(c)2002 American Institute of Aeronautics & Astronautics or Published with Permission of Author(s) and/or Author(s)' Sponsoring Organization.

AIAA

A02-14371

AIAA 2002 - 0555

Wake-Integral Determination of Aerodynamic Drag,
Lift and Moment in Three-Dimensional Flows
J.C. Wu
Applied Aero, LLC

Zephyr Cove, NV
C.M. Wang
Applied Aero, LLC
Zephyr Cove, NV
K.W. McAlister
Army Aeroflightdynamics Directorate
Moffett Field, CA

40th AIAA Aerospace Sciences Meeting & Exhibit

14-17 January 2002
Reno, Nevada
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AIAA 2002-0555
WAKE-INTEGRAL DETERMINATION OF AERODYNAMIC DRAG, LIFT AND MOMENT
IN THREE-DIEMENSIONAL FLOWS
J. C. Wu*
Applied Aero, LLC, Zephyr Cove, Nevada
C. M. Wangt
Applied Aero, LLC, Zephyr Cove, Nevada
K. W. McAlistert
Army Aeroflightdynamics Directorate, Ames Research Center, Moffett Field, California

Abstract
New wake-integral expressions for the determination of aerodynamic load on finite wings and rotors are
established using a vorticity-moment theorem. Compared to previous wake-integral expressions based on the
momentum theory, the new expressions connect the wake flow properties more directly to the aerodynamic load.
They offer enhanced physical understanding of the flow mechanisms responsible for the production of aerodynamic
force and moment and are simpler and more efficient to use. Wind-tunnel experiments are performed to validate the
wake-integral expressions for the thrust and the torque on rotors in slow climb. A three-dimensional particle-image
velocimetry system is used to obtain velocity values in the near-wake of a model rotor. Thrust and torque values
determined using the wake data are presented and compared with balance-measured values.
1. INTRODUCTION
A lifting body in flight always leaves behind in the
fluid a footprint - the wake. For more than a century,
the aerodynamicist has searched for the connection
between this footprint and the aerodynamic load on the
body. L. Prandtl connected the down wash induced by
trailing vortices - parts of the wake - to the induced
drag on the finite wing. The profound contribution of
the resulting lifting-line theory to theoretical
aerodynamics cannot be overemphasized. The research
described in the present paper is centered on the wakeintegral approach, which also connects the wake to the
aerodynamic load. This method, however, differs from
the lifting-line theory in that it focuses not on the
downwash induced by the wake, but on the wake itself.
The wake-integral method does not require the inviscid
fluid idealization and is useful in evaluating both the
inviscid drag and the viscous drag.
A wake integral in a general context is an integral
over a transverse surface downstream of a lifting solid
body. For the present work, the term 4wake integral' is
used in a more restricted context to designate a special
surface integral whose integrand vanishes outside the
vortical wake region. A. Betz 2 pioneered the wakeintegral concept and successfully established a wakeintegral expression for the steady profile drag (also
* President, Associate Fellow
t Chief Aerodynamicist
t Research Scientist
Copyright 2002 by J. C. Wu. Published by the
American Institute of Aeronautics and Astronautics,
Inc. with permission

called the parasite drag 3 ) in 1925. E. C. Maskell 4 and

J. C. Wu et al. 5 derived a wake-integral expression for
the induced drag in the 1970s. These wake-integral
expressions allow the separate determination of the
induced drag and the profile drag on the lifting body
through wake surveys over a single wake plane. Since
measurements are required only in small wake regions
where the vorticity is non-zero, both the profile drag
and the induced drag can be determined efficiently and
accurately. The advantages offered by the method in
design diagnostics are obvious.
Efforts have been in progress in recent years at
several universities and governmental and industrial
laboratories at various points of the world to further
develop the wake-integral method. Wind tunnel studies
of many aerodynamic shapes of practical importance,
including car shapes, have been performed using the
method. In a recent review article 6 on drag prediction
and reduction, I. Kroo referred to many recent efforts,
noting that successes have been reported along with
several open issues that require further investigations.
Previous studies of the wake-integral method are
mostly concerned with steady aerodynamic drag. The
present paper reports selected results of a research
program initiated in 1996 and completed recently 7.
The aim of the program is to generalize the wakeintegral method for unsteady flow applications, in
particular helicopter rotor applications. Under this
program, new wake-integral expressions are derived for
the finite wing. New wake-integral expressions are also
derived for the thrust and the torque on the rotor in
axial flight, including hover. Wind-tunnel experiments
are performed to validate the rotor expressions.

1
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2. VORTICITY MOMENT AND VORTEX LOOP

The conceptual foundation of the present research

is described in detail in a recent report . Several longstanding issues of viscous aerodynamics are examined
from the vorticity-dynamics viewpoint in the report 8.
In this paper, a vorticity-loop method for aerodynamic
analyses is described. This method is based on the
previously developed vorticity-moment theorem 9. New
wake-integral expressions are derived for the finite
wing and for the rotor in axial flight using this method.

