International Journal of Electronics and Communication Engineering & Technology

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Volume 7, Issue 1, Jan-Feb 2016, pp. 75-86, Article ID: IJECET_07_01_008
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A SURVEY OF RADIATION HARDENING

BY DESIGN (RHBD) TECHNIQUES FOR
ELECTRONIC SYSTEMS FOR SPACE
APPLICATION
Rakesh Trivedi
Ph.D. Research Scholar, EC Department,
Nirma University, Ahmedabad, Gujarat, India
Usha S Mehta
Professor, EC Department, Nirma University,
Ahmedabad, Gujarat, India
ABSTRACT
Considering the extensive usage of electronic systems in Spacecraft and
harsh radiation environment in the Space, radiation effects on electronic
systems and development of radiation hardening electronic systems have been
a topic of research. Researchers are trying to solve this problem at various
abstraction levels, starting from fabrication technology to packaging and at
system level. This paper covers an exhaustive survey on Radiation Hardening
by Design. This survey has covered the research work from nearly 80s to
current state of art.
Key words: Displacement Damage (DD), Radiation, Radiation Hardening by
Design (RHBD), Single Event Effect (SEE), Total Ionizing Dose (TID).
Cite this Article: Rakesh Trivedi and Usha S Mehta. A Survey of Radiation
Hardening by Design (RHBD) Techniques for Electronic Systems for Space
Application. International Journal of Electronics and Communication
Engineering & Technology, 7(1), 2016, pp. 75-86.
http://www.iaeme.com/IJECET/issues.asp?JType=IJECET&VType=7&IType=1

1. INTRODUCTION
A radiation source in space includes Solar flares, Coronal mass ejections, Solar wind,
Galactic cosmic rays, Van Allen radiation belts, solar particle events etc. This
radiation environment consists of particles such as photons, electrons, neutrons, and
heavy ions. Widely, two major effects are with respect to radiation effects are 1)

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Cumulative Effect 2) Single Event Effect (SEE). The classification of radiation effects
shown in Fig. 1

Figure 1 Various Radiation effects induced in electronic devices

SEE: Single Event Effect
TID: Total Ionizing Dose
DD: Displacement Damage
SET: Single Event Transient

MBU & MCU: Multiple-Bit Upset and

Multiple-Cell Upset
SEFI: Single Event Functional Interrupt
SEL: Single Event Latch-up
SEB: Single Event Burnout
SEGR: Single Event Gate Rupture

The charge particles can hit the ICs, results in non-destructive or destructive
effects depends on the charge intensity and strike location. Particle hit leads to
erroneous performance. When a particle hit introduces IC malfunctioning but does not
damage it permanently called soft-error. Whereas any permanent damage to device
due to particle hit is regard as a hard-error. Cumulative effect is long-term effect and
changes parameters of the device. Further, it divided in to two effects. One is TID
effect, which is a result of the hole trapping in gate oxide region. When any energetic
particle hit on gate of the MOSFET or at STI (Shallow Trench Isolation) region at this
condition holes are trapping inside gate oxide or STI region, which damage the
structure of the both, gate oxide as well as isolation oxide. Due to hole trapping in
gate oxide, changes the threshold voltages of the device and due to hole trapping in
isolation oxide between two devices increasing leakage current. Another effect is
Displacement Damage (DD) effect which occurs when any energetic particle displace
atoms in silicon or insulator and creates electrically active defects. DD effect also
known as TNID (Total Non-Ionizing Dose).
SEE effect is further subdividing in to six effects. In Single Event Upset effect,
upset the storage node charge in memory due to particle strike and change the logic
level. SEU are observing in storage elements like Flip-Flop, latches SRAM cells. If
SEU effect occurring multiple storage nodes in memory, it is known as MBU &
MCU. Due to SEU effect in processor, FPGAs etc. functionally of the circuits
disturbs. This effect called SEFI. Single Event Transient is an energy pulse due to
strike on sensitive node of the circuit. Sensitive nodes are off nMOS or pMOS
transistors in the circuits. Single Event Transient (SET) effect is observing in
Combinational logic circuits. If the duration of SET pulse are more than the clock
frequency of the circuit may disturb the function of the circuits or upset the memory if
SET pulse is occurs at clock edge. SEL is triggering of the thyristor (PNPN structure)
mainly exiting in CMOS circuits due to radiation. SEB effect is occurs in power
MOSFET devices when source is forward biased and drain-source current is higher
than the breakdown voltage of the parasitic structures. SEGR effect occurs when
particle damages the gate oxide insulation of the power MOSFET. A TID, DD, SEL,
SEB and SEGR effect creates permanent damage to the devices so these types of
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A Survey of Radiation Hardening by Design (RHBD) Techniques For Electronic Systems for
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effects are categorised under hard error. SEU, SEFI, MBU & MCU are affects device
or circuits temporary so these effects are categorised under Soft error.
The rest of the paper is organised as Section 2 discusses different Radiation
Hardening by Design techniques, followed by conclusion.

