Lets Get the Most Out of Existing Wells

Closing the gaps between current output and productive

capacity is one of todays best opportunities to quickly
enhance production and improve recovery. A unique service
initiative and focused engineering well reviews help tap into
potential productivity and increase oil and gas asset value.

on

ti
olu

Actions

ces

rvi

Jay Haskell
Caracas, Venezuela

Geoff Spalding
Amoco (UK) Exploration Co.
Aberdeen, Scotland

Se

Steve Bartz
Joe M. Mach
Jawaid Saeedi
Houston, Texas, USA

Production
Enhancement

Jeff Spath
Jakarta, Indonesia

Client Well Files

Jorge Manrique
Englewood, Colorado, USA
Hemanta Mukherjee
New Orleans, Louisiana, USA
Tom Olsen
Aberdeen, Scotland
Steve Opsal
Texaco Exploration and Production Inc.
New Orleans, Louisiana
Eduardo Proano
Lafayette, Louisiana
Mark Semmelbeck
Midland, Texas

In addition to influencing development of the Schlumberger prospecting methodology

and PEG analysis function, Production Enhancement Group (PEG) managers that
were key contributors to the concepts presented in this article include:
Robert Bellavance, Dowell, La Salinas, Venezuela; Jean-Pierre Feraud, Dowell,
Caracas, Venezuela; Jose G. Flores, Schlumberger Wireline & Testing, Maturin, Venezuela;
Fawzi Guehria, Schlumberger Wireline & Testing, Montrouge, France; Luis Quinterro,
Dowell, Houston, Texas, USA; Jose Ignacio Rueda, Dowell, Tia Juana, Venezuela; and
Donald Straub, Schlumberger Wireline & Testing, Caracas, Venezuela.

Oilfield Review

Field support
Field Support
Interpretation,
ID Groupsdevelopment
Area
engineers
Staff
Engineers
Custom-solutions teams

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Production Enhancement

Proactiverecognition
Candidate
Candidate Recognition
PEG-PCR
PEGS
DESC-PE
DESC-PE

Innovative directions and methodology. Production enhancement

(PE) applies petroleum engineering calculations to assess and
improve well performance. There are two vectors for PE within
Schlumbergercandidate recognition and field support. Proactive
candidate recognition (PCR) actively seeks out production and
value beyond what normally results from customers calling service
companies to perform work, and is the top priority for the
Production Enhancement Group (PEG).

Winter 1997

Established fields are the most likely places

to find additional oil and gas output.
Improving the performance of wells that are
already producing is a cost-effective way to
offset natural decline, extend field life and
improve hydrocarbon recovery. Production
enhancement (PE) efforts are aimed at evaluating wells and recommending ways to
increase productivity. Effective well interventions and recompletions, therefore, are
essential elements of this endeavor.
But how can oil companies and service
providers work together to identify suitable
candidates for production enhancement from
among thousands of wells? One method is by
prospectingsearching in well files for
opportunities to get more oil and gas from
existing wells. And modern computers combined with new oilfield technology, tools and
services are facilitating this effort.
In daily operations, E&P companies often
require specific production and reservoir
engineering recommendations. Service companies can meet this need by helping to
identify underperforming wells and then
assist by providing customized solutions to
improve production. Within Schlumberger,

there are two approaches to production

enhancement: candidate recognition and
field support (above). Schlumberger Wireline
& Testing, Dowell and Anadrill solve field
operational problems, and perform well construction and single-service candidate recognition (CR) through field support. Requests
for integrated solutions, optimized well
designs, specialized well construction services and production engineering assistance
are addressed by ad hoc teams that are tailored for each situation.
Generally, candidate recognition is a
means of identifying opportunities as they
arise, not merely solving problems in the
field. But rather than wait for opportunities to
present themselves, proactive candidate
recognition (PCR) actively seeks out ways to
improve production, takes full advantage of
oilfield technology and integrated services,
and concentrates on producing and shut-in
wells. The best engineering answers and
most appropriate well interventions are the
targets for PCR, which is the top priority of
the Schlumberger Production Enhancement
Group (PEG).

For help in preparation of this article, thanks to Steve

Bodden, Dowell, Lafayette, Louisiana; Christine EhligEconomides, GeoQuest Reservoir Technologies, Caracas,
Venezuela; Carl Granger, S.A. Holditch & Associates,
Inc., College Station, Texas; and Julian Singer,
Schlumberger Wireline & Testing, Caracas, Venezuela.

ClientLink, DESC (Design and Evaluation Services for

Clients), Dual-Burst, ELAN (Elemental Log Analysis),
Enerjet, FoamMAT, NODAL, Pivot Gun, RAPID (Reentry
and Production Improvement Drilling), SPAN
(Schlumberger Perforating Analysis), TDT (Thermal Decay
Time) and WellWatcher are marks of Schlumberger.

Specifically, the PEG mission is to optimize

well productivity and increase oil and gas
output at a pace that exceeds historic industry trends. As prospectors, PEG engineers do
not stop to make jewelry from the gold
that is found. Instead, they keep looking for
new nuggets of opportunity. Design and
implementation of specific services are
turned over to one of the Oilfield Services
companies or an integrated solutions group.1
This article discusses this focused and
aggressive initiative to improve production
from client wells.
How PEG Works

Candidate recognition began in the late

1980s in response to customer needs and
requests. In 1990, the first co-located
Dowell engineers were placed in oil company offices along with the necessary computer and communications tools to fulfill
client requirements. At the same time, an
integrated PEG was formed in Houston,
Texas. These were among the first steps
toward building new business and working
relationships in the oil industry.2 With more
than 200 engineers posted in client offices,
the DESC Design and Evaluation Services
for Clients program continues to grow, facilitating cooperation and providing intimate
contact with daily operations. Today, there
are also more than 20 PEG locations in key
markets worldwide, some with multiple
teams in place (below). More are planned
for 1998 and beyond.

The Production Enhancement Group works

outside of traditional transactions, interactions and work flow between operators and
service companies. With permission and
cooperation from clients, production specialists look at well files and identify opportunities to increase productionthey
recognize candidatesacting and moving
forward instead of reacting and waiting to fill
phone-in orders or direct requests. This
approach achieves production rates beyond
levels that the industry traditionally expects
and that result from clients initiating a call to
a service company.
The PEG engineers evaluate well and production histories using the latest computer
software, applying openhole, cased-hole
and production logs or interpretation as
needed. Current well performance is analyzed. Pressure, net pay, permeability and
skin, or formation damage, are determined.
Potential well output is calculated and the
best services are recommended. Results of
these well interventions are then systematically evaluated after implementation.
Experts from Schlumberger Wireline &
Testing, Dowell, Anadrill and, when
required, GeoQuest Reservoir Technologies
make up a typical PEG. As a team, they
cooperate with operating company asset
managers to develop well intervention strategies that increase production. In addition,
through the ClientLink initiative, the extensive Schlumberger intranet provides direct
access to research, technology and innova-

PEG Locations

1. Bourque J, Tuedor F, Turner L, Gomersall S, Hughes P

Jr, Klein R, Nilsen G and Taylor D: Business
Solutions for E&P Through Integrated Project
Management, Oilfield Review 9, no. 3 (Autumn
1997): 34-49.
2. Baltz J, Bumgardner S, Hatlen J, Swartzlander H,
Basham P, Blessen A, Sarrafian F, Schneider M,
Clayton D, Frank T, Gordon D, Taylor B, Kniffin M,
Mueller F, Newlands D and White DJ: The DESC
Engineer Redefines Work, Oilfield Review 7, no. 2
(Summer 1995): 40-50.
3. Edmonds P: Linking Solutions to Problems, Oilfield
Review 8, no. 4 (Winter 1996): 4-17.

Anchorage
Calgary

tive solutions tailored to meet specific client,

field and well requirements.3
Proactive candidate recognition does not
involve extensive field studies or exhaustive
reservoir evaluations. The heart of these
efforts is an engineering calculation and
innovative methodology based on singlewell NODAL production system analysis
from outer reservoir boundaries to the wellbore sandface, across the perforations and
up the production tubing (see Production
System Analysis, next page). Any restrictions, such as safety valves, chokes, surface
facilities and flowlines, can be included in
this type of analysis.
The PEG engineers perform detailed technical and economic analyses of single wells,
groups of wells or fields, and recommend
actions with input and support from internal
and client experts. There is no charge for this
well review, evaluation and engineering
function. Compensation for production
enhancement recommendations comes from
providing customized solutions and performing value-priced services for clients (see
Turning Cost into Revenue, page 20). In
some cases, recommendations to optimize
well output involve simply modifying the
wellbore flow conduittubulars or artificial
lift. Except for coiled tubing completions and
scale removal, recommendations to change
wellbore mechanical configurations
replacing tubing, resizing chokes and adding
or modifying artificial-lift methodsare considered an extra benefit of the candidate
recognition process.

Aberdeen

Moscow
Paris
Beijing
Denver
Oklahoma City
Algeria
Midland
Cairo Kazakhstan
New Orleans
Houston
Lafayette
Bangkok
Caracas
Dubai
La Salinas
Maracaibo
Maturin
Tia Juana
Jakarta

Adelaide

The PEG teams. At this time, there are PEG offices located in key markets around the
world and more are planned. Some of these areas, like Venezuela with six in place, have
multiple teams. Proactive integrated efforts by PEG specialists recommend actions to
improve client production without regard to specific company or individual service
considerations within the Schlumberger Oilfield Services group.

Oilfield Review

Production System Analysis

NODAL analysis is used to optimize well produc-

7500

tion systems (below). This technique couples the

Two 300-ft
stacked laterals

wellbore with the capacity of tubulars to conduct

the flow to surface, including facility piping if
applicable. The name of this technique reflects
discrete locationsnodeswhere independent
equations describe inflow and outflow from reservoirs to stock tanks by relating pressure losses
and fluid rates. This engineering methodology
allows calculation of the rate that a well is capable of delivering and helps determine the effects

Bottomhole flowing pressure, psi

capability of reservoirs to produce fluids into a

6500

2400
ft
1200

Tubing-head pressure = 1678 psi

ft
600 ft
300 ft

5500

Tubing-head pressure = 300 psi

Single slanted
laterals

4500

of perforations, stimulations, wellhead or separator pressure and tubing or choke sizes. Future pro3500

duction can also be estimated based on

1000

2000

3000

4000

anticipated reservoir and wellbore parameters.

Computer software based on NODAL analysis

5000

6000

7000

8000

9000

10000

Liquid flow rate, B/D

bottleneckscompletion, perforation and piping

NODAL analysis. The intersection of reservoir IPR and flow-conduit performance curves represents estimated
production rates under specific conditions and pressures. This plot models two surface pressure conditions and
various lateral reentry drilling options.

limitations or formation damagethat restrict

production or injection. These calculations are

from NODAL analysis can be two curves or a set

also used to quantify the production increases

of curves for sensitivity analysis.

is often used to diagnose and identify system

Flowline

that can be expected if restrictions are removed.

determine the effect of increasing choke and

economic models.

tubing sizes. A larger flow diameter moves tub-

The reservoir section is described by inflow

Flow conduit

flow rate. In production enhancement, IPR

tubulars and surface pipesthe flow-conduit

curves are most often used to evaluate the

sectionare described by vertical or inclined

impact of increasing effective borehole radius by

multiphase flow correlations for tubing outflow,

perforating, acidizing, fracturing or drilling hori-

or intake, performance. The most common

zontal or lateral drainholes (above). These

approach is to start at one end of the system, the

remedial well interventions move IPR curves up

reservoir node for example. Subtracting all the

and to the right.

pressure losses at various rates from the reser-

1. Vogel JV: Inflow Performance Relationships for Solution

Gas Drive Wells, Journal of Petroleum Technology 20, no.
1 (January 1968): 83-93.
Standing MB: Inflow Performance Relationships for
Damaged Wells Producing by Solution Gas Drive
Reservoirs, Journal of Petroleum Technology 22, no. 11
(November 1970): 1399-1400.
Mach JM, Proano EA and Brown KE: Application of
Production Systems Analysis to Determine Completion
Sensitivity on Gas Well Production, paper 81-pet-13, presented at the Energy Resources Technology Conference
and Exhibition, Houston, Texas, USA, January 18-22, 1981.
Meng HZ and Brown KE: Coupling of Production
Forecasting, Fracture Geometry Requirements and
Treatment Scheduling in the Optimum Hydraulic Fracture
Design, paper SPE 16435, presented at the SPE/DOE Low
Permeability Reservoirs Symposium, Denver, Colorado,
USA, May 18-19, 1987.
Mukherjee H: Well Performance Manual. Houston, Texas,
USA: Schlumberger Dowell (1991).
Economides MJ, Hill AD and Ehlig-Economides C:
Petroleum Production Systems. Englewood Cliffs, New
Jersey, USA: PTR Prentice Hall (1994): 573-578.