The vorticity-moment theorem 9 contains several

mathematical statements involving integrals of vorticity
moments. These statements are derived mathematically
rigorously from the Navier-Stokes equations. For the
aerodynamic force F on a solid body, the statement is:
= -^-pf
2

dt JR.

rxcodR + p f v d R

dt JRS

(1)

where p is the density of the fluid; R, is the infinite

unlimited region composed of the solid region Rs and
the fluid region Rf; r is a position vector; v is the
velocity vector; and CO is the vorticity vector defined
by co = V x v.
The last term in (1) vanishes if the solid motion is
rectilinear and does not change with time. For most
practical applications, the contribution of this term to
the aerodynamic force is negligibly small even if the
solid is accelerating or rotating. In such applications,
the first term in (1) determines the aerodynamic force.
This term states that F is equal to -Vip times the rate of
change of the first moment of vorticity in Roo. This
region reduces to Rf if the solid is not rotating.
A Cartesian system of coordinates (x,y,z) with the
unit-vector set (i j,k) is used in the following discussion
of the vortex loop method. If the freestream velocity,
V = Ui, is aligned to the x-axis and the span of the solid
is in the y-direction, then the lift L and the drag D on
the solid are the z- and the x- components of F
respectively. The vectors r, v, and CO are stated as r =
xi + yj + zk, v = ui + vj + wk, and CO = i -f Tjj + k.
The vorticity field, as the curl of a vector field
(specifically, the velocity field), is solenoidal, i.e.,
divergence free. It has been shown 8 that the regions Rf
and Rs can be considered together kinematically. A
vorticity field in Rf (or more generally in RJ can be
viewed as being composed of closed tubes of vorticity8
whose walls are vorticity lines, i.e., lines whose tangent
at each point is in the direction of the vorticity vector at

that point. The strength of each tube (the integrated

vorticity strength co over the tube's cross-section) is the
circulation F around the tube. Since the vorticity is
solenoidal, F is the same at all sections of the tube.
Hence the vorticity strength co is inversely proportional
to the cross-sectional area of the vorticity tube.
If one views the vorticity field in Rf (or R^) as
composed of a system of vorticity tubes with small
cross-sectional areas, then the vorticity in each tube can
be approximated by a vortex loop F = Ft, where t is the
unit tangent vector of the loop's path C, as shown in
Figure la. The vector t points in the direction of the
vorticity vector in the tube. The term 'vortex loop' is
used in the following discussion for convenience. The
conclusions are obviously valid for the closed tubes of
vorticity that the vortex loops approximate.
The elemental vorticity moment rXCOdR of an
elemental region dR is approximated by rxFds, or
F(rxtds), where ds is an elemental segment of the loop.
If the vortex loop lies in the x-y plane z = zh then tds =
idx + jdy and rxtds = Zi(-idy + jdx) + k(xdy - ydx).
The integration of rxcodR over the vorticity tube Rt is

f r x c o d R ^ - F z i i f dy + Fzjfdx+rkf (xdy-ydx).
JR,
Jc
Jc
Jc
The first two integrals in this expression are zero.
Using Green's theorem, it can be shown that the last
integral gives twice the area enclosed by C. Hence the
vorticity moment A of the vortex loop F is normal to
the plane of the loop and its magnitude is twice the
loop's circulation F times the loop-enclosed area A:
A = 2FA = 2FAn

(2)

where n is the unit vector normal to the plane of the

loop and points in the direction of advance of a righthanded screw as the loop is traveled in the direction t.
A change with time of the vorticity moment A causes a
force Fr on the solid which is, according to (1) and (2):
F r =-p-(FA)

(3)

The force F on the solid is the sum of Fr over all

loops of the system representing the vorticity field.
If the path C is divided into two parts, C\ and C2, as
shown in Figure Ib, and the two dividing points are
connected by a line C', then one has two closed paths: a
path Cy formed by joining C' to C\ and another path
C2' formed by joining C' to C2. Consider a vortex loop
FI on the path Q' and another loop F2 on the path C2'.

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If F! = T2 and t2 = - tj on the line C', then F, + F2 = 0

and the combined strength of the vortex line on C' is
zero. The two smaller vortex loops FI and F2 together
are thus equivalent to a single vortex F on the path C.
This means that any vortex loop F is divisible into two
smaller loops. Successive divisions give an arbitrary
number of smaller loops that are, in aggregate,
equivalent to the loop F. A non-planar vortex loop can
be divided into a number of small loops that are
approximately planar.
Any specific vorticity
distribution can be approximated by various systems of
vortex loops configured with a great deal of flexibility.
The vector area A can be expressed in the
component form A = Axi + Ay j + Az k, where Ax, A y , Az
are the projected areas of A in the y-z, z-x and x-y
planes respectively. Also, (2) indicates that the
vorticity moment A of a vortex loop depends only on
the strength of the loop and its size and direction.
Hence A is independent of the shape and location of the
loop. In other words, a planar vortex loop with a fixed
enclosed area may deform in its own plane and undergo
rectilinear motions without altering its vorticity
moment. These facts greatly facilitate the use of the
vortex-loop method in aerodynamic analyses.
3. LIFTING LINE THEORY

The lifting-line theory models the steady flow

around a wing of finite span by a horseshoe-shaped
vortex system l. This system is composed of a lifting
line representing the circulation F(y) around the wing
and a trailing vortex sheet representing a thin wake.
With this flow model, the Kutta-Joukowski theorem is
used to derive expressions for the lift L and the induced
drag Dj on the wing. The downwash, w, at the liftingline location is viewed as a modifier of the fresstream
velocity, hence also the angle of attack, thus causing the
induced drag. The expressions for L and Dj are then:
fb/2

= pUj

Jb/2

r(y)dy

(4)

(5)

The vortex loop method is used to re-derive (4) and

(5) as follows. Consider first the idealized case of a
wing with a constant circulation F. The vortex theorem
of Helmholtz -squires that this lifting line not to end in
the fluid. The lifting-line flow model is, in this case, a
vortex line composed of the lifting line and two semiinfinite vortex lines, called tip vortices, trailing from the
tips of the lifting line. One thus has an open-ended

horseshoe-shaped vortex system. This system is

complete if the presence of the starting vortex is
recognized 8. The complete system is a rectangular
vortex loop.
The starting vortex connects the tip
vortices and closes the horseshoe-shaped system far
downstream. As the starting vortex moves away from
the wing, the tip vortices grow. The rectangular closed
vortex loop elongates and the loop remains closed.