2. RADIATION HARDENING BY DESIGN

This section presents mitigation techniques to be applying at design level to reduce
the effect of radiation. Storage elements like Flip-Flops, Latches, and SRAMs are
more sensitive elements than combinational circuits. Radiation Hardening by design
can done by two ways: 1) By Layout modification 2) By circuit design modification

2.1. Hardness by Layout Design

In order to mitigate effects like TID, SEL and SEE, two-layout design techniques are
in used 1) Enclosed Layout Transistor 2) Guard Ring. While Enclosed Layout
Transistor mitigates TID effect, SEL effects can handled better by using Guard Rings.
Layout Design modification can be brought in many different manner. The
Fig. 2(a) and Fig.2 (b) shows conventional and enclosed nMOS transistor layout.
Enclosed Layout Transistor (ELT) is not the only member of this category. Ringed
source and ringed inter-digitated design are two such layout techniques for mitigating
TID effects. All these three layout techniques focus on preventing leakage current
between source and drain. Fig.2(c) and Fig.2 (d) shows layout for Ringed Source and
Ringed interdigitated Transistors, respectively [1].

Figure 2 (a) Conventional two edge nMOS and (b) Enclosed Layout Transistor nMOS (c)
Ringed Source Transistor (d) Ringed inter-digitated Transistor

Although, they provide compact design as compared to ELT, sometimes they are
not immune to TID effects. The most commonly used layout technique for TID
prevention is ELT, which is briefly describing as follow:
2.1.1. Enclosed Layout Transistor
In the beginning, this type of layout design proposed to prevent gate leakage current
in conventional CMOS process. However, after detailed mathematical analysis
performed by A. Giraldo [1] [2] for effective aspect ratio calculations, this layout
technique is being increasingly used to prevent radiation effects in nuclear and space
environment. [3]. Fig. 3(a) shows enclosed gate layout transistor where, the gate is
surrounded from outside by Drain (or Source) and enclosed Source (or Drain).

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Figure 3 (a) Enclosed Gate Layout of Transistor (b) Guard Ring in nMOS Transistor

The effective aspect ratio of ELT transistor can well estimate by below formula
[1] [2] [3]:
(1)

Where, c, d, d' = d c / 2 and is as shown in Fig. 3(a). Leff is effective gate

length, etching, and diffusion. The parameter has been take into account for
identifying borderline between transistors T1 and T2 in Fig. 3(a). Typical value of is
0.05 and has been found to be technology independent. The parameter K that
multiplies the second term in (1) is geometry dependent. For long channel devices (L
greater than 0.5 m), the K value is 4. When the channel width of transistors is being
shorter (L equal or less than 0.5 m), the value of K is gradually decreases from 4 to
3.5, since the polysilicon strip starts to hide T2 [3]. The constant polysilicon strip
width denoted by A is independent of the gate length L and is equal to minimum gate
width. The first part of (1) corresponds to the four linear edge transistors (T1), the
second part seven to eight angle corner transistors (T2), the third part to the three liner
corner transistors (T3) [4][5]. From experiments it has been found that threshold
voltage shift for ELT is less than 5mV for 70kGy (SiO2) of total radiation. In
addition, it has been show that threshold voltage variation decreases with increase in
gate length L [4] [5].
2.1.2. Guard Ring
Latch up in CMOS due to parasitic thyristor formation, it can leads to device
destruction. Due to this conducting parasitic thyristor a low resistance path forms
between VDD and VSS, which established a significant high current flow, and leads
to device breakdown. The solution to this problem is that a high resistance path
should exist between two supply voltages, which will decrease the current value.
One way to reduce amount of current is to decrease the gain of parasitic
transistors. This can be done by increasing the distance between the adjacent
MOSFETS. The limitation of this technique is it decreases circuit density. Fig. 3(b)
shows the layout of MOSFET with a guard ring. For efficient prevention of SEL,
nMOS should guarded by a p+ ring and pMOS with n+ ring. Guard rings helps to

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A Survey of Radiation Hardening by Design (RHBD) Techniques For Electronic Systems for
Space Application

prevent inter device leakage. It has reported that devices implementing guard rings
show a very high tolerance to SEL (LET > 90 (MeV cm2) / mg) [5].