voir pressure defines an IPR curve for fluids flownode facing the reservoir bottomhole pressure
declines as production rates increase.
Starting from the separator and adding pressure
losses encountered in surface pipes and wellbore
tubing gives the pressure for various rates at the
IPR reservoir node. This calculation results in a

Completion

tubing intake, or flow-conduit, curve with bottomhole pressure increasing as production rate

Reservoir

increases. The equilibrium point where IPR and

flow-conduit curves have the same pressure and

The well production system.

ing curves down and to the right, increasing the

performance relationship (IPR) curves. Wellbore

ing into the wellbore. Pressure at the wellbore

Node

For example, this type of plot can be used to

The estimated production can then be used in

rateintersection of the two curvesrepresents

anticipated production and downhole pressure for
the specific conditions being modeled. Output

Winter 1997

When operators allow a local PEG to diagnose production gaps and initiate design,
execution and evaluation of services, both
parties focus on production and results. This
unique interaction ensures optimal recommendations to close productivity gaps and
application of the right services. Focusing on
production generates more revenue for both
clients and the service company. In todays
new business relationships, operators are
agreeing to share some of this added value,
and service companies are accepting some
downside risk. Having a vested interest in the
outcome of remedial actions helps the service provider better understand and meet
customer needs and expectations.
Producing Wells

Existing assets have several distinguishing

characteristics, both positive and negative, in
the context of production enhancement. On
the upside, because established fields have
wells and facilities in place, production
increases can generate cash flow without
adding infrastructure, which reduces lead
and cycle times. There are also fewer
unknowns. Fluid properties, reservoir drive
and recoverable reserves are, in most cases,
well understood. On the downside, available
information is older, perhaps out of date;
data were gathered using possibly obsolete
technology, tools and techniques; and completion strategies may be outdated. But these
negatives also present potential opportunities to increase production.

Single-well production enhancement

involves moving reservoir inflow performance relationship (IPR) curves up and to
the right, or moving flow-conduit performance curves down and to the right
(below).4 The objective is to recommend
solutions and services that will close identified gaps between current well output and
potential production. To achieve this goal,
the components that contribute to a production gap must be identified and understood
(see Production Gaps: Well Performance
Components, right). The total production
system includes reservoir, completion, flowconduit and artificial-lift components plus
surface flowlines and facilities, which are
assumed to be a constant in most individual
oil and gas well analyses.
Based on what is known about a field, well
files and data can be examined with an eye
for likely opportunities from among these
components. A model of the well production
system is then developed using this information and, if required, confirmed by well tests
or additional wireline logs to determine net
pay, reservoir pressure, permeability, skin
and saturationsoil, gas or water. Once a
model is validated, wells are chosen for further evaluation using the PEG methodology.
Remedial interventions are recommended,
costs are estimated and viable options are
compared based on estimated well productivity and operator economic constraints.
4. Economides MJ, Hill AD and Ehlig-Economides C:
Petroleum Production Systems. Englewood Cliffs,
New Jersey, USA: PTR Prentice Hall (1994): 173-185.

Production Gaps: Well

Performance Components

Engineering optimum production rates requires

that reservoir deliverability, well stimulation,
recovery efficiency, wellbore hydraulics and surface constraints be addressed. Elements of the
well production system are interrelated, and performance of the entire system is often a function
of the weakest links. During the production
enhancement process, various screening methods and well-analysis techniques are used to
examine reservoir, completion, flow-conduit
wellbore tubulars or plumbingand artificial-lift
system performance (next page).

Reservoir performanceA production gap

exists if reservoirs do not effectively deliver
hydrocarbons into a wellbore. The result is low
flow rates at high-drawdown pressures. This
problem may be overcome by increasing effective
borehole radiusfracturing, acidizing or highperformance perforating. Lateral or horizontal
drainholes are another solution. Nearby injectors
or producers may also affect the region around a
well. A possible solution might be to squeeze off
zones in injectors using cement. Controlling
water influx and mitigating the production of formation fines are also alternatives.
Single-well inflow performance relationships

Reservoir and completion

Reser

Potential

Current

PEG

Fl
pe owrfo co
rm nd
an uit
ce

Pressure

voir IP

Productivity gap

Add pay

place. Near-wellbore effects and mechanical

Reperforate

physical description, Darcys law and pressure-

Acidize

volume-temperature (PVT) behavior affect an

Fracture

IPR. Diagnostics, including transient testing, arti-

Drill lateral or horizontal

ficial-lift or permanent monitoring, saturation log-

Control sand

ging, production logging, sonic imaging and

Control water and gas

economic analysis, can be performed to obtain

Flow conduit and facilities

Clean out fill
Remove scale
Optimize tubular designs
Redesign artificial lift
Coiled tubing completions

Rate

(IPR) are a function of time and original oil in

Early production facilities

needed information. Remedial actions include

high-performance perforating, stimulations,
drilling laterals, squeeze cementing, water control and fines mitigation.

Completion performanceThe completion,

which includes perforations, liner slots, the
cement-by-borehole annulus, sand-control
screens, gravel packs and any zone of formation
damage, dictates fluid movement from reservoirs

Closing single-well performance gaps. The objective of production enhancement is to

identify and close gaps between current well output and productive potential. This goal
is accomplished by applying solutions and services that move reservoir inflow performance curves (IPR) up and to the right, and move flow-conduit performance curves
down and to the right.

to wellbores. Pressure drawdown at the completion is a function of flow rate. Factors that influ-

Oilfield Review

ence completion performance are perforation

Production Gap

Solutions

entrance-hole diameter and depth of penetration

into a formation, sand control, stimulation, zonal
tration. Drawdown through a completion is
reduced by reperforating or acidizing and by perforating a larger interval to reduce classical skin,
resulting from a limited perforation interval. If not
in place, a gravel pack or other sand-control
method may be required. A cement squeeze may
be needed if some zones produce unwanted water
and gas, or take fluids that crossflow from another

Reservoir
performance

Potential

Bottomhole flowing pressure

isolation and damage, or partial formation pene-

Actual

Perforate
Acidize
Fracture
Drill drainholes
Squeeze cement
Control water and gas
Mitigate fines

Perforate
Reperforate
Acidize
Sand control
Squeeze cement

zone. Poor cement may also allow communicaTools used for evaluation include perforationanalysis programs, saturation logs, ultrasonic
imaging tools, production logs and economic
analysis. Services that improve completion performance include high-performance reperforating,
sand controlgravel or fracture-packing sandcontrol jobs, squeeze cementing and acidizing.

Completion
performance
Sandface drawdown

tion behind casing.

Flow-conduit performanceWellbore

2 spf

Actual
12 spf

Potential

hydraulics may also limit flow if tubulars are

mechanical restrictions like tapered strings and
profile nipples, or scale buildups inside the tubing
and casing. Flow efficiency is a function of
restrictions or leaks in wellbore tubulars. Tubing
type, traps, restrictions, erosional velocity and
crossflow can also limit performance efficiency.
Required information may be obtained from
calipers, ultrasonic imaging tools, production
logs, water-flow logs and economic analysis.

Flow-conduit
performance
Bottomhole flowing pressure

improperly sized, and if there are unnecessary

Actual

Clean out fill

Remove scale
Acidize
Replace tubing
Resize chokes
Eliminate restrictions
Coiled tubing
completions

Potential

Solutions include acidizing, scale removal with

production systems.

Artificial-lift performanceSince flowing

bottomhole well pressure is a function of artificial-lift efficiency, lifting system problems can
impact well performance. Data useful for performance evaluation may be obtained from production logs, artificial-lift monitoring and economic
analysis. Services to pull and replace or redesign
rod pumps, gas-lift valves or electric submersible
pumps can remediate performance problems.

Winter 1997

Artificial-lift
performance
Actual
Bottomhole flowing pressure

coiled tubing, coiled tubing completions and early

Rod pumps
Gas lift
Submersible pumps
Operating conditions

Potential

Flow Rate

The components of well performance.

The PE opportunity. One way to increase production is by looking where oil and gas have already been found. Existing wells with
gaps in performance are the target of a focused and aggressive initiative to enhance production. The prizemore stock tank barrels of
oil and greater volumes of natural gas.

Production Enhancement

Opportunities to enhance production

untapped primary, secondary and tertiary
recoveryare abundant. On average, less
than 35% of original hydrocarbons in place
are recovered from millions of wells worldwide. These remaining reserves represent
one of the best opportunities for operators to
improve production. And this potential oil
and gas output is fertile ground for prospecting (above). The PE portion of this prize, realizing an incremental 5% increase nominally
from just one out of ten wells for example,
could yield billions of barrels in additional
production and reserves.

Present PEG function

Because porous formations act as filters,

most wells become damaged, or develop a
significant skin, at some time during the
drilling and production life cycle. Skin is a
zone of reduced permeability around the
wellbore that causes an excessive pressure
drop across the completion face and limits
fluid flow from the reservoir. Formation damage is a natural consequence of well drilling,
completion activities and production flow.
Drilling mud, completion fluids, crude oil,
gas and formation water deposit clay particles, formation fines, asphaltenes, paraffin
and scales that can block rock pore spaces
and reduce matrix permeability. Damage
can also result from mechanical crushing
and compaction of the near-wellbore region
as a result of pressure drawdown.5
5. Economides MJ, Hill AD and Ehlig-Economides C:
Petroleum Production Systems. Englewood Cliffs,
New Jersey, USA: PTR Prentice Hall (1994): 83-115.

Establish key client contact

Collect well data

Analyze well data

Make specific proposals

Analyze production
history
Analyze current
performance
Study enhancement
options

Set goals, objectives and terms

Execute service solutions

Evaluate PE jobs

Evaluate overall project

Typical PEG project loop. A

phased approach with short
cycle times reduces operator
exposure to risk and provides
timely feedback.

Unlike our automobiles, however, most

wells do not have their filters checked regularly. Recall any number of stories, from the
mid-1980s until today, about oil companies
that sold mature fields to other operators
who then significantly improved production
from these supposedly unprofitable,
marginal or poor assets. Situations like
thesesuccess for one company, disappointment for anotherare not unique.
Untapped reserves, formation damage and
wells that need modern, full-service tuneups are the factors that combine to make
many assets, some with significant remaining reserves, ripe for auction blocks or abandonment (see New Life for a North Sea
Field, page 10). There are even more wells
and reservoirs that still produce economically which have additional potential waiting
to be identified. These opportunities prompt
operators and service providers alike to ask
such questions as: In any theater of
petroleum operations, from the Permian
Basin of west Texas with over 100,000 wells
to the North Sea with more than 2000, how
many wells have skin effects that can be
eliminated; or could oil and gas output be
improved using new technology, modern
techniques, improved tools and better fluid
systems? Answers to these questions are the
basis for production enhancement.
Because of this industrys preoccupation
with drilling and production operations, the
many recent improvements in well services,
and todays powerful computers and modern
software, operators can now take full advantage of PE opportunities for the first time.
Recently as well as in the past, the industry
concentrated primarily on exploration,
drilling, well construction and field operations, assigning lower priorities to production engineering and well performance
optimization. Initial flush production, limited
production quotas and governmentregulated allowables meant that many
wells were produced at rates far below their
true potential.

Oilfield Review

Completions did not have to be optimized

if wells were producing their allocated volumes. The only way to obtain higher allowables and increase production was to drill
more wells. As a result, optimal completions
were not always a priority. With few exceptions, however, the days of drilling into giant,
prolific, near-darcy-permeability reservoirs
are gone. Allowables, quotas and production
limits are becoming a thing of the past; target
reservoirs are more complex, smaller and
tighterlower permeability; many existing
fields, large and small, are in mature stages
of their production life cycle; and older fields
need more attention to maintain output and
identify overlooked opportunities.
It Begins With Where are the Files?