Let the lifting line lie on the y-axis and extend

between y = -b/2 and b/2, b being the span of the wing.
If the rectangular vortex loop lies in the z = 0 plane,
then t = j, i, - j, and -i respectively on the lifting line,
the tip vortex at y = b/2, the starting vortex, and the tip
vortex at y = -b/2. Then n = -k and the area A enclosed
by the loop increases at the rate Ub. Hence, according
to (3), the growth of the rectangular vortex loop causes
a lift on the wing in the amount pUbF.
With the wing circulation F(y), the strength y(y) of
the trailing vortex sheet in the lifting-line flow model is
required by the Helmholtz vortex theorem to be l
= -dF/dy

(6)

The complete flow model includes the starting

vortex 'closing' the trailing vortex sheet far
downstream of the lifting line. Consider a system of
rectangular vortex loops placed side by side in the z = 0
plane. The vortex loops are labeled sequentially from 1
to J. The vortex loop j has a lifting-line segment on the
y-axis with the strength Fj =F(Vj) and the length 8y =
b/J. Let yj = -(b/2)+j8y and the jth lifting-line segment
be in the range y-}.\ < y < yj. There are two trailing
vortices belonging to the vortex loop j, one at y = y^
with t = - i and the other at y = yj with t = i. Coexisting
at y = ^ (except the tip points j = 0 and j = J) are two
vortex lines: the vortex line Fji belonging to the vortex
loop j and the vortex line -Fj+ii belonging to the loop
j+1. The combined strength of the two vortices is [F(Vj)
- Fty,)]. As 8y-0, [F(yj) - r(yH)]/8y -> -dF/dy.
The tip vortices of the J vortex loops in the vortex loop
system become the trailing vortex sheet with the
strength given by (6). The set of J vortex loops is thus
an approximation of the lifting-line vortex system.
With the lifting-line flow model, the trailing vortex
sheet lies in the z = 0 plane. The jth vortex loop has the
strength Fj and its area Aj increases at the rate U8y.
According to (3), this vortex loop causes a lift pUFjSy.
The total lift caused by the system of vortex loops is the
summation of this quantity over all the loops in the
vortex loop system. In the limit 8y 0, the summation
becomes (4).

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With the vortex sheet lying in the z = 0 plane, the

lifting-line flow model predicts a zero induced drag.
Prandtl developed the flow model by assuming * "the
vortices move away from the wing backwards with the
rectilinear velocity V". To re-derive the induced drag
expression (5) using the vorticity-moment theorem, this
assumption needs to be modified to include the velocity
component, w, in the analysis. With vortices moving
with the flow, w causes the vortex loops to be inclined
to the z = 0 plane. The disturbance velocity caused by
the wing is small compared to the freestream velocity.
Thus wU and the angle of inclination of each vortex
loop to the z = 0 plane is very small. The z-component
of the area Aj, (Aj)z, is = A-r This component area
grows at the rate U5y and causes, as shown, the lift
pUFjSy. The x-components of the area Aj, (Aj)x, is =
(w/U)Aj . This component area grows at the rate Wj5y
and, according to (3), causes a drag in the amount Wjp Fj8y. The total drag caused by the loop system is
the summation of this amount over all loops. In the
limit 8y0, one has (5).
As discussed, vortex loops can be divided into
smaller loops. This fact leads to a simpler way to rederive (4) and (5). At the time level t = T, introduce a
cut at the plane x=xi >0 to divide the system of J vortex
loops into two systems each containing J smaller loops:
a system Su upstream of the cut (in the region x < \\)
containing the lifting line and a second system Sd
downstream of the cut (in the region x > x^ containing
the starting vortex, as shown in Figure 2a. At the
subsequent time level T + 8t, the system Su has
expanded and the system Sd has moved downstream
with the flow. If the shape and the inclination of the
vortex loops in Sd collectively remain unaltered during
the time period 8t, then, according to the discussions in
the last paragraph of Section 2, the vorticity moment of
the system of loops in Sd at the new time level T + 8t is
the same as that at the old time level T. The system Sd
therefore does not cause a force. At the new time level
T + St, again introduce a cut at the plane x = Xi to divide
the system Su into two new systems. With a steady
flow, the new upstream system at the new time level is
identical to the system Su at the old time level I.
Therefore the change of vorticity moment that took
place during 8t is attributable entirely to the vorticity
moment of the new downstream system, shown in
shade in Figure 2b. This system occupies the region xi
< x < \i + U6t. The jth loop in this region is inclined to
the z = 0 plane at a small angle. This vorticity moment
of the loop is 2FjWj5y8ti-2rjU8y8tk. This newly
emerged vorticity moment causes a lift pUFj8y and a
drag -pWjFj8y. Summing these forces over the loops in
the new down-stream system and letting 8y > 0, one
has (4) and (5).

