) 0 0
t

dt
t t3 3
dv3
When
t
=
3,
a
=
2t 8 a

6
t3 44tt2
3
3tt
11
sstdt
t t
1
ds
3
t=
a=
ds 3t22 8t 3 v
3
3,
3t 8t 3 v

dt
dt
dv
dv 6t 8 a
dt 6t 8 a

dt

When t = 3,

When t = 3,

a = +10

a = +10

1
t = 1 a = 10
t = 3,

a = 10

3,

CALCULUS
6t 8
6t 2 8t

c
2
1
3t 2 8t c
2

3
t
8t c

3t 3 8t 2

c
3
2
t 3 4t 2 c