A unique new interaction between operator

and service provider begins when PEG representatives are allowed access to relevant well
files by an oil and gas company. The goal is to
collect and analyze data quickly so that additional information needs can be determined
or specific service proposals can be made
(previous page, bottom). This phased
approach with short cycle timeslook at
well files, recommend and execute services,
evaluate results, then re-analyze and make
improvements based on new datareduces
operator exposure to risk while providing
timely feedback about the effectiveness of
production enhancement. When proprietary
client information and well data are being
used by a local PEG, complete confidentiality is maintained at all times.
Proactive candidate recognition using the
prospecting methodology and PEG analysis
function is an iterative cycle (right). Data on
a given field, reservoir or well are collected,
cataloged and evaluated; and any production anomalies are noted. The best screening
techniques and software are then used to
thoroughly diagnose and assess well productivity in order to identify prospective candidates for remedial actions. The PEG software
tool boxProduction Enhancement Analysis
Kit (PEAK)includes Schlumberger and
available industry programs, but PEG engineers are not limited to any particular software. They can use software that is preferred
by a client or other programs with which
they are familiar.
A minimum amount of information is
needed to perform PCR; and there are usu-

PE Prospecting Methodology
PEG Analysis Function
Field surveillance

Well files

Experience

Identify production
anomalies through
indexing and mapping.

Search through
well information and
production histories.

Identify intuitively
obvious production
performance gaps.

Select well files.

Production history

Recommend and
design well testing
or wireline logging.

No

Can
unknown well
parameters be
obtained from iterative
NODAL production
history
matching
?

No

Are
there
sufficient data
in the well
files
?

Yes

Yes

Current performance
Quantify well-performance gaps
Predict maximum production potential
using validated well parameters. Analyze adding pay
zones, reperforating, acidizing, fracturing, reentry drilling,
installing or changing artificial-lift method, and modifying
flow-conduit tubulars or surface facilities.

No

Yes

Does
NODAL
analysis match
existing well
production
?

No

Enhancement options

Is
the well
performance
gap significant
?

Yes

Determine the best

engineering solutions.

Yes

Report production gap

and solution to client.

Is
solution
related solely
to flow-conduit
or artificial lift
?

Use feedback and

new data as input
for the next analysis
cycle.
Reanalyse and
optimize PE efforts.

No
Oilfield Services company or integrated
solutions group designs, implements and
follows up on specific solutions and services.

Post-job evaluation

Prospecting methodology and the PEG analysis function. The typical

process for analyzing producing zones, identifying well candidates and selecting solutions is an iterative cycle. Data are catalogued and production
anomalies are noted. Candidate wells are chosen and current output along
with production history are analyzed. In the enhancement study step,
various well service and intervention options are evaluated and prioritized
based on risksreservoir and mechanicaland economics.

Winter 1997

Analyze results versus preditions

and targets. Review this feedback
with the client.

Analysis complete.

New Life for a

North Sea Field

Decline-curve projections indicated that production

from the Amoco N.W. Hutton field would fall below
the break-even economic limit of 6000 BOPD
[950 m3/d] in 1996, and signal the beginning of
decommissioning for 1997 (right). This would
have been the first North Sea field to be completely abandoned, not a comforting prospect in
light of environmental controversy surrounding
other field abandonments and proposed disposal
of their platforms.1
Reservoir studies, however, indicated that factors other than natural decline could have caused
the poor performance of this field. Most wells

The Amoco N. W. Hutton field platform in the North Sea UK sector.

demonstrated significant declines within the first

year of production. Although declines were initially

GeoQuest Reservoir Technologies for reservoir

reservoir modeling. IPM manages the project,

believed to be the result of reservoir complexity,

technical expertise, Schlumberger IPM for project

further investigation indicated that formation dam-

coordination and the PEG Production Enhancement

A three-phase redevelopment plan was pro-

age and scale in the immediate wellbore region of

Group located in Aberdeen, Scotland, conducted a

posed with each phase dependent on the success

productive zones might be a more likely cause.

technical review of the field. This evaluation indi-

of the previous work. Investments were staggered

Productivity also declined after well or field shut-

cated a high probability of significant additional

and to some degree self-funding. The first phase

downs. There was no flush production from

mobile oil, possibly 20 to 50 million bbl [3 to 8

involved rate maintenance and data acquisition.

recharging when wells were brought back online;

million m3], remaining to be exploited. The opera-

Scale inhibition was initiated, up-time improve-

productivity losses were permanent; and gas/oil

tor was willing to share incremental value in

ments were made and a production logging pro-

ratios (GOR) remained constant during the initial

return for engineering and services that would

gram was performed. Phase two involved fracture

decline phase, which was not consistent with struc-

address limited resources, reduce uncertainty and

and diagnostic matrix stimulations to address skin

tural compartments. Production below bubblepoint

risk, and facilitate project implementation.

damage. Conformance and gas-lift optimization

pressure should cause the GOR to increase, so

An action plan and commercial proposal were

which is now generating incremental oil revenue.

were also initiated. The goal of the third phase is

drastic declines could not be attributed to pressure

presented to Amoco and the field partners.

to generate high-risk, high-reward opportunities to

depletion of small drainage areas.

Schlumberger would risk intervention and engi-

add reserves through a full reservoir study.

The field production platform was designed to

neering revenue to enhance field production, man-

The first and second phases of this project are

handle 120,000 BOPD [19,070 m3/d], but actual

age production and development operations, and

under way. Production enhancement stimulations

production peaked at 83,000 BOPD [13,190 m3/d]

optimize reservoir performance. In return, as the

were undertaken to generate positive cash flow,

for only a short time. The initial 280 million bbl

integrated service provider, Schlumberger would

demonstrate the potential to produce this field

[44.5 million m3] estimate of recoverable reserves

recover costs plus a gain-share compensation

economically and instill confidence in the pro-

had been reduced over the life of the field and pro-

component from incremental oil. For each dollar

jects future. These efforts are also providing data

duction averaged 7000 BOPD [1112 m3/d] in 1996.

invested, an agreed-upon multiple would be paid

to supplement reservoir studies that are targeting

m3],

back. After the gain-share cap is reached, all rev-

options for extending the productive life of the

of the 487 million STBO [77 million m3] estimated

enue reverts to the N.W. Hutton field owners. This

N.W. Hutton field.

to be in place originally, had been recovered. Most

proposal was accepted and the project was initi-

of the areas Brent fields have recovery factors of at

ated in the fall of 1996. The scope of work includes

and water chemistry data were used to generate

least 40%. Amoco wanted to determine if the sus-

coiled tubing operations, matrix acidizing, water

intervention proposalscandidate recognition.

pected damage mechanisms could be successfully

shutoff, fracturing, scale management, wireline

Four intervention techniques to remove or bypass

treated and if new technologysidetracks, confor-

logging, testing, perforating, lateral drilling and

near-wellbore damage have been proposed:

Only about 120 million bbl [19 million

or 24%

Skin, reservoir description, reserves, pressure

mance control, injection management or stimulationmight improve oil recovery.

10

Oilfield Review

scale dissolver treatments to address barium sulfate deposition in the rock matrix, diverted acid
stimulations to treat calcium-carbonate scale and
fines migration, tip screenout hydraulic fracturing
and short coiled tubing drilled laterals to bypass
skin damage.
Three of the four proposed well interventions to
remove or bypass skinscale inhibitor, acid and
fracturinghave been applied, resulting in significant improvement in well productivity. Prior to
fracturing, one candidate well produced at a rate
of 700 BOPD [111 m3/d]. Three weeks after the
stimulation treatment, the well was producing
about 3200 BOPD [510 m3/d]. Scale dissolver and
acid treatments have also been successful. More
than 500 BOPD [80 m3/d] of additional oil production were realized from one well. The criterion to
begin phase three, a goal of 6000 BOPD incremental production, was achieved and surpassed.
The Amoco and GeoQuest Reservoir Technologies team is revising N.W. Hutton reservoir
descriptions and evaluating development scenarios that will increase the value of this field by
improving productivity. The proposed redevelopment includes production enhancement, well
construction and project management efforts
aimed at improving production and increasing
reserves through application of leading-edge technologies. It will be managed and coordinated by
IPM working in conjunction with the Schlumberger
Oilfield Services companies.
The organization and process were developed
jointly by Amoco and Schlumberger to create an
alliance structure and contractual provisions that
are equitable and beneficial to all parties. The
alliance approves budgets and proposals consistent
with the strategies of both the operator and the service company. Sharing financial risks and rewards
through value-pricing results in a high degree of
alignment between companies and refocuses
efforts and resources on achieving common goals.
1. Comrie P and Olsen T: A Risk Sharing Alliance Breathes
New Life into a Mature North Sea Field, paper SPE 38822,
presented at the 65th SPE Annual Technical Conference and
Exhibition, San Antonio, Texas, USA, October 5-8, 1997.

Winter 1997

ally enough data in the well files. Ideally,

available data should include formation
evaluation logs, buildup or production tests,
and a well history. In addition to well logs, or
if logs are not available, field net-porosity
and net-hydrocarbon-thickness maps may be
used. Ideally, both logs and maps should be
used, and in some cases, seismic data may
be helpful. New wireline formation evaluation logs may be needed to verify production
potential. When there are no production or
well-test data, new pressure buildup or production well testing are often recommended.
If well data are incomplete, it may be possible to back into well and reservoir
unknowns by iterating through a NODAL
analysis until a good fit with known parameters is obtained. This type of analysis can best
be described as reverse, or inverse, engineering. Typically, relevant data are gathered
and compiled in a spreadsheet or database.
Candidate recognition may include calculating skin and damage effects, determining
production potential at a reduced skin,
quantifying available reserves, running economic evaluation and making recommendations based on risk versus return or cost
versus benefit. Current well output is analyzed along with production history and the
effects of various PE options. Additional formation evaluation logs may help verify productivity before economic and risk analyses
are performed.
Analyzing current performance using the
best available data establishes the most likely
reservoir parameters for a well. If build-up or
drawdown tests are available, transient-pressure-analysis programs help calculate pressure, permeability, skin and reservoir
boundaries. Four-point and backpressure
tests can be used to determine initial reservoir pressure. Iterative NODAL analysis can
also be used to match pressure and permeability, and obtain skin at a given time. The
most useful skin information comes from
recent time. Snapshots of a well production system can be obtained at the start of
production, before a well is put on gas lift or
rod pump, after a well is put on artificial lift,
and at current rates. These reference points
include reservoir pressure, wellhead pressure, production ratesoil, gas and water
skin and cumulative production.
Since the objective is to predict future
output, only production rates at the present
skin value are important. This means that
cumulative production since the last significant event that altered the skin is all that
needs to be examined. Data are normalized
by selecting this event as the initial time.
Cumulative time and oil, gas and water pro-

duction can be calculated from this point.

Initial pressurereservoir pressure at the
time of that eventis derived from material
balance programs.
Production history analysis is used to verify
the current performance analysis. General
material balance programs with single-layer
model solutions for homogeneous reservoirs
quickly evaluate reservoir performance and
obtain reliable initial pressure estimates,
pore volume and average aquifer-water
influx rate. Sensitivity analysis can be
performed with these models to evaluate
drainage area, initial pore pressure and
the influence of water influx on reservoir
pressure history. Once a satisfactory production history match is obtained and
unknown parameters are determined, these
models can help forecast future well performance and recovery by extrapolating from
previous production to an average reservoir
pressure or time using conventional ratedecline relationships.6
Other programs and production-history
analysis are also used to model wells and
check values obtained using NODAL analysis
and material balance programs. Programs
that give a continuous production picture,
rather than just a few snapshots over time,
can be particularly helpful. NODAL analysis
software is used to match production at several times during the productive life of a well,
and these reference points are used to verify
the production history model. Excellent
matches between estimates and real data
provide confidence in well model validity
and the accuracy of their predictions.
At this stage, it may be evident that more
data or full reservoir simulation are needed
to determine candidate economic viability.
Not all production gaps can be addressed
through candidate recognition with the
prospecting methodology. Some problems
do take weeks or months to solve, and PEG
engineers must recognize these problems
and refer them to reservoir study groups
for evaluation.
Once required well data are compiled, the
next step is to study enhancement options,
which establishes viable PE alternatives, and
the production increases and economic benefits associated with them. After all of these
steps are applied to the wells being considered, PE candidates are prioritized in terms
of risk versus net-present-value (NPV) economics, and appropriate recommendations
and well interventions are selected, designed
and executed. The final step in this process is
6. Economides MJ, Hill AD and Ehlig-Economides C:
Petroleum Production Systems. Englewood Cliffs,
New Jersey, USA: PTR Prentice Hall (1994): 187-205.