4. WAKE INTEGRALS FOR THE FINITE WING

Using (6), one obtains F = d(yF)/dy + yy. The

integration of d(yF)/dy over the span of the wing is zero
since F=0 outside the wing tips. One thus has, from (4),
L = pU

pb/2

J-b/2

yydy

(7)

Using (6), one has wF = wd(yF)/dy +ywy. For a

symmetric wing, the term wd(yF)/dy is anti-symmetric
with respect to y=0. The integration of this term over
the span of the wing is therefore zero and (5) becomes

/2

b/2

yw(y)y(y)dy

(8)

The strength y approximates the integrated vorticity

value across the wake layer. With the layer inclined at
a very small angle to the plane z=0, y is the integration
of respect to z over the wake region. One thus reexpresses (7) and (8) in the wake-integral form:

puJ
= p f yw^dydz

(9)
(10)

where Wis the wake cross-section.

Equation (10) is a new wake-integral expression
for the induced drag. An wake-integral expression for
the induced drag, developed previously 5on the basis the
momentum theory, is in the form
(11)

where \|/ is a stream function in the y-z plane.

It has been shown 8 that the new expression (10) is
equivalent to the previous expression (11). With
measured wake velocity values, corresponding vorticity
values can be computed easily. The induced drag can
then be evaluated using (10). The numerical procedure
required is simple and efficient. In contrast, the use of
(11) requires the computation of the stream function
\|/ by integrating the velocity values. The procedure for
the integration is relatively complex and prone to error.
The use of the new wake-integral expression (10) is
therefore preferred over the previous expression (11).
The equivalence of (10) and (11) endorses the use of
the vortex-loop method in aerodynamic analysis.

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A wake-integral expression for the profile drag 8 on

the finite wing can be established using the vorticity
moment theorem. The wake-integral expressions link
the footprints of the wing to the aerodynamic force on
the wing. This linkage is discussed in Section 6 in
connection with wake-integral results for the rotor.
5. WAKE INTEGRALS FOR THE ROTOR

A cylindrical coordinate system (r, 0, z) with the

unit-vector set (er, ee , e z ) is used in the present study of
the hovering rotor problem. The vectors r, v, and CO are
stated as r = e r r + ez z, v = er v r + ee ve + ez vz, and (0 =
er 0)r + ee (Oe + ez civ A stationary reference frame at
rest relative to the fluid far from the rotor is used. The
rotor disk is placed in the z = 0 plane. The rotor rotates
about the z-axis with the angular velocity Q.
The circulation F(r) around the blade depends on
the span location. According to the Helmholtz vortex
theorem, the blade must leave behind wake vorticity as
it advances azimuthally. For a thin wake, the vorticity
content of the wake can be approximated by a vortex
sheet with the strength y = dF/dr. (The negative sign in
(6) is absent with the ordering of the unit-vector set er,
ee, ez.) For a rotor in hover or in climb, the velocity vz
transports the wake vorticity continually in the axial
direction. A helical wake is therefore present under the
rotor disk. The blade circulation is connected through
this helical wake, which is in turn connected to the
starting vorticity at the far end of the helical wake.
Consider a system of J helical vortex loops. Let
the jth loop contain a lifting-line segment of strength Fj
= F(VJ). Let this segment be on the r-axis in the z = 0
plane and occupy the radial range TJ.\ < r < TJ, with TJ =
rj_! + 5r, 6r = R/], R being the rotor disk radius. This
lifting line segment is trailed by two helical tip vortices.
These tip vortices are connected far downstream by a
starting vortex segment. This system of vortex loops
approximates the lifting line of the blade, the helical
vortex sheet, and the starting vortex.
At the time level T, designate the blade position by
6 = 0 . Introduce a cut at the plane 6 = 81 < 0 to divide
the system of J vortex loops into two systems each
containing J smaller loops: a system Su in the region 6 >
61, containing the blade, and a second system Sd in the
region 0< 61, containing the starting vortex. At the
subsequent time l^^el T + 8t, the system Su has
expanded. Introduce a new cut at the plane 0 =0i+ QSt
to divide the system Su into two new systems each
containing J smaller loops. Following the discussions
of Section 4, the newly emerged vorticity moment in

the pie-shaped region 0 t < 0 < 0! + QSt causes the

aerodynamic force on the rotor.

The jth vortex loop in the pie-shaped region

encloses the area -rjQ 8r8tez - (vz)j8r8tee. Therefore,
according to (2) and (3), there is a thrust prjQFj8r and
an induced drag p(vz)jF8r caused by the jth loop. The
thrust on the blade is the sum of prjQFjSr over j. In the
limit as Sr -0, one obtains an expression for the thrust
on one blade. For an n-bladed rotor, the thrust T is
given by
CH
T = npQ rFdr
Jo

(12)

Using the relation y = dF/dr, one obtains rF =

V/id(r2F)/dr -Vx2y. Since F = 0 immediately outside the
blade tip, the integration of Vkl(r2r)/dr over the span of
the blade is zero. One therefore obtains from (12)
npQ

Jo

r^ydr

(13)

The strength y is the integrated vorticity value

across the wake. With vz rQ, y is the integrated (Oe
value across the wake with respect to z. Equation (13)
is expressed as a wake-integral expression:
(14)

Wake integral expressions have been obtained for

the induced drag and the profile drag 7 on the rotor.
More important are wake-integral expressions for the
torque Qi due to the induced drag and the torque Qp due
to the profile drag.
These expressions have been
derived using the vorticity-moment theorem7:

r v Z co^drdz
D

(15)

r zcordrdz

(16)