2.2. Hardness by Circuit Design

For the study of circuit, behaviour against SEU is recognizing sensitive nodes in the
circuit. SEU sensitive nodes are OFF transistors in the circuit. Here, it has tried to
mitigate Single Event Effects and especially Single Event Upset using techniques like
1) adding transistor redundancy to existing logic, 2) charge sharing between devices.
However, primary focus for preventing SEUs at Circuit Design level has been adding
extra redundant logic to existing logic while using same commercial process
technologies. Some of those techniques are discussing below:
2.2.1. Rockett Memory Cell
Rockett has presented first radiation-hardened latch in 1988 [6].
transistors surround this standard 6-transistor memory element.

6-P channel

Figure 4 (a) SEU hardened Memory Cell by Rockett (IBM) [6] (b) SEU-Hardened Memory
Cell by Whitaker (NASA) [7]

This design leads to a 16 transistor radiation-hardened latch with input buffer,

widely known as Rockett Memory Cell and shown in Fig. 4(a).
2.2.2. Whitaker Memory Cell
A second solution published first in 1991 [7] and improved in 1992 [8], represents an
original memory cell. The storage bits are located in two different places providing a
redundancy and maintaining a source of uncorrupted data after an SEU. Here,
Whitaker modifies topology of Rockett Memory Cell with use of 12 transistors
instead of 16.Fig. 4(b) shows Whitaker Memory Cell.
2.2.3. Improved Whitaker Memory Cell by Liu
The static power of the Whitaker Memory cell is high. M. Norley Liu [9] improved
over previous cell topology by using of 14 transistors arrangement as shown in Fig.
5(a).

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Figure 5 (a) Improved Whitaker Memory Cell by Liu [9] (b) SEU hardened AND/NOR gate
to design an R-S latch [10]

2.2.4. RS Latch based Memory Cell by J.Canaris

J. Canaris proposed a Logic family, which is SEU tolerant. So, using AND-NOR or
OR-NAND gates, a Latch can be designed [10]. This is show in Fig. 5(b).Previously
designed Memory cells had drawbacks number of transistors is more, static power
consumption is high, and recovery time after upset is high. These all drawbacks are
eliminate to an extent/removed and proposed as HIT (Heavy Ion Tolerant) Memory
Cell.
2.2.5. HIT Memory Cell
HIT Memory Cell designed to improve static power consumption and high recovery
time after upset. It designed using 12 transistors [11] (Fig.6 (a)).
HIT Memory cell had no any direct path between VDD to VSS which was a
problem found in previously defined memory cell. Therefore, lower static power
consumption is guarantee in this memory cell compared with previously defined
memory cell.

Figure 6 (a) HIT Memory Cell [11] (b) DICE Storage Cell [12]

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A Survey of Radiation Hardening by Design (RHBD) Techniques For Electronic Systems for
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2.2.6. DICE (Dual Inter clocked Storage Cell)

DICE [12] is composed of two cross-coupled inverter lathes. Feedback to each cell
comes from a previous cell. However, nMOS and pMOS are not connecting to the
same input. Radiation induced upset at node A can recovered from state at node Cin
Fig. 6(b). The limitation of this design is that simultaneous upsets at any two nodes
(e.g. nodes A and C in Fig. 6(b)) cannot recover. A variant to the standard DICE
implementation has proposed in [13] as Dual DICE, which incorporates interleaving
between two DICE cells in order to make them more resistant to SEU, caused by
charge sharing.
2.2.7. Temporal DICE Flip Flop Design
To address problem of two simultaneous strikes induced upsets in DICE, J. E.
Knudsen and L. T. Clark, shown that all four inputs should be made independent to
prevent SET while DICE is transparent as well as a delay mechanism along with a
majority voter should be setup to decrease SEU more effectively [14].

Figure 7(a) Master Temporal Latch and Slave DICE D Flip Flop (TDFF) [14] (b) Quatro
Storage Cell [17]

The temporal latch shown in Fig. 7(a) employs a triple redundant feedback
mechanism, which separates the signal in time. This makes it immune to both SET
and SEU effects [14] [15] [16]. In Fig. 7(a) is showing a temporal latch, which
employs delay blocks marked with . This shows that the cell is SET hardened up to
the duration of one delay.
2.2.8. Quatro Latch
The Quatro latch is an eight transistors storage cell with the similar basic design
compared to a DICE latch but different interconnection topology [17]. The four
storage nodes in Quatro cell are namely A, B, C, and D (Fig. 7(b)).
Table I shows that over DICE-FF, Quatro-FF is an improvement in area, power,
and maximum clock to Q delay while keeping operational characteristics unchanged.