11

to compare actual results to predicted outcomes and carefully analyze the details of
this feedback. Resultssuccesses and failuresare evaluated, reviewed with the
client and then used as additional input in
another cycle of the PEG analysis process.
Out of 100 wells, for example, a PEG
evaluation might find as many as 10 potential candidates. Successful interventions
on these wells may then generate additional
PE opportunities.
The PEG process, which is always applied
one well at a time, is used for individual single-well evaluations, but is perhaps most
successful when employed to analyze
groups of wells or a field. This allows engineers to look at a statistically significant
number of wells, which can compensate for
some unsuccessful jobs and help ensure
overall project success. Wellbore mechanical modifications on some of the wells being
evaluated may also improve production and
contribute to overall production enhancement success.

Integrated Services

Geco-Prakla
Schlumberger
Wireline &
Testing

Dowell

PEG
and client

Anadrill

GeoQuest

Cooperation and
integrated services.
Production enhancement involves a
partnership, or team,
made up of the
client and a local
PEG organization
plus applicable
Oilfield Services
companies. When
coupled with integrated service company advanced
technologies, joint
actions taken by
these groups can
significantly improve
production from
existing wells.

Sedco Forex

Why Proactive?

Candidate recognition performed proactively is the antithesis of chance occurrencewaiting until wells go off line or
drop below economic limits before initiating action. Another reason to take advantage
of PCR is synergy, those actions taken jointly
to increase overall effectiveness beyond the
sum of their individual effects. Production
enhancement efforts create a partnership, or
team, often based on a handshake agreement, consisting of the client and a local
PEG organization working together with
Schlumberger Oilfield Services companies
(above right). Cooperation between these
groups, in concert with advanced technologies and well servicing methods, can be
effectively employed to improve production
from existing wells.
With the exception of tubulars, downhole
equipment and other stock warehouse parts,
Schlumberger provides services from discovery to depletion, including seismic surveying,
data processing and interpretation, drilling,
well logging, perforating, well testing,
cementing, acidizing, fracturing, and coiled
tubing or abandonment services. And many
of these applicationscleaning out fill, perforating or reperforating, logging, interpreting
and evaluating data to find more pay, acidizing to remove damage, fracturing to create
conductive flow paths, water and gas control,
and infill, directional, horizontal or lateral
drillingare directly related to moving IPR
curves and increasing productivity.

12

The style of proactive PEG evaluations is

quickhours and days, not weeks and
monthsand action oriented, generating
specific recommendations to be implemented, not reports or studies to be read and
reviewed. In most cases, these action plans
are a simple list of wells, or sometimes a single spreadsheet page, with recommendations to gather more data or apply a specific
solution, technology, service or integrated
application (next page).
Among the short-term benefits of production enhancement, PCR generates candidates for well interventions, demonstrates
production potential for added confidence in
well or field viability and provides additional
cash flow for funding further production
enhancement. The long-term upside potential includes maintaining profitability,
increasing asset value and extending well or
field productive life.
But why are operators allowing PEG representatives access to their prized well files?
One answer lies in leveraging the best mix of
knowledge, experience and technical
resources to address production engineering.
Another reason is that E&P company person-

nel have a limited amount of time, which can

often be taken up by higher priorities like
drilling new wells and maintaining their
more prolific producing properties. It can be
difficult to consistently maintain effective
surveillance, perform production engineering
and identify opportunities across an entire
asset portfolio, and still keep up with the latest techniques and technological advances.
In addition, it is helpful to have input from
experts who look at production enhancement
opportunities and potential well productivity
from different points of view.
Unlike the period following oil price collapses in the 1980s, experienced service personnel are now available to undertake PE
projects. Over the past several years, service
companies, including Schlumberger and
Halliburton, have been among the top
recruiters of petroleum engineers. In addition to filling entry-level technical positions,
these companies are also adding mid-career
professionals, many with oil company and
consulting backgrounds, that expand the service sector experience base.

Oilfield Review

Proactive Candidate Recognition Screening: West Texas

Potential production enhancement opportunities
Well

21

Zone

Limited
drainage
area

Lack of
waterflood

Inadequate
stimulation

Injecting
above
fracture
pressure

Poor
artificial-lift
performance

Lower and

Fill across
pay zone

Fractured in
the direction
of another well

Possible

Yes

Comments and PE
recommendations

Water control and evaluate

middle

rod pump performance

25

Upper

Yes

36

Upper

Yes

50

Upper

Yes

Replace, resize
rod pump

Yes

Drill or convert injector

and water control

Yes

Drill or convert injector

and acidize or fracture

104

Upper

106

Upper

148

Lower

201

Lower

Yes

Yes

Clean out fill and acidize

Yes

Clean out fill

or fracture stimulation
Yes

and water control

Yes

No additional potential
Possible

Possible

Evaluate stimulation

and middle

and rod pump

performance

204

Lower

Possible

Yes

Water control and

and middle

evaluate stimulaton

Phase 1 Candidate Recognition: Gulf of Mexico Acid Treatments

Buildup analysis

Current production

Well Reservoir Reservoir Permeability, Wellhead

zone pressure,
mD
pressure,
psig
psig

PEG prediction

Oil Water rate Gas

NODAL
rate,
B/D
rate, analysis
B/D
Mscf/D
skin

NODAL
Wellhead
analysis pressure,
maximum
psig
oil rate, B/D

Target
oil rate,
B/D

Skin

1844

60

250

70

30

20

150

300

120

10

1640

180

250

62

198

25

550

400

10

11

1844

60

250

50

26

44

35

175

300

110

10

21

35

121

175

31

1844

60

250

70

25

Unkown

300

120

10

32

1160

170

375

60

15

30

130

460

110

10

33

1715

226

550

200

194

121

40

310

700

350

15

34

40

117

120

Partially collapsed tubing

Based on well production history

Incremental enhanced production total:

Incremental
oil
production,
B/D

Comments
and
recommendations

Clean out fill

and acidize
Pressure
120
buildup test
and acidize
Clean out fill
60
and acidize
Repair tubing,
140
clean out fill,
repair 35
pressure
and
acid job 105 buildup test
and acidize
Clean out fill
50
and acidize
Clean out fill
50
and acidize
Buildup test
150
and acidize
Buildup test,
clean out fill
80
and acidize
50

700

Action plans. The final product of a PEG analysis is often a simple, one-page list of wells, sometimes in spreadsheet format, with specific
solutions and recommendations about actions, services or integrated applications that need to be performed to enhance production.

Winter 1997

13

Current PEG teams include the talents,

expertise and experience of petroleum engineers with PhD degrees, and some top
experts and specialists in key production
engineering disciplines. Schlumberger
Oilfield Services also recently acquired S. A.
Holditch & Associates, Inc., College Station,
Texas, a worldwide petroleum engineering
company that offers consulting services in
well stimulation, completion design and
reservoir analysis. This acquisition broadens
the range of production enhancement activities and reservoir engineering services that
can be provided to operators.
Proactive candidate recognition can be
performed solely by PEG specialists, but
perhaps works best as an operatorSchlumberger team approach. Oil company
personnel are most familiar with the overall
production history and reservoir view, but
integrated service providers invest time and
money for research to commercialize new
technology and, therefore, are knowledgeable about specific applications of the tools,
methods and services that are developed. As
a result, PEG engineers review well files and
data from a fresh perspective and may
recognize opportunities to apply specific
techniques, unique combinations of technologies or an integrated solutions approach
that might otherwise be overlooked.
Result-Based Experience

Typical well interventions for production

enhancement include jobs that address the
full range of performance-gap components.
Reservoir- and completion-related interventions, however, usually represent most of the
jobs and dominate the mix (above right). The
remaining well productivity gaps are the
result of artificial lift and tubing performance. Reservoir IPR curves can be moved
and productivity gaps can be closed by:
finding bypassed pay
perforating
acidizing
fracturing
drilling laterals.
Since being established in 1990, the PEG
organization has worked to improve production and increase reserves for clients
through PCR and the production enhancement process using these types of well
interventions.7
Recompleting older wells using new methods may be what is needed to improve productivity. Oil and gas technology has
improved by orders of magnitude over the
past 15 years, and many of todays producing

14

8%

2%

25%

65%

Reservoir
Completion
Flow conduit
Artificial lift
Typical well candidates. The majority of PE well
interventions in North America fall into the reservoir
and completion performance gap categories.

wells were drilled and completed before

these newer techniques were in full use. Just
ten years ago, completion and stimulation
practices were not as effective as they are
today. Research and development have provided innovative new technologies that, on a
well-by-well basis, can greatly increase production and improve recovery.
Finding additional payFor example, reinterpreting existing logs, pressure-buildup
and production well testing, and new technologies for evaluating formations, including
deep-investigating logs, azimuthal and borehole imaging logs, multiprobe formation
testers, cased-hole logs and modern transient
tests, are critical for analyzing and diagnosing wells. Early production facilities can also
be used to get first oil and gas sooner, and
improve initial field development economics.8 Advanced perforating, acidizing
and fracturing methods, and coiled tubing
services are key techniques to increase production, along with horizontal or multilateral reentry drilling. Modern computer
capabilities also play a vital role, facilitating
and supporting these oilfield service
improvements and developments.

Several PE activities help identify additional pay or bypassed productive intervals.

Surveillance methods, like net-porosity
mapping and hydrocarbon indexing, can be
used to locate behind-pipe production
potential in existing fields (next page, top).
Older logs can be reevaluated or interpreted
using new techniques, or modern wireline
logs can be run to acquire more information.
Recompletions can tap bypassed hydrocarbons. In one case, an old electric log was
reviewed to identify possible zones of interest. Through-casing potential was determined
by running a Dual-Burst TDT Thermal Decay
Time log and performing an ELAN Elemental
Log Analysis evaluation. A previously undiscovered gas zone was perforated with a
through-tubing Enerjet gun. The new zone
produced 770 Mscf/D [22 Mscm/d] and paid
out in eight days (next page, bottom).
7. Tremble PT and Haskall J: Production Reviews
Payout Quickly for Two Texas Operators, Oil and
Gas Journal 93, no. 7 (February 13, 1995): 60-63.
8. Baustad T, Courtin G, Davies T, Kenison R, Turnbull J,
Gray B, Jalali Y, Remondet JC, Hjelmsmark L, Oldfield
T, Romano C, Saier R and Rannestad G: Cutting
Risk, Boosting Cash Flow and Developing Marginal
Fields, Oilfield Review 8, no. 4 (Winter 1996): 18-31.

Oilfield Review

Reservoir surveillance.
Methods like porosity mapping and hydrocarbon
indexing help locate
behind-pipe production
potential in existing fields.

Potential candidates for production enhancement

70

60

50

Unperforated
hydrocarbon
index, ft
40

40+
35 to 40
31 to 35

30

26 to 31
22 to 26
17 to 22

20

13 to 17
8 to 13
10

4 to 8

10

20

30

40

50

60

70

1953 Electric log

Processed TDT Thermal Decay Time log

No gas show
5000

5000

New zone

770 Mscf/D

5100

5100

GR
0 API 150 60

SIGM

Finding new pay zones. New formation evaluation techniqueslogs and processing softwarealso locate bypassed
oil and gas. A previously undetected zone produced 770
Mscf/D [22Mscm/d] and paid out in eight days.

Winter 1997

0 API 50 60

SW

PHIC

p.u. 0 100 p.u. 0

p.u.

100

75 p.u. 100

PHIT
p.u.

Fluid
Analysis

ELAN Elemental Log Analysis

15

Initial reservoir performance

4000

Initial flow-conduit performance

Adding perforations increases
reservoir performance
Additional gas improves
flow-conduit performance

Pressure, psig

3000

Offshore
Louisiana
2000

1000

Productivity gap
0
100

200

300

400

500

Liquid rate, B/D

Market price

Estimated payout

Compensation for services

Market price
plus 30%

Market price
less 20%

Payout time

Adding perforations. Additional perforations improved production from this

offshore Louisiana well. Increased gas production also improved flow-conduit lifting
performance. The 12-day payout for this PE job was less than the initial estimate,
resulting in a 30% price premium.
9. Jimenez M Jr: Tests Reveal Perforating Charge
Performance, Oil and Gas Journal 90, no. 1
(January 6, 1992).
Smith PS, Behrmann LA and Yang W: Improvements
in Perforating Performance in High Compressive
Strength Rocks, paper SPE 38141, presented at the
SPE European Formation Damage Conference, The
Hague, The Netherlands, June 2-3, 1997.
10. Karakas M and Tariq S: Semi-Analytical Productivity
Models for Perforated Completions, paper SPE
18271, presented at the 63rd SPE Annual Technical
Conference and Exhibition, Houston, Texas, USA,
October 2-5, 1988.
Cole E Jr: Normalize Data for Better Shaped Charge
Prediction, Petroleum Engineer International 63, no.
1 (January 1991): 37-43.
Halleck PM, Wesson DS, Snider PM and Navaretta
M: Prediction of In-Situ Shaped Charge Penetration
Using Acoustic and Density Logs, paper SPE 22808,
presented at the 66th SPE Annual Technical
Conference and Exhibition, October 6-9, 1991.
Cosad C: Choosing a Perforating Strategy, Oilfield
Review 4, no. 4 (October 1992): 54-69.