QD=np

The GO,, vorticity layer is left behind by boundary

layers surrounding the blade. For the thin wake, the
computation of (Or can be avoided by placing o\ =
-d\o/dz into (16). By noting that z(3ve/3z) = 3(zve)/3z
-ve, and that the integration of 3(zvq)/dz over the layer
is 0, one obtains an expression in terms of ve:
Qo=nf

'iv

r v^drdz
e

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6. EXPERIMENTS AND RESULTS

Rotor tests were performed in the U.S. Army
Aeroflightdynamics Directorate (AFDD) 7' by 10'
Wind Tunnel at the NASA Ames Research Center. A
two-bladed model rotor was mounted in the settling
chamber of the wind tunnel. The axis of the model
rotor was aligned with the tunnel flow direction. The
wake of the model rotor passed through the contraction
section and the test section of the tunnel. In previous
rotor tests in the AFDD 7' x 10' wind tunnel, F.
Caradonna et al. M demonstrated the advantages of
simulating rotor climb flows using this test
configuration. Descriptions n of the test configuration,
the physical layout, the rotor, and the instrumentation of
these previous tests are for the most part applicable to
the present tests. Modifications and additions were
made to obtain particle images in the wake of the model
rotor and to address the issue of rotor-driven flow
returning to the settling chamber.
The flow circuit of the wind tunnel is shown in
Figure 3. A flow seeder was used to introduce particles
into the flow for particle imaging. A three-dimensional
particle-image velocimetry (PIV) system was used to
obtain particle images in the near wake of the model
rotor. Major components of the PIV system are two
2,000 x 2,000 pixel digital cameras, lens sets, remote
focus system, high-speed interface and digital links,
control cables, computers for acquiring and storing
particle images, and laser light source and mirror
systems. Figure 4 shows the camera and light sheet
configuration used.

at 870 rpm. Tests were run with the collective pitch

angles of the rotor blade set at 1, 3, 5, 7, 9 and 11.
Thrust and torque were measured using the balance
mounted on the rotor's drive shaft. The measurements
showed that the thrust and the torque on the model rotor
were not significantly affected by the blockage of the
rotor-driven flow.
In these test runs, flow velocities were measured in
the test section using vane- and thermo-anemometers.
Total volume flow rates through the test section were
determined from the measured test section velocities. It
was found that the flow through the test section was
reduced between 14% and 21% by the blockage of the
rotor driven flow. Balance-measured thrust values were
used to estimate the flow through the rotor disk using
the axial momentum theory. It was found that flow
through the test section was between 2.5 and 2.9 times
the estimated flow through the rotor disk, indicating
that a sizeable portion of the flow through the test
section did not go through the rotor disk.
Measured velocity contours in the test section
indicated that the rotor wake was diffused by the time it
entered the test section. It is postulated that the wake,
together with the fluid it entrained on its way to the test
section, accelerated slightly in the contraction section.
The acceleration lowered the static pressure in the test
section slightly. This lowered test section pressure
created a flow external to the 'slipstream' of the wake.
The flow through the test section is therefore composed
of the rotor wake and a flow external to the rotor wake.

The AFDD 7' x 10' wind tunnel is a closed-circuit

tunnel. The cross-section of the settling chamber is 30'
x 31'. The cross-section of the test section is 7' x 10'.
The model rotor has a nominal diameter of 7' and a true
diameter of 6.283'. The wake of the model rotor was
expected to flow through the test section with minimal
interaction with test-section walls. With the tunnel
drive-fan off, the model rotor acted as a substitute drive
fan and created a flow through the tunnel's flow circuit.
Thus, with the tunnel drive-fan off, a climb condition
rather than a true hover condition was expected to exist
in the settling chamber.

The momentum flux at the test section was

estimated using measured average velocities and found
to be greater than the thrust on the rotor. This excess of
momentum flux supported the view that a pressure
difference existed between the settling chamber and the
test section. The average settling chamber flow
velocity was very low. (With the curtain installed, this
velocity was 1.55 fps for the 11 case, of which 0.54 fps
was due to the estimated flow of the rotor wake.) Only
a minuscule pressure difference would produce the
measured amount of flow through the test section.
Experimental verification of this minute pressure
difference is therefore difficult.

To evaluate the strength of the rotor-driven flow, a

curtain was installed at the air exchanger section of the
tunnel to block the rotor-driven flow from returning to
the settling chamber. Fresh air was admitted to the
settling chamber through openings downstream of the
curtain, as shown in Figure 3. Prior to acquiring wake
data using the PIV system, tests were run both with the
curtain in place and with it removed. During these
tests, the tunnel drive-fan was off and the rotor operated

Wake-integral expressions presented in Section 5

are applicable to rotors in axial flight, with hover as a
special case. The question as to what specific flow rate
corresponds to the true hover state is not essential to the
present work. Future test runs with the test section
access doors open to equalize the static pressure in the
test section with ambient air are desirable. With the
access doors open, the measured flow rate through the
test section can be used to establish the true hover state.