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TABLE I The DICE Storage Cell [17]
Design

Area

Power

Max C-Q delay

PDP

D-FF

DICE-FF

2.95

1.8

1.4

2.5

Quatro-FF

2.5

1.4

1.6

2.2

2.2.9. Gate Sizing

The radiation environment in space is uniform in space and time, which indicates that
radiation on a chip, is proportional to its active area. When any particle strikes on
sensitive node, it generates a current pulse at that node. For a logic upset, generated
current pulse needs to be of sufficient value. The current is given by equation (2) [18].
t

I i n (t)=
(e e )
( )

(2)

Where Q is the charge generated (positive or negative) deposited as result of the

particle strike, is the collection time constant of the junction, and is the ion-track
establishment time constant. and are constants that depends on process-related
factors. Consider 2 input NAND gate driving a lumped capacitance Cp at its output N
in Fig. The total capacitance at N is [18]
Ctot al= Cunit

(WL )+ C

(3)

(a)

(b)
Figure 8 (a) 2-input NAND gate (b) SEU effects (Q, (W/L), (, )). [18]

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A Survey of Radiation Hardening by Design (RHBD) Techniques For Electronic Systems for
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So, if (W/L) of the node is increase then Capacitor is charged with more charges.
As the size of any gate increase means driving strength of any gate is increase than
current produce by the particle strike on sensitive node is decrease. So if particle
strike on output node of 2-input NAND gate in Fig. 8(a) than voltage generate by that
particle decreases with increasing W/L ratio of the gate shown in Fig. 8 (b).
The idea of the authors [18] is that increased output capacitance of any gate can
make it is less sensitive to particle hit than a normal gate. This technique was
applicable to only older technology. As in the advance technologies, initial value of
output capacitance is fF. If this technique applied to advance technologies then
increased capacitance values required to satisfy the transient effect become high [19]
[20]
2.2.10. Radiation Hardened Memory Cells
Previously discussed cells have partially SEU immunity and dependent on polarity on
single node or required more power. As CMOS technology scaling down, angled
particle strike becoming more severe [21] [22].In [23], an 11 T SRAM cell has
proposed [also shown in Fig. 9(a)].
Compared with DICE, as claimed by the authors, this circuit (called 11 T) offers
(little) smaller area and considerable lower Power Delay Product (PDP). To have a
better robustness against Single Event Multiple Effects (SEME), the authors of [23],
proposed another SRAM cell in [24] [also shown in Fig. 9(b)]. They showed that, this
latter circuit (called 13 T) can tolerate the effect of Single Event Multiple
Effect(SEME) better than their proposed circuit in [23].As the authors reported in
[24], their circuit has lower delay, higher power consumption and larger area as
compared with DICE.
In [25], new SEU hardening Incorporating an extreme low power bit-cell design
(SHIELD) proposed. The authors of [26] compare proposed design with proposed
design in [12] in terms of technology scaling and effect on it shown in Fig. 9 (c).

Figure 9 (a) Proposed in [23] (b) Proposed in [24] (c) The SHIELD SRAM [25] [26]

In [27][28] novel Radiation Hardened Memory cell which has 12- Transistor and
it is capable of fully SEU immunity and also can tolerant multi bit upset as shown in
Fig. 10(a). This technique is show better result against different radiation hardening
techniques [27].

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Figure 10(a) Proposed RHM (Radiation Hardened Memory) cell [28] (b) Proposed 13-T
RHM in [29]

In authors of [29] applied similar approach as applied by [24] and authors [24]
shows low design overhead, higher robustness to radiation effects in present of
SEMEs. Fig. 10(b) shows proposed 13-T RHM in [29].
2.2.11. Device based SEU Clamping Circuit
Equation (2) shows current produced by strike of particles on sensitive node with the
help of equation method proposed by [30]. The idea of this method is used same gate
with higher threshold than normal gate in circuit. Consider the circuit in Fig. 11;
assume that out node is at logic 0.
When energetic particle strike on out node, it causes a rising pulse on out node but
out node, voltage does not increase because protecting gate is at -0.4V.When the
voltage at protecting node outp starts to rise, the nMOS device turns on, thus
clamping the protected node.
If the particle strike on outp than voltage at protected node is unchanged because
protected node initially at much lower voltage (-0.4V) and as the voltage at protecting
node increases, the clamping nMOS device turns off and if voltage of the protecting
node rises above 0.4V than the clamping pMOS device turns on.

Figure 11 Device based SEU Clamping Circuit [30]

In a similar manner, the clamping pMOS device helps to protect a gate from
falling pulse due to a radiation event.

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3. CONCLUSIONS
Considering the present need of low power, low cost radiation hardened systems;
RHBD will be helpful to resolve the issue. In this regard, this paper has tried to cover
the entire spectrum of various approaches for Radiation Hardening Design level. As
radiation hardening by process is a costly approach, one would prefer to focus on
Radiation Hardening by Design.

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