16

Ott RE, Bell WT, Harrigan Jr JW and Golian TG:

Simple Method Predicts Downhole Shaped-Charge
Gun Performance, SPE Production Facilities 9, no. 3
(August 1994): 171-178.
Brooks JE: A Simple Method for Estimating Well
Productivity, paper SPE 38148, presented at the SPE
European Formation Damage Conference, The
Hague, The Netherlands, June 2-3, 1997.
SPAN Schlumberger Perforating Analysis version 5.0,
Schlumberger Perforating & Testing documentation,
Rosharon, Texas, USA (1997).
11. Behrmann LA and McDonald B: Underbalance or
Extreme Overbalance, paper SPE 31083, presented
at the SPE International Symposium on Formation
Damage Control, Lafayette, Louisiana, USA,
February 14-15, 1995.
Behrmann L, Huber K, McDonald B, Couet B, Dees
J, Folse R, Handren P, Schmidt J and Snider J: Quo
Vadis, Extreme Overbalance? Oilfield Review 8, no.
3 (Autumn 1996): 18-33.
12. Crowe C, Masmonteil J, Touboul E and Thomas R:
Trends in Matrix Acidizing, Oilfield Review 4, no.
4 (October 1992): 24-40.
Economides MJ, Hill AD and Ehlig-Economides C:
Petroleum Production Systems. Englewood Cliffs,
New Jersey, USA: PTR Prentice Hall (1994): 347389, 391-420.

PerforatingModern perforating gun

charges make bigger holes in casing and
penetrate deeper than older versions.9 Wells
completed with charges that penetrated
12 in. can now be reperforated with guns
that create tunnels more than 26 in. into
formations. Entry-hole diameters larger than
3
4 in. can be obtained compared to less
than 12 in. in the past. Perforating charge
performance can also be designed and predicted with greater accuracy and confidence.10 In addition, new techniques like
extreme overbalance perforating (EOP)
offer innovative and unique ways to
enhance well productivity.10
Adding perforations using a through-tubing expendable Enerjet gun increased reservoir inflow performance and the additional
produced gas improved flow-conduit lift
performance. NODAL analysis indicated
that well output could potentially be close
to 300 BOPD [48 m3/d]. Production from
this offshore Louisiana well was enhanced
from 22 to 260 BOPD [3.5 to 41m3/d]. The
client accepted a value-pricing arrangement and agreed to pay a percentage over
existing contract prices if this PE well intervention broke even sooner than the estimated payout. Schlumberger agreed to
share some risk by agreeing to receive market price less 20% if the job took longer to
payout. Total job costs were recouped in
just 12 days and the operator paid a 30%
value-price premium (left).
In another example, reperforating with
high-performance charges can increase production and realize the predicted production
potential of wells. Deep-penetrating perforations or larger entry holes reduce drawdown
across the completion. Analysis of a well in
a dolomite oil reservoir in Texas indicated a
6-in. damage zone with a 0.85-mD permeability. The 1.6-mD dolomite reservoir was
20 ft [6 m] thick with an 8500-psi reservoir
pressure. The well was completed by perforating with a casing gun and tested at 55
BOPD [8.7 m3/d] rate. When reperforated
using an expendable through-tubing gun, the
well produced 148 BOPD [23.5 m3/d].
NODAL analysis predicted that this well
should be capable of making 270 BOPD [43
m3/d] (next page, top). A recommendation to
shoot the well with a Pivot Gun perforator
resulted in a rate of 277 BOPD [44 m3/d].

Oilfield Review

NODAL Production
System Analysis Model

Well: Dolomite reservoir

Location: Texas
8-in. perforation length
22-in. perforation length
Absolute open-flow potential

Flowing wellhead pressure, psig

10000

7500

IPR before reperforating

5000

IPR after reperforating

2500

Flow conduit

Productivity
gap

0
0

250

500

750

1000

Production rate, B/D

Reperforating. NODAL analysis predicted that this well could produce

270 BOPD. After perforating with a Pivot Gun perforator the well tested at a
277-BOPD rate.

NODAL Production
System Analysis Model

Well: Edwards Lime

Location: Texas
Skin = 3
Skin = 1
Absolute open-flow potential

10000

Flowing wellhead pressure, psig

AcidizingStimulation technologies have

been improved as well. Todays acid systems
remove damage more effectively, and these
matrix treatments can be designed, placed
and diverted with greater efficiency.12
Matrix acid jobs reduce skin and improve
well productivity. In south Texas, a matrix
acidizing treatment was used to stimulate an
Edwards Lime well with 40 ft [12 m] of 1mD gas pay and 2200-psi bottomhole pressure. Gas production before acidizing was
750 Mscf/D [21 Mscm/d], but NODAL analysis predicted that production potential from
this well was 1270 Mscf/D [35 Mscm/d]
(right). Actual production after a FoamMat
acid treatment was 1400 Mscf/D [40
Mscf/d], almost a two-fold increase.

2250

IPR before acid

IPR after acid
1500

Flow conduit

750

Productivity gap

0
0

500

1000

1500

2000

Production rate, Mscf/D

Acidizing. A south Texas gas well produced 1400 Mscf/D after

a FoamMat acid treatment. Before acidizing, production was
750 Mscf/D. NODAL analysis estimated potential production at
1270 Mscf/D.

Winter 1997

17

NODAL Production
System Analysis Model

WELL: Wilcox
LOCATION: Texas

Flowing wellhead pressure, psig

5000

1000-psi wellhead pressure

2600-psi wellhead pressure

3750

IPR after fracturing

2500

IPR before fracture fracturing

1250

Productivity gap

0
0

500

1000

1500

2000

Production, Mscf/D

Fracturing. A low-permeability gas well was shut in. NODAL

calculations estimated post-fracture stimulation potential to be
550 Mscf/D. After fracturing the well produced 600 Mscf/D.

Inflow performance relationship (IPR)

Gas-lift performance

2500

Bottomhole pressure, psig

2000

Venezuela
1500

1000

500

Productivity gap
0
0

100

200

300

400

500

600

700

800

Total liquid rate, B/D

Drilling lateral drainholes. A well in Lake Maracaibo, Venezuela, had not produced
since 1986 because of mechanical wellbore problemsjunk in the hole. NODAL analysis
predicted 275 BOPD from a 70-ft lateral sidetrack. The well actually produced 250 BOPD
and paid out in 13 months.

18

Oilfield Review

FracturingTodays fracture stimulations

use cleaner fluids and more effective proppants to provide the most conductive path
possible from the formation to the wellbore.13 Retained fracture permeabilities, for
example, have been increased from less
than 10 to several hundred darcies.
Fracture stimulation treatments create
conductive paths from the formation into
the wellbore. In low-permeability reservoirs, propped fractures serve as a highway
for hydrocarbons. NODAL production system analysis for another south Texas well
predicted that the Wilcox formation could
produce 550 Mscf/D [16 Mscm/d] at a
2600-psi wellhead pressure after fracturing
(previous page, top left and right). This well
penetrated 45 ft [14 m] of 0.09-mD
formation and had a reservoir pressure of
4500 psi. The well would not produce initially, but made 600 Mscf/D [17 Mscm/d]
after the fracture stimulation.
Drilling lateralsReentry drilling technology, such as RAPID Reentry And Production
Improvement Drilling, has also developed to
the point where horizontal and multilateral
wells provide options for tapping bypassed
reserves from existing wellbores.14 And modern coiled tubing techniques can unlock the
potential of these high-angle or horizontal

Winter 1997

wells, not only through drilling but also by

efficiently conveying logging tools and placing stimulation fluids.15
In Lake Maracaibo, Venezuela, NODAL
analysis forecast that a 70-ft [21 m] sidetrack
would produce 275 BOPD [44 m3/d] (previous page, bottom and below). This well had
been shut in since 1986 because of mechanical wellbore problemsa lost fish or junk in
the hole. After the sidetrack was drilled, this
well produced 250 BOPD [40 m3/d]. The
payout for this production enhancement
intervention was 13 months.
Computer and communications capabilities have advanced as well. A little more than
10 years ago, personal computers were used
almost exclusively for word processing.
Today, these computers provide the computational horsepower for engineering programs that help select, design and evaluate
well interventions. Previously, reservoir and
production calculations were time consuming, made by hand or on massive mainframe
computers. Now, service company representatives can quickly forecast the effects of
completion and stimulation actions with
portable laptop computers while sitting
across the desk from clients in their offices.
Reservoir surveillance capabilities, data
management and information technology
have also improved.16

In most PEG evaluations, the overall reservoir development plan is fixed, but production enhancement may be an integral part of
more extensive reservoir management projects that are directed at optimizing field,
production and reservoir performance. Data
and results from the PE process also provide
insights and input for further detailed reservoir studies and simulation. On larger, complex projects, like the Amoco N.W. Hutton
field, production enhancement during early
stages can jump-start oil and gas production
and boost income to help generate funds for
initial remedial efforts. Efforts to improve
productivity should not be directed solely at
marginal wells, completions on the structural flanks of fields or areas with limited pay
or potential. Like fracture stimulation well
candidates, the best producers often make
the best PE prospects. Each well should be
evaluated to determine if it is producing at its
full potential.
13. Brady B, Elbel J, Mack M, Morales H, Nolte K and
Poe B: Cracking Rock: Progress in Fracture
Treatment Design, Oilfield Review 4, no. 4
(October 1992): 4-17.
Hanna B, Ayoub J and Cooper B: Rewriting the
Rules for High-Permeability Stimulation, Oilfield
Review 4, no. 4 (October 1992): 18-23.
Economides MJ, Hill AD and Ehlig-Economides C:
Petroleum Production Systems. Englewood Cliffs,
New Jersey, USA: PTR Prentice Hall (1994): 421456, 457-494, 495-521.
Armstrong K, Card R, Navarrete R, Nelson E,
Nimerick K, Samuelson M, Collins J, Dumont G,
Priaro M, Wasylycia N and Slusher G: Advanced
Fracturing Fluids Improve Well Economics, Oilfield
Review 7, no. 3 (Autumn 1995): 34-51.
Chase B, Chmilowski W, Marcinew R, Mitchell C,
Dang Y, Krauss K, Nelson E, Lantz T, Parham C and
Plummer J: Clear Fracturing Fluids for Increased
Well Productivity, Oilfield Review 9, no. 3 (Autumn
1997): 20-33.
14. Hill D, Neme E, Ehlig-Economides C and Mollinedo
M: Reentry Drilling Gives New Life to Aging Fields,
Oilfield Review 8, no. 3 (Autumn 1996): 4-17.
15. Ackers M, Doremus D and Newman K: An Early
Look at Coiled-Tubing Drilling, Oilfield Review 4,
no. 3 (July 1992): 45-51.
Bigio D, Rike A, Christensen A, Collins J, Hardman
D, Doremus D, Tracy P, Glass G, Joergensen NB and
Stephens D: Coiled Tubing Takes Center Stage,
Oilfield Review 6, no. 4 (October 1994): 9-23.
16. Baker A, Gaskell J, Jeffery J, Thomas A, Veneruso T
and Unneland T: Permanent MonitoringLooking
at Lifetime Reservoir Dynamics, Oilfield Review 7,
no. 4 (Winter 1995): 32-46.
Beham R, Brown A, Mottershead C, Whitgift J, Cross
J, Desroches L, Espeland J, Greenberg M, Haines P,
Landgren K, Layrisse I, Lugo J, Morean O, Ochoa E,
ONeill D and Sledz J: Changing the Shape of E&P
Data Management, Oilfield Review 9, no. 2
(Summer 1997): 21-33.
Arango G, Colley N, Connelly C, Greenes K, Pearse
K, Denis J, Highnam P, Durbec C, Gutman L, Sims
D, Jardine S, Jervis T, Smith R and Miles R: Whats
in IT for Us? Oilfield Review 9, no. 3 (Autumn 1997):
2-19.