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The curtain at the air exchanger section of the

tunnel was installed to block the return of the rotordriven flow during PIV test runs. The tunnel drive fan
was off. Two pulsed laser-light sheets were introduced
in a plane parallel to the rotor's axis, as shown in Figure
4. As the rotor rotated, its blades passed through this
light sheet repeatedly. The rotor was operated at 870
rpm to match the maximum pulse rate of the laser. The
blade-tip speed was about 286 fjps and compressibility
effects were not important. The light sheet was aligned
to the trailing edge of the blade at the instant the blade
advanced passed the sheet. This instant of time was
used as a reference time level. A set of 25 images was
acquired at the same blade azimuth during a series of
blade revolutions. The images were combined to
produce time-averaged velocity fields at specific
relative positions between the blade and the wakesurvey plane.
Figure 5 shows the geometry of the rotor blade and
the position of the light sheet relative to the blade at the
time levels particle images were acquired. The light
sheet was stationary while the blade advanced during
the tests. The distance between the blade tip and the
light sheet designates the relative position of the
particle images (wake-survey plane) and the blade. For
example, a 2.0-c (two-chord) wake-survey plane
designates particle images acquired at the instant the
blade tip advanced two chords from the plane.
Particle images were acquired for two collective
pitch angles, 5 and 11, in three contiguous rectangular
data patches along the blade span. Each patch covered
approximately 6" of span and 10" of axial distance.
The three patches together covered about 17.6" of span
extending between 20.9"
from the rotor axis to 0.8"
outboard of the blade tip. In the axial direction, the
boundaries of each zone were about 3" upstream and 7"
downstream of the rotor disk.
Figures 6 and 7 show contours of the velocity ve
and the vorticity Cfle at the wake survey planes 2.0-c for
the 5 and the 11 cases. The ve velocity deficit layer
represents a layer of ov This layer is the footprint of
the two boundary layers on the blade surface. This
layer is composed of two sub-layers, one from the
upper boundary layer and the other from the lower
boundary layer. The (Or contents of the two sub-layers
have different signs. The positive and negative
vorticity o\ in the two layers are connected by ci>z to
form closed vorticity loops in the 9-plane. The
presence of the vorticity coz, though not shown, can be
inferred from the presence of the 0^ sub-layers. As time
progresses, vorticity loops emerge in successive 0planes.
With downwash, a helical wake layer

composed of vorticity loops that lay in planes normal to

the helical layer is formed. In order to determine the
profile drag, the sub-structure of the helical o\ layer
must be recognized. If the a^ layer is approximated as
a vortex sheet, in other words, a layer of zero thickness,
then the profile drag cannot be detected. This is
because the approximation makes vorticity moment zo\
zero and therefore (16) gives a zero profile drag. The
approximation masks the deficit of ve in the wake and
thus (17) gives a zero profile drag.
The (Oe vorticity in the wake is the footprint of the
circulation change along the span of the blade. This
footprint is linked by (14) and (15) to the thrust and the
induced torque on the rotor. Figures 6 and 7 show that
the coe wake associated with each blade is composed of
a strong tip vortex, i.e., a helical tube of intense co&
trailing the blade tip, and a weak helical layer of co&
inboard of the tip vortex. The blades of the present
tests are twisted.
The observed (0& distribution
indicates that the circulation around the blade changes
slowly along the span and drops abruptly to zero
outside the tip.
The sign of co^ in the inboard layer is opposite to
that in the tip vortex.
The (Oe layer can be
approximated by a vortex sheet, without losing pivotal
information about either the thrust or the induced torque
on the rotor. This is because this inboard co^ layer,
unlike the co^ layer, is not composed of sub-layers
containing vorticity of different signs. This OG& layer is
a part of the vortex loops lying in the helical wake
sheet, not normal to the sheet. The presence of a hub
vortex and a starting vortex is inferred by the presence
of the helical layer of cog. The hub vortex and the
starting vortex, together with the circulation around the
blade, complete the vorticity loops containing the
vorticity 009. The hub vortex and the starting vortex are
both outside the three data patches of the present tests.
The presence of tip vortices is evident in Figures 6
and 7. Two traces of tip vortices appear in Figure 7 for
the 11 case. The one very close to the rotor disk is
associated with the blade that most recently passed
through the wake-survey plane. For convenience, this
blade is called the first blade. The second trace is
associated with the second blade, which is about 180
from the survey plane at the instant particle images are
taken. A third trace of a tip vortex is observed in
Figure 6 for the 5 case. This third trace is the footprint
of the first blade during its previous passage through
the wake-survey plane.
The layers of C0r and 0)9 leave the blade together
and they are transported in the fluid by identical

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physical processes of convection and diffusion. The

two layers therefore occupy the same physical space.
The structures of the rotor wake described above
are evident at all wake-survey planes. The thinness of
the inboard vorticity layers in Figures 6 and 7 indicates
that for both the 5 and the 11 cases, any significant
flow separation, if present, is restricted to the root
portion of the blade not covered by the data patches.
As the tip vortex moves axially, it also moves
inboard. Figure 6 shows that, for the 5 case, the tip
vortices move axially at a speed substantially slower
than that of the inboard wake layer. The movements of
the second blade's tip vortex bring it to the path of the
first blade's inboard wake layer. A strong interaction
between the inboard wake layer of the first blade and
the tip vortex of the second blade then occurs. For the
11 case, the axial speed of the tip vortex is greater.
The strong interaction between the inboard vorticity
layer of the first blade and the tip vortex of the second
blade is not observed in Figure 6.
Spurious vorticity along the boundaries connecting
the three data patches is observed in Figures 6 and 7.
This spurious vorticity is attributable to an inexact
matching of the three data patches in the tests. For
wake-integral analyses, this spurious vorticity is filtered
and disregarded.
Figure 7 also shows widespread
traces of background noises. The noises are weak and
do not have significant effects on wake-integral results.
Wake data at the 0.5-c wake-survey plane contain
excessive spurious values. The quality of these data is
not sufficiently high for meaningful aerodynamic
analyses. For the 11 case, wake data for the innermost
data patch are either missing or not of sufficiently high
quality at the 1.0-c, 4.0-c and 5.0-c wake-survey planes.
The qualities of all other acquired wake data are
comparable to those shown in Figures 6 and 7.