19

Turning Cost into Revenue

Cost and market-driven pricing

Schlumberger

Products
and
services

Cost

Price

Sales

Customers

Value pricing

Schlumberger

Clients

Production
enhancement
opportunities

Customized
products
and
integrated
solutions

Share rewards and

risks based
on added value

Costs versus solutions. Value pricing moves customers and solutions forward in the service
process. Customized solutions emphasize production not low-bid jobs and can generate
greater value for both operators and an integrated service provider like Schlumberger.

Solution-based success and

measurable differential value

Market rate (MR)

Estimated production
enhancement target

Service revenue
Risk risk-share
cap

Reward
cap

Baseline or
minimum production

Production revenue

Added value
Compensation for services

An important aspect of production enhancement and the PEG function, in addition to

actively prospecting for well candidates, is
undertaking projects on a contingency, riskreward or value-price basis. Until recently,
charges for well services were usually based
on service cost or prevailing market rates.
But compensation for integrated, solutionbased services that deliver an incrementally
greater return can also be based on performance, benefits or the extra value generatedvalue pricing (right). Value pricing
makes sense when customized solutions
result in measurable savings or increased
income that is quantifiable and differentiated
from other products, services or methods.
Helping clients meet incremental production targets is the foundation for customized
solutions and contingency payments or
result-based rewards (below right). For risking some service revenue down to a lower
cost limit, Schlumberger receives a fair share
of the added value generated by PEG recommendations. Operators share this additional
value, up to a reward cap, in return for
reduced financial exposure, technology and
service resources, and a mutual working
arrangement that helps overcome risk and
technical obstacles, resistance to applying
new technology and pricing fixations that
are left over from the low-bid days and
industry downturns of the past decade. This
approach focuses on generating, measuring
and sharing greater value.
Payment for PEG recommendations could,
for instance, be calculated based on incremental production. The operator might share
50% of incremental production, after paying
taxes and royalties, for a mutually agreeable
period of time. In short, to the extent that services provide two dollars of extra value, the
client shares some amount less than a dollar.
Compensation can also be based on job success using a sliding scale. Payments for services can be determined by multiplying
market or alliance price rates by a predetermined percentage (next page, top left). The
operator could agree to pay market rates or
less for services that are unsuccessful or for
marginal production increases. Successful
jobs that return large increases in production
would be invoiced at higher percentages.

Decreasing payout time

Increased production or savings

Sharing risk and value. In value-pricing arrangements, operators share the rewards,
up to a cap, from projects that enhance production, add reserves, improve efficiency or
increase service quality. For risking some service revenue, down to a limit, Schlumberger
gets a fair share of this value. Value pricing makes sense if customized solutions, differentiated from other products and services, deliver measurable savings or increased revenue.

20

Oilfield Review

Incremental production

Price for services

0 to 10

MR x 0.25

11 to 20

MR

21 to 50

MR x 1.25

51 to 80

MR x 1.5

Field support

81 to 100

MR x 1.75

101 to 150

MR x 2.0

greater than 151

MR x [Qs/Qi]

Interpretation, development (ID)

Area engineers (AE)
Custom solutions teams
RAPID reentry drilling

Field

Well
Individual services

MR Market rate or alliance price

Qs Stabilized rate per day or month after PE job
Qi Initial rate per day or month before PE job

A sliding scale. Prices for PE services

can be based on job success. Operators
pay market price or less for marginal
production increases or unsuccessful
jobs. But they would share the value
from successful jobs by agreeing to pay
a percentage above cost-based market
or alliance rates for services.

Value-based pricing and contingent payment philosophies help buyers and service
providers think, act and make decisions in
terms of value rather than price, and therefore concentrate on optimum solutions and
results instead of the lowest price tools and
services. When Schlumberger as an integrated service company is given the task of
helping operators achieve a target incremental production, NPV or return-on-investment
(ROI) in exchange for a fair share of incremental production, costs are more effectively
turned into revenue. The result is a new focus
on the outcome, production to be generated
and value that is provided instead of the cost,
or expense, of services. Focusing on production generates more revenue and, as a result,
additional value for both the client and the
integrated service company.
The service sector, now more than ever, is
able to assume more responsibility for production operations. A complete range of
Schlumberger service capabilities is available to deliver customized solutions, and
manage well construction, production
enhancement interventions, field operations,
major projects and reservoir performance
(above right). But the blurring of traditional
boundaries between clients and service
providers can be complicated. Schlumberger
believes that service companies should be
independent, maintaining consistent relationships with all clients. Actions that might
result in overlap, confusion and potential
conflicts of interest are avoided even when
sharing risks and rewards.

Winter 1997

Candidate recognition
PEGPCR
DESCPE

Reservoir studies
Well studies
Reservoir studies
Field studies

Reservoir management
Integrated project management
Integrated reservoir optimization

Integrated
solutions

The spectrum of integrated solutions and customized services.

Integrated service providers should be

compensated for service quality, performance and the value that is delivered, but
without taking an equity position in oil and
gas assets. Value-pricing ensures that the service provider is fairly compensated for integrated skills and services, such as production
enhancement, project management and
reservoir optimization, and ensures that the
extra value generated by customized solutions is distributed equitably.
What Does the Future Hold?

In the arsenal of services available to oil

companies, production enhancement is
rapidly gaining acceptance. The future for
PEG includes expansion into more markets
and continuing advances in computer capabilities and data management. Candidate
recognition, including well monitoring and
evaluation, will become more automated.
Real-time data measurement, communication and management toolslike the
WellWatcher systemwill help track surface
and subsurface parameters, such as temperature, pressure, flow rate and fluid densities,
and then transmit this information to operator offices continuously or on command.
The Production Enhancement Analysis Kit
(PEAK) will be further developed into a
tightly integrated reservoir and production
engineering software support package. And
finally, production enhancement efforts will
be further integrated with future well construction, project management, reservoir
enhancement, field study and reservoir management processes.

Increasingly, efforts by PEG teams may also

be an integral element in larger projects. As a
logical next step in new business relationships between clients and service companies,
production enhancement can be a starting
point to further expand integrated production
management and customized service solutions. Operators benefit from improved
production, reduced risk and more effective
use of service sector knowledge and experience. As the integrated service provider,
Schlumberger gets an improved return for
services rendered and an expanded market
for solutions, services and tools, in addition
to more opportunities to prove new technologies and ideas, demonstrate integrated
services concepts and gain experience.
On a daily basis, oil and gas operating
companies must deal with many existing
wells and reservoirs while trying to improve
or maintain output from an increasing number of new wells. Proactive efforts to optimize the productivity of client-operated
wells through production enhancement are
helping to get the most value out of existing
wells. This engineering methodology breaks
down traditional barriers between petroleum
disciplines as well as producers and integrated service companies, providing a more
open exchange of information that results in
additional production, increased recoveries
and the sharing of value.
MET

21

Interactive Exploration

Operating companies can now monitor from afar the progress of their
seismic data acquisition and processing projects on a daily basis.
Through advances in secure computer network access, the search
for hydrocarbons is approaching a level of interactivity that allows
oil company experts to virtually participate in the acquisition and
processing of their data in real time from the comfort of their offices.

Dilip Bhatt
John Kingston
Gatwick, England
Helge Bragstad
Asker, Norway
Dennis ONeill
Houston, Texas, USA

For help in preparation of this article, thanks to Colin

Hulme and Robin Walker, Geco-Prakla, Gatwick,
England.
Olympus-IMS, SEISMOS, SuperVision, TQ3D (Total
Quality 3D) and TRINAV are marks of Schlumberger.
TWS (Trusted Web Service) is a mark of Omnes.
Navigator and Enterprise are marks of Netscape
Communications Corporation. Internet Explorer is a
mark of Microsoft Corporation.

22

Information delivery is a business of balance.

With too little information, problems remain
unsolved. With too much, the relevant parts
may go unheeded. Too early may not be possible, but too late might just as well be not at
all. And giving confidential information to
the wrong party is unacceptable. Creating
the perfect balance requires knowing what is
needed: which data and how much, where
and when to send data, and to whom. And of
course, no data transfer is possible without a
means of conveyance.
For the oil and gas industry, the scale of the
information-delivery challenge is global.
Rigs, crews and vessels are able to acquire
log and seismic data at nearly every coordinate on the globe, but the decision-makers
and end-users of these data are usually far
from the acquisition site and often removed
from data-processing operations.
The availability of the WorldWide Web,
satellites and high-speed transmission lines
makes delivery of distant oilfield information
possible, but other elements of the balancing
act must be weighed before the problem is
completely solvedbefore the hard-won
data make their utmost contribution to the
resource optimization puzzle. Each discipline within the industry has specific
requirements for data type and amount. Even
within a discipline, needs may vary with
urgency and end use.

Oilfield Review

Winter 1997

23

Source
positions
Bin
Receivers

Reflection
points

Covering the target. The surface overlying the target is divided into bins. The number of
reflection points that project up into a bin is tallied and called the coverage; often the term
fold is also used to denote coverage.

In terms of seismic data, the demands for

information can be classified according to
the stage of a survey. The two stages with the
greatest needs for time-sensitive data, and
that lend themselves well to the constraints
imposed by real-time transfer of information,
are survey acquisition and data processing.
In this article, we examine the data requirements for these two crucial stages in the
imaging of a reservoir and describe a new
Internet-based system that allows operators
to monitor in real time the progress of their
data acquisition and processing.
Required While Acquiring

Until a well is drilled, the most reliable information available for identifying targets is
gleaned from seismic data. Getting a highquality seismic survey at a cost-effective
price is crucial. To achieve this, operators
need details about survey progress during
seismic acquisition, whether on land or at
sea. This may be for health, safety and environmental reasons, contract conditions, or

24

for monitoring and assessing data quality. In

some cases, timely operator response or
input is essential to the success of the survey.
Some of the information operators require
is contained in the party chiefs log, which is
a record of all significant events; the navigation log, which documents the positioning
process; and the daily production log, which
is a listing of the lines that were acquired and
whether they passed established quality
acceptance criteria.
Also vital, from a data-quality point of view,
are Quantified Quality Assurance (QQA)
reports that contain detailed analyses of the
data acquired and comparisons of these to
quality standards that were set in the survey
planning stage.1 Quality parameters have traditionally been based on simple analysis of
background noise levels, but are increasingly
based upon the measured quality of recorded
data. Quality acceptance levels for parameters such as signal-to-noise ratio, source
power, frequency content and coherence
between adjacent traces are set prior to a survey after a detailed evaluation of their impact
on the ultimate objectives of the survey.

In the course of a survey, some shots or

lines may not meet quality specifications,
requiring a reshoot of the offending lines. Or
conversely, some lines that do not initially
appear to meet specifications based on background noise levels may, in fact, be adequate
after some processing, and not require
reshooting. The operator, usually someone in
an office, decides whether the data are fit for
the processing and interpretation that follow.
For maximum acquisition efficiency and
economy, making the decision that a line
need or need not be reshot requires up-todate information, so shooting can be done
before the acquisition crew leaves the site.
1. For a review of seismic survey planning: Ashton CP,
Bacon B, Mann A, Moldoveanu N, Dplant C,
Ireson D, Sinclair T and Redekop G: 3D Seismic
Survey Design, Oilfield Review 6, no. 2 (April
1994): 19-32.

Oilfield Review

Velocity analysis
coherence plot. As
part of stacking, a
velocity function
that varies with
depth is applied to
seismic traces. If the
velocity function is
the correct one, the
traces will line up,
and exhibit coherence, or similarity,
from one to the
next. A mathematical expression for
coherence is plotted
here in velocity
(horizontal axis)
versus two-way
travel time (vertical
axis). Blue signifies
low coherence, yellow is intermediate
and red is high. The
velocity function
that gives the best
stack is plotted as a
yellow step-like line.