Because of the strong interaction between the

vorticity layers left behind by the first blade and the tip
vortex left behind by the second blade, the wake data
for the 5 case are not suitable for the evaluation of the
profile torque. Profile torque values are determined
using (17) and wake data for the 11 case. As noted,
the three data patches cover only the outboard r > 20.9
portion of the wake. In evaluating the profile torque,
the contribution of the missing inboard wake data is
estimated by assuming the inboard o\ layer does not
change with the span in the root portion of the wake.
Based on this assumption, the missing c\ layers in the
wake-survey planes 2.0-c and 3.0-c are estimated to
contribute 17% of the total profile torque. For the
wake-survey planes 1.0-c, 4.0-c and 5.0-c, the missing

(Or layer in the root portion of the blade, including those

in the innermost data patch, is estimated to contribute
36% of the total profile drag.
Wake data at the 2.0-c and the 3.0-c wake-survey
planes for the 11 case show that the o\ content in the
wake layer does not change rapidly in the two inboard
data patches. The estimated contributions of the
missing inboard data do, however, introduce
uncertainties in the evaluation of the profile torque.
This uncertainty is due in part to the physical presence
of the root structure of the model rotor. Also, with the
twisted blade, it is possible that flow separates over a
root portion of the blade, especially in the 11 case.

The vorticity 0)9 in the inboard layer is found to be

very weak. For example, for the 11 case, the
magnitude of the integrated co& value in the inboard
layer is determined to be 1.4% of that in the tip vortex
at the 2.0-c wake-survey plane. As (15) and (14) show,
the contributions of (Oeto the induced torque and the
thrust are weighted by the factor r2. The missing data in
the root portion of the blade span is therefore
unimportant in the evaluation of the induced torque and
the thrust using wake-integrals. Since the tip vortex is
located in the outermost data patch, the induced torque
and the thrust on the rotor can be accurately determined
using only wake data in this outermost data patch.
Induced torque values, determined using (15), are
shown in Figure 8 for the 11 case. Total torque values
are obtained by adding the values of profile torque,
determined using (17), to the induced drag values. The
very good agreement between the balance-measured
value and the total torque values determined using wake
data at survey planes 1.0-c and 2.0-c is unforeseen
since, as discussed, the missing inboard wake-data
introduce uncertainties in computing the profile torque.
Figure 9 shows the thrust on the rotor determined
using (14). The agreements between the wake-integral
results and the balance-measured thrust at all wake
survey planes for both the 5 and the 11 cases are
reasonably good and encouraging.

Wake-integral expressions are derived in Section 5

by analyzing the rate of emergence of new vorticity
moment in the wake. It is therefore preferable to use
wake-survey planes close to the blade. As discussed,
the o>r layer is composed of two sub-layers containing
OT with opposite signs. As the wake ages, diffusion
disperses the vorticity and partially annihilates the
positive Or and the negative 0)r in the two sub-layers.
The wake-integral expression (16), or equivalently (17),
therefore provides more accurate profile torque values

8
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at wake-survey planes closer to the blade. Diffusion

effects are less important in the determination of the
thrust and the induced torque since (0& resides nearly
wholly in tip vortices.
7.

CONCLUSIONS

The wake-integral method connects the footprints

left behind by a solid body in flight to the aerodynamic
force and moment on the body. Through this
connection, the task of solving a three-dimensional
aerodynamic flow problem is reduced to one of
evaluating the footprints in a two-dimensional planar
area. Information about these footprints can be
acquired either experimentally or computationally. By
reducing the dimensionality of the information required
to determine the aerodynamic load from three to two,
the method offers major advantages in all three
branches of aerodynamics - theoretical, experimental
and computational. The method is efficient since the
required footprint information is restricted to the small
vortical wake region of the flow.
The central theoretical task of the wake-integral
method is the establishment of wake-integral
expressions. In the present research, a vorticity-loop
method was developed and used to derive new wakeintegral expressions for the finite wing problem.
Compared to previous wake-integral expressions for the
induced and the profile drags, the new wake-integral
expressions are remarkably simpler and more efficient.
New wake-integral expressions are also derived,
using the vorticity-loop method, for the thrust, the
induced torque and the profile torque on the rotor.
These expressions connect the footprints of the rotor
blade to the aerodynamic load on the rotor. The
azimuthal component of the wake vorticity is connected
to the thrust and the induced torque. The radial
component of the wake vorticity is connected to the
profile torque. The axial component of the wake
vorticity does not need to be known explicitly. Its
presence in the wake and its contribution to the
aerodynamic load are inferred from those of the
azimuthal and radial components of the wake vorticity.
With the new wake-integral expressions, the use of
wake data very close to the trailing edge of the lifting
body is preferred. This fact offers an important
advantage to the use of CFD in wake-integral analyses.
Numerical methods capable of accurately simulating
the near wake are useful, even i* ihe far wake cannot be
accurately simulated because of numerical diffusion.

Experiments performed in the present research

have validated the practicality and the major advantages

of the wake-integral method. The power of threedimensional particle-image velocimetry in experimental

aerodynamics has also been demonstrated. In addition
to providing quantitative wake data, particle imaging
has brought into focus wake features often disregarded
in the past. These wake features are relatively
inconspicuous, but important to viscous and unsteady
aerodynamic analyses.