Two-way time, msec

In addition, periodically, a coverage map

a plot showing the geographic area of the
survey and the density of seismic energy
recorded at every point on the mapis
analyzed to verify that the subsurface target
is being covered sufficiently by seismic data
(previous page). The points are actually small
areas called bins. As the survey comes to a
close, if holes are detected in the coverage,
infill shooting is required. Infill shooting,
which entails redeploying sources and
receivers to areas already traversed in the
survey, can represent up to 30% of overall
survey cost.
In the past, the party chiefs log, navigation
log and daily production log were printed on
paper and sent or faxed to the oil company.
Data quality control (QC) analyses and coverage plots were also printed and sent by fax
or surface mail if color plots were produced.
Decisions would be made based on the
paper output, and relayed as soon as possible back to the service company contractor.
Unfortunately, delays often occurred, and
seismic crews were kept waiting or had to
return to the site later for costly reshooting.
Input to Processing

Data acquisition is not the only stage of a

seismic survey that requires timely input
from the operator. Data processing
whether run after acquisition, or as is now
more common, concurrently with acquisitioncan benefit from real-time client
involvement.
The two processing steps that most typically receive client attention are deconvolution and velocity analysis. Deconvolution is
a filtering technique that removes certain
types of noise and produces seismic traces
with features that more accurately correspond to the reflectors encountered. As a
test, various deconvolution filters are applied
to a small amount of the seismic data. The filter that gives the best result is then applied to
all the data. The choice is usually made visually from a plotted series of deconvolution
panels. Expert knowledge about the
expected geology is important in choosing
deconvolution parameters.
Velocity analysis is part of the stacking process. Stacking is the summing, for the purpose of enhancing the signal-to-noise ratio,
of seismic traces acquired by different
source-receiver pairs. On these traces,
echoes originating from the same location
on a reflector appear at different times. The
time difference across traces is directly
linked to the velocity at which seismic waves
travel through the subsurface. Most velocity

Winter 1997

Velocity

analysis schemes rely on picking the maximum in a velocity-versus-time plot (above).

Several velocities are tested on small portions of the data. The velocity that produces
the greatest coherence is selected.
A 3D seismic survey typically requires
velocity analysis at several thousand locations, between which the selected velocities
are interpolated to enable optimum stacking
over the whole survey area. Selection of the
velocity function that maximizes coherence
can be done automatically by computer, but
quality control must be performed visually
by a geophysicist who can recognize a physically realistic velocity function. Quite fre-

quently clients participate directly in velocity

quality control, or pick the velocity functions
themselves. This practice can sometimes
lead to scheduling delays in the project.
In a growing industry trend, more surveys
are being shot and processed concurrently,
reducing overall cycle time of the project
and speeding access to an interpretable
result. This drives the need for even faster
decision-making, which in turn requires
faster access to real-time acquisition and
processing information by oil company
office personnel.

25

Secure Web server

HSE
QQA data
Personnel
Coverage data
Survey planning
Production logs
Vessel description
General file transfers
Seismic data
QC data

Real-time seismic acquisition and processing project monitoring with secure access. The
Web-based SuperVision service encourages interactive exploration by providing up-to-date
information on project status while preventing unauthorized access.

Monitoring from Afar

The SuperVision project monitoring service

from Geco-Prakla delivers acquisition and
processing updates that allow oil company
decision-makers to participate in projects in
real time (above). This new initiative uses offthe-shelf Web-browser software and the
explorationists own PC or workstation to

access a project home page. The client can

monitor and comment on project progress
from an office or portable PC, anywhere in
the world and at any time of day or night.2
Connection between client sites and the
SuperVision system is through one of a small
number of servers from the TWS Trusted Web
Service offered by Omnes. The TWS server is

linked to the Schlumberger intranet through

a security firewall (below). Actual transmission of data can be through the Internet or
through dedicated high-speed integrated services digital network (ISDN) lines. Project
monitoring data destined for client view are
collated onboard or at the field location,
transferred on a regular basis via satellite to a
master server, then sent to the TWS server.
Through the appropriate authentication
mechanism, authorized personnel log into
the home page of that survey, and use commercially available Internet tools, such as
Navigator or Internet Explorer to view and
browse the Web site.
Network security is obviously of
paramount importance. The security technology that controls SuperVision access was
designed by Geco-Prakla to work in the
security-unfriendly environment of the public Internet. The goals of the security measures are privacy, authentication and
robustness. Privacy means there is no unauthorized access to confidential information
over the public network. Authentication
means that steps are taken to ensure that
users are who they say they are and that
information originates from the source it
claims. Robustness means that a server will
not fail by attack from someone with physical or network access.

Fire wall

Extending client connectivity with the SuperVision system. Seismic data from acquisition units (left) are transferred on internal Web servers
to data-processing centers on the Schlumberger intranet. Data are then archived on a TWS Trusted Web Service server. To access data, oil
companies (right) may use the Internet or direct ISDN lines, following strict authentication measures to access the TWS server.

26

Oilfield Review

Party chiefs log from an XYZ Oil Company survey. The SuperVision system allows up-to-the-minute checks on
acquisition status as well as a complete archive of all survey activity.

The TWS service relies on three technologiesfire wall, Netscape Enterprise server
and secure socket layerto ensure properly
controlled connectivity. The fire wall restricts
physical access and monitors traffic to detect
unauthorized access attempts. It also restricts
the electronic communication between two
different machines, or Internet protocol (IP)
addresses, to a certain class of conversations,
or port numbers. For example, machine A
might be allowed to access Web pages on
machine B, but not be able to do a remote
login. The Netscape Enterprise server manages access control. The secure socket layer
manages certified access and relies on public key encryption, digital certificates and
personal smart cards to assure security.3
Digital certification for access to the
Geco-Prakla TWS server is administered by
trusted third-party authorities called certificate authorities.

Winter 1997

The certificate authority currently certifying

access to the TWS server is Verisign, Inc. of
Mountain View, California, USA. Verisign is
the leading provider of digital authentication
services and products for electronic commerce and other forms of secure communications. Verisign installs a unique fingerprint,
or digital certificate, on the hard disk of the
computer that will be used to access the
server. The certificate is registered with the
Web site at the time the authorized client
user is issued a password. Certified access to
the TWS server requires identification of that
user with that password on that machine
with that digital certificate. Unless each of
these is authenticated, there is no access. If
multiple machines are to access the Web
site, each must have a certificate registered
with the TWS server.

Once the authorized user has accessed

the SuperVision home page, the gateway is
open to a wealth of information. A tour of
the home page set up for the fictitious XYZ
Oil Company reveals the types of information available on acquisition and processing projects.
The first stop is the party chiefs log, an
exact replica of its paper-copy ancestor. Also
on record here in chronological order are all
the logs for each day of the survey (above).
The recent log selectedhighlighted in the
left columnchronicles details of the survey.
Annotations include the party chiefs name,
2. Bragstad H, Kingston J and ONeill DM: Seismic
Exploration and the World Wide Web, presented at
the 59th EAGE Conference and Technical Exhibition,
Geneva, Switzerland, May 26-30, 1997, paper B035.
3. For more on public keys, encryption and security:
Arango G, Colley N, Connelly C, Greenes K,
Pearse K, Denis J, Highnam P, Durbec C, Gutman L,
Sims D, Jardine S, Jervis T, Smith R and Miles R:
Whats in IT for Us? Oilfield Review 9, no. 3
(Autumn 1997): 2-19.

27

Interactive coverage plot. On the main screen, each traverse of the vessel appears as a colored, vertical
swath. Black indicates full coverage and lighter colors show lower coverage. White areas in the middle
of a black area are gaps in coverage created by obstacles in the survey area. The inset panel describes
in more detail the four vertical subdivisions of each swath. The leftmost division of any swath shows the
coverage for the near-offset traces, with offsets between 180 and 1630 m. The second division gives
coverage for the near-to-mid offsets, from 1630 to 3080 m. The mid-to-far offsets (3080 to 4530 m) follow,
and the rightmost division shows coverage for the far offsets (4530 to 6100 m).

weather conditions, number of sources,

streamers and channels, streamer length,
total number of points shot, comments on
streamer modifications made during the survey and notes on the days events. In this
case, the difficult weather conditions precluded a rendezvous with a supply boat.
A second type of update, the coverage plot,
presents several panels with information
about how effectively the survey is covering
the subsurface target (above). The main
screen shows each traverse of the vessel as a
vertical swath. Black indicates full coverage,
according to the specifications of the survey,
and lighter colors flag zones of lower coverage. An inset panel explains the color legend
and describes the details of the groupings of
shots within each vertical swath of the plot.
The white step-like areas at the bottom of
each swath are zones left without coverage
at the beginning of each line. The white areas
in the middle of a black area are holes in the
coverage. Holes of this nature can be created
by obstacles in the survey area. In this example, the holes result from having to navigate
around an offshore platform.

28

As a type of page, the coverage plot is completely different from the party chiefs log
because users can interact with it. Coverage,
or the number of shots hitting a bin, is computed and plotted for a streamer offset range.
But the coverage could also be plotted for a
different offset range using the same data.
From the SuperVision coverage plot, a new
offset range can be selected, and a new plot
generated. This interactive feature sets the
SuperVision project monitoring service apart
from any fax or hard-copy delivery method.
A third type of acquisition project monitoring page available on the SuperVision system
is the real-time quality control plot (next
page, top). The graphs in this example track
signal quality recorded in the streamer being
towed on the port side of the vessel, and
indicate shot points for which parameters
selected in the survey planning stage exceed
a prescribed value. The culprit in this case is
a noise level spike just before shotpoint
number 2600.

Unlike the party chiefs log and coverage

plot, which are generated at regular intervals, quality control plots are generated as
exception reports, and appear only when a
parameter threshold has been surpassed.
With this information available in real time,
clients can evaluate the impact of the noisy
shots on the final outcome of the processed
survey. For this survey, such conditions
occurred in isolated shots on two lines, as
indicated in the left window.
Acquisition updates are also available for
land seismic surveys with the SuperVision
service. In a fictitious example over the city
of Amsterdam, the survey acquisition geometry with locations of sources and receivers
has been plotted on a basemap of the local
countryside (next page, bottom left). This
shows the locations of obstacles and other
constraints on the acquisition. During acquisition, coverage can be monitored. For
example, an area dominated by a lake
exhibits some low-coverage spots because
source positions were limited. Adequate
coverage is plotted in red and orange, while
lower coverage shows up as yellow, green
and blue (next page, bottom right).

Oilfield Review

Exceptions to the
rule. When survey
noise parameters
exceed established
thresholds, a QQA
Quantified Quality
Assurance exception
report is generated.
In this case, the
signal quality
recorded in the port
streamer shows a
noise level spike
(center panel) near
shotpoint 2600.

Planning a seismic survey over Amsterdam.

Taking into account natural and man-made
obstacles, a grid of source (red) and receiver
(purple) positions has been laid over a map
of the city.
The coverage expected for the Amsterdam survey in one area
dominated by a lake. Coverage decreases from red and orange
through yellow to green and blue.

Winter 1997

29

Several steps in the data-processing chain

can also be monitored. The processing status
report gives an overview of the processing
project (below). This display plots the processing tasks in chronological order, the time
interval allotted for completion and a snapshot of processing status. This excerpt from an
output for a TQ3D Total Quality 3D marine
survey indicates that the early tasks, including priority-area processing concurrent with
acquisition, prestack testing and data merging, have been completed. Milestones, such
as completion of acquisition, delivery of navigation data, meetings and steps requiring
client input, are marked by diamonds. A typical processing project will have 20 to 40
tasks, many of which overlap. The final steps
in this project, not plotted here, include
velocity field QC and data migration.
The crucial phase of velocity analysis for
stacking requires several iterative steps and
exchanges of data between service company
and operator. The SuperVision system allows
these exchanges to be performed in a fraction of the time previously required for fax
and courier delivery of paper outputs. The

SuperVision page houses a record of velocity-analysis panels, and updates the archive
with all communications and data analyses
pertaining to the velocities that will be used
for stacking and migration (next page). The
multipanel display is standard output from
the Geco-Prakla SEISMOS data-processing
system. The velocity-depth panel on the left
shows coherence maxima picked as blue,
red and black squares. The center panel plots
the seismic data with the current velocity
field applied. The seven panels on the right
show the results of applying seven different
constant-velocity fields to the data.
The Vision

SuperVision project monitoring delivers

higher quality seismic results than previous
methods, and does so more efficiently. The
fast turnaround in communication promotes
client input at crucial stages, producing an
improved seismic product. Efficiency is
gained because the Web site takes less effort
to update and to read. The data are available
when needed, and there is a unique, shared
version that can be accessed by teams work-

ing in different locations. The digital project

archive can be stored and managed with the
seismic data themselves, from acquisition
through processing and interpretation.
Certified access to multiple locations allows
operator experts and partners, as well as contractor offices and field sites, to participate in
creating a high-quality seismic dataset.
Because information is updated rather than
replaced, an information archive is built up
over the duration of a survey, allowing a
complete retrospective view of the job to
date. An added benefit is that by the end of a
project, most of the final report already exists
in a standard and accessible format.
The SuperVision service aims to deliver
project monitoring to customer desktops,
usually a personal computer, and to provide
any display that would normally be seen on
a workstation in the instrument room of a
seismic vessel or land acquisition unit, or in
a processing center. An immediate benefit is
better leverage of experienced personnel:
monitoring a survey no longer requires
absence from the office for two or three
months. Supervising a project via the Web

Tracking processing status. This report gives an overview of the processing project, including tasks in
chronological order, the time allotted for completion, and a look ahead at meetings and other milestones.