Efforts of the present program have laid the

foundation for continued efforts to construct a practical
aerodynamic design tool using the wake-integral
method.
Acknowledgements
The contribution of the wind-tunnel task-team for
the present research is gratefully acknowledged.
Members of this team include Anita I. Abrego, Brian H.
Chan, Steven Chan, Lauura Galvas, Joel T. Gunter,
Elizabeth M. Hendley, Jon L. Lautenschlager and
David W. Pfluger. Samuel S. Huang served as the onsite engineer of Applied Aero throughout the planning
and execution phases of the wind tunnel tests. Dr. Luiz
Lourenco designed the particle image velocimetry
system and provided related technical support,
including the processing of particle images. Dr. Chee
Tung's support and timely advice throughout this
research program is also gratefully acknowledged.

References
1. Prandtl, L. "Applications of Modern Hydrodynamics
to Aerodynamics", Report No.l 16, National Advisory
Committee on Aeronautics, 1921
2. Betz, A. "Ein Verfahren zur Direkten Ermittlung des
Profilwiderstandes", Zeitschrift fur Flugtechnik und
Motorluftschiffahrt, Vol. 3, 1925
3. Anderson, Jr., J. D. "A History of Aerodynamics",
Cambridge 1997

4. Maskell, E. C. "Progress Towards a Method of

Measurement of the Components of the Drag of a
Wing of Finite Span", Technical Report 72232, Royal
Aircraft Establishment, 1973

5. Wu, J. C., Hackett, J. E., and Lilley, D. E. "A

General Wake Integral Approach for Drag
Determination in Three-Dimensional Flows", AIAA
Paper No. 79-0279, 1979
6. Kroo, I. "Drag due to Lift: Concepts for Prediction
and Reduction", Annual Review of Fluid Mechanics,
Vol. 33, 2001

American Institute of Aeronautics and Astronautics

(c)2002 American Institute of Aeronautics & Astronautics or Published with Permission of Author(s) and/or Author(s)' Sponsoring Organization.

7.

Wu, J. C. and Wang, C. M. "Separate

Determination of Coexisting Components of
Aerodynamic Drag on Rotors", USAAMCOM TR01-D10, Aviation Applied Technology Directorate,
U.S. Army Aviation and Troop Command, 2001

Air Exchanger Section

J

8. Wu, J. C. "Theoretical Aerodynamics based on

Vorticity Dynamics", Applied Aero LLC, Report
2001-A1231,2001
9.

Wu, J. C. "Theory for Aerodynamic Force and

Moment in Viscous Flows", AIAA Journal, Vol.
19, 1981
Settling Chamber

10. Caradonna, F., Henley, E., Silva, M., Huang, S.,

Komerath, N., Reddy, U., Mahalingam, R., Funk,
R., Wong, O., Ames, R., Darden, L., Villareal, L.,
and Gregory, J., "An Experimental Study of a
Rotor in Axial Flight" Proceedings, Specialists'
Meeting for Rotorcraft Aeroacoustics and
Aerodynamics, American Helicopter Society, 1997.

Figure 3. Wind tunnel flow circuit.

r
Closed tube
of varticitv

Figure la. Vortex loop approximation of vorticity tube.

o r2

Figure Ib. Division of vortex loop into smaller loops.

Figure 4. Particle imaging system layout.

75.40-

Figure 2a. Lifting-line vortex-loop systems at time t = T.

4.03

-1 KUSt

7.55 degree linear twist

New upstream system

Transported Sd

Expanded Su
Figure 2b. Lifting-line vortex-loop systems at time t = T + 5t.

Figure 5. Blade geometry and wake-survey planes.

10

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velocity

-6.00
-7.36

tea

14 14

-8.71

I
10.07
!-~! 11.43
^sw* 12.79

_______

15^0

16>86

S 18^1
P 19^7
BKs>i 20.93
22.29
23.64
25.00

:
/
, , . i i .

vorticity

>W
M,
r*-n
r-TJ

-C*=> o <=> 0 o 0 -=>

'm

281 43
n 245
H 208-
l
i
-57
S 172.14

$\

K^OC^C-K

^~ir
^

VORX
500.00
463.57
427.14
390.71
354^9
317.86

e^-^~^~-^S^'

l^ 135.71
id 99-29
S 62.86

26.43
-10.00

<

_ _ _ _ Batence-MeasuredJotal
a
Wake-Integral, Induced

Wake-Integral, Total

-f)

( ,

Distance between Blade and Wake Plane(chord)

r(ln)

Figure 8. Rotor torque, 11-degree collective pitch.

Figure 6. Streamwise velocity and vorticity contours.

2-chord wake survey plane
5-degree collective-pitch angle

5-degree collective

velocity

_ _ _ _ Balance-Measured

Wake-Integral

30

Distance between Blade and Wake Plane(chord)

tin)

vorticity

VORX

11 -degree collective

500.00
H 463.57
m 427.14
H 390.71

H 354.29
317.86
281.43
245.00
208.57
172.14
135.71
99.29
62.86
26.43
| -10.00

- - - - Balance-Measured

Wake-Integral

Distance between Blade and Wake>lane(chord)

r<ln)

Figure 7. Streamwise velocity and vorticity contours.

2-chord wake survey plane
11-degree collective-pitch angle

Figure 9. Rotor thrust, 5- and 11-degree collective pitch.

11

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