30

Oilfield Review

From velocity analysis. The multipanel display is standard output from the Geco-Prakla SEISMOS data-processing
system. The velocity and travel time panel on the left, which appeared earlier on page 25 shows coherence maxima
picked as blue, red and black squares. The center panel plots the seismic data with the current velocity field applied.
The seven panels on the right show the results of applying seven different constant-velocity fields to the data.

eliminates days, weeks, and potentially

months of dead time, postage costs and risk
of misdirected packages.
With the desktop goal and speedy access in
mind, data available through the SuperVision
system are limited by their size. Raw seismic
data and large 3D cubes occupying hun-

Winter 1997

dreds of gigabytes are not suitable for delivery to the oil company interpreters desktop
PC. But through the SuperVision page, for
example, a request can be made for the data
to be delivered through a different path to a
large machine down the hall, with the option
of using high-fidelity compression techniques to shorten transmission times.

The near-term goal is to have every seismic

project accessible to clients through the
SuperVision system. This would be the next
step toward the longer-term vision of comprehensive management of oil and gas
resources from the office desktop.
LS

31

Extended-Reach Drilling:
Breaking the 10-km Barrier

Geosteering, torque reduction and casing flotation have all contributed

to record-breaking extended-reach drilling achievements. The limits of
directional drilling continue to be pushed back as horizontal reservoir
sections greater than 2500 m are being drilled, cased, cemented and
completed to tap reserves at extreme distances from surface wellsites.

Frank Allen
Paul Tooms
BP Exploration Operating Co. Ltd.
Poole, England
Greg Conran
Poole, England
Bill Lesso
Patrick Van de Slijke
Sugar Land, Texas, USA
For help in preparation of this article, thanks to Lesley
Brown, Susan Caito and John Minge, BP Exploration
Operating Co. Ltd., Poole, England; John Gammage,
Deutag Drilling, Poole, England; Dave Bergt, Jim Jares,
Toni Marszalek, Charlie Pratten and David White,
Anadrill, Sugar Land, Texas, USA; Mike Williams,
Anadrill, Poole, England; and Ty Rivet, Anadrill,
New Orleans, Louisiana, USA.
ADN (Azimuthal Density Neutron), CDR
(Compensated Dual Resistivity) and GeoSteering are
marks of Schlumberger.

32

Wytch farm extended-reach drilling.

Logging-while-drilling and GeoSteering
tools provided real-time data for the geologist to adjust the well path and guide the
well along an optimum route through the
thin pay zones at Wytch Farm, southern
England. In long extended-reach wells,
geosteering techniques are instrumental in
maintaining a smooth, accurate wellbore
through the reservoir.

Oilfield Review

Extended-reach drilling technology recently

achieved a new milestone with the drilling
and completion of a 10-km [33,000-ft]
stepout well, some 2 km [6600 ft] longer
than the previous world record. The main
technical hurdles to the success of this well
were reducing torque and drag, controlling
fluid circulation and maintaining directional
control. Solutions were not simple because
methods to mitigate technical challenges in
one area often had adverse consequences in
others. One factor, drillstring rotation,
repeatedly surfaced as part of the solution to
all the major problems in this extendedreach well.

Winter 1997

Guiding a wellbore accurately through the

pay zone at such extreme distances would be
virtually impossible without geosteering (previous page). Geosteering involves taking
petrophysical measurements at or near the bit
and relaying the information in real time to
the drilling team. The team can then adjust the
bit direction to aim the wellbore optimally
through the formation. The result is that
smaller targets at greater distances can be
drilled successfully. Geosteering has been a
success in terms of both the technical practicalities and the productivity benefits in
extended-reach wells.

This record extended-reach well, M-11, at

the BP Exploration Operating Co. Ltd. Wytch
Farm development in southern England, has
a horizontal displacement of 10,114 m
[33,182 ft ] at a true vertical depth (TVD) of
only 1605 m [5266 ft]. Well M-11 is the second extended-reach record well at Wytch
Farm (above). Both wells used Anadrill logging-while-drilling (LWD), measurementswhile-drilling (MWD) and GeoSteering

33

tools. The M-05 well had set a displacement

record of 8035 m [26,361 ft] in 1995 (right).
The M-05 record was broken last year by
Phillips China, Inc., which drilled the Xijiang
24-3 in the South China Sea to a horizontal
displacement of 8063 m [26,446 ft].1 Horizontal displacement, also called stepout or
departure, is the farthest horizontal distance
from a vertical line below the surface location to the tip of the well.
The total measured depth of Well M-11 is
10,658 m [34,967 ft], a remarkable achievement that puts this well second among the
longest wellbore paths drilled in the world.
In comparison, the worlds deepest well at
12,869 m [42,226 ft] measured depth is a
vertical well, SG-3, drilled by the Ministry of
Geology of the former Soviet Union for scientific exploration on the Kola Peninsula.2
The stepout ratio (horizontal displacement
divided by TVD at total depth) is 6.3 for Well
M-11 (below). Generally, a well is defined as
extended reach if it has a stepout ratio of 1 or
more. A horizontal well is loosely defined as
having a final segment at an 85 to 90 inclination from true vertical. An extended-reach
well may also be a horizontal well, but this
is not a requirement.

Top 20 extended-reach wells worldwide.

Rank

Horizontal
Measured
displacement, ft depth, ft

TVD, ft

Operator

Well

Location

1*

33,182

34,967

5266

BP

M-11

UK, Wytch Farm

2*

26,446

30,308

9554

Phillips

Xijiang 24-3

South China Sea

3*

26,361

28,593

5285

BP

M-05

UK, Wytch Farm

25,764

30,600

NA

Norsk Hydro

30/6 C-26

North Sea

5*

25,108

27,241

NA

BP

M-09

UK, Wytch Farm

6*

23,917

28,743

9147

Statoil

33/9 C-2

North Sea

7*

22,369

24,442

NA

BP

M-03

UK, Wytch Farm

8*

22,180

24,680

5243

BP

M-02

UK, Wytch Farm

21,490

26,509

NA

Norsk Hydro

30/6 B-34

North Sea

10*

21,289

25,991

NA

Norsk Hydro

30/6 C-17

North Sea

11

20,966

24,670

9076

Amoco

SEER T-12

North Sea

12*

20,577

21,102

NA

Norsk Hydro

31/4 A-8A

North Sea

13*

20,577

25,010

NA

Norsk Hydro

30/9 B-30

North Sea

14*

20,514

22,907

5528

Total Austral

ARA S7/1

Tierra del Fuego, Arg.

15

20,289

25,164

NA

Norsk Hydro

30/6 B-6

North Sea

16*

20,151

25,541

NA

Norsk Hydro

30/6 C-24A

North Sea

17*

19,667

22,559

5324

BP

M-06

UK, Wytch Farm

18

19,209

23,786

8845

Statoil

33/9 C-3

North Sea

19*

19,030

23,835

NA

Norsk Hydro

30/9 B-48

North Sea

20*

18,758

24,540

13,940

BP

2/1 A-13

North Sea

* Directional drilling, MWD, LWD or GeoSteering services provided by Anadrill

Wytch Farm
M-05

1000

TVD, m

2000

Wytch Farm
M-11

Wytch Farm
M-09

3000

4000

Wytch Farm wells

Other wells
Departure/TVD = 1
Departure/TVD = 3
Departure/TVD = 5

5000

6000

Standard technology

Advanced technology

7000

1000

2000

3000

4000

5000

6000

7000

8000

9000

10,000

11,000

Measured depth, m

Industry comparison of extended-reach wells. What was once considered the envelope of extended-reach drilling now merely indicates
the difference between standard and advanced technology. That envelope continuously enlarges as companies push technology to the
limit.

34

Oilfield Review

Wytch Farm Development

110
100

Daily production, thousand BOPD

90
80
70
60
50

Offshore
Sherwood

40
30
Onshore
Sherwood

20
10
Bridport
0
1975

1985

1980

1990

1995

2000

2005

2010

2015

Daily production forecast. The third-stage development of Wytch Farm comprises

extended-reach wells drilled from two onshore sites to produce reserves that sit offshore.
More than 80% of the current field production comes from extended-reach wells. The
extended-reach program increased reserves from 300 million bbl before the program to
467 million bbl now.

Island concept
Hook Island

Poole Harbor

Sea level

Sherwood reservoir

1000

2000

3000

4000

5000

6000

7000

8000

9000

3000

4000

5000

6000

7000

8000

9000

Extended-reach well

Sherwood reservoir

1000

2000

Departure, m

Artificial island development concept. The original proposal for development of the offshore reserves called for construction of an artificial island and simple directional wells.
Instead, extended-reach wells were chosen because there would be less impact on the
environment and development would cost less than half and occur three years earlier.

Winter 1997

Drilling the 10-km challenge, as Well

M-11 had been nicknamed throughout planning and operations, was driven by environmental and economic as well as technical
objectives. Simply put, the well was drilled
because it economically tapped additional
reserves more than 10 km from the surface
wellsite. These reserves lay in a section of the
Sherwood reservoir which extends offshore
beneath Poole Bay on the southern coast of
England. Wytch Farm is western Europes
largest onshore oil field, but roughly one-half
of its 467 million bbl [74 million m3]of oil
extends offshore. The Wytch Farm oil field
comprises three major reservoirs, the shallower Frome Limestone at 800 m [2625 ft],
the Bridport reservoir at 900 m [2900 ft] and
the larger, more productive Sherwood reservoir at 1600 m [5200 ft]. The Bridport has
been on production since 1979 and was the
first stage of Wytch Farm development. The
second stage consisted of the onshore
Sherwood reserves, and third stage the offshore Sherwood (above left).
In 1990, BP began analyzing methods of
producing offshore reserves from the
Sherwood reservoir, including evaluation of
setting a platform or constructing an artificial island (left). The field sits near a nature
preserve and is in an area of outstanding
natural beauty frequented by tourists. Thus,
any development plan had to be aesthetically pleasing with minimal effect on the
area. The development plan also had to
adhere to stringent environmental regulations. The initial plan called for construction
of an artificial island with conventional
directional wells at a cost of 180 million
[$330 million].3 In contrast, development of
the offshore reserves with extended-reach
wells would cost less than half as much at
an estimated 80 million [$150 million] and
would better protect the environment.
Furthermore, the use of extended-reach
wells accelerated production by three years.
1. Talkington K: Remote South China Sea Reservoir
Prompts Extended Reach Record, Oil & Gas Journal
95, no. 45 (November 10, 1997): 67-71.
2. Petzet GA: Unreal Depth at Wytch Farm, Oil &
Gas Journal 96, no. 7 (February 16, 1998): 17.
3. BP Taps Wytch Farm with Extended Reach Wells,
Oil & Gas Journal 92, no. 1 (January 3, 1994): 30-31.

35

Well M-11 is the fourteenth extended-reach

well drilled in the third stage of Wytch Farm
development (below).4
A significant factor in the decision to use
extended-reach drilling (ERD) was the success of other companies, particularly
Unocal Corp. in the Point Pedernales field in
southern California, USA.5 In the late 1980s,
collapsing oil prices prompted Unocal to
design and drill extended-reach wells from
an existing platform rather than set a second
platform. For Unocal, extended-reach wells
achieved several objectives: they eliminated
the high capital cost of a second platform,
intersected more of the formation with nearhorizontal wellbores and demonstrated conclusively that such difficult wells could be
drilled and completed economically. These

surface sites instead of an offshore location

helped accomplish this goal. BP established
a partnership with local communities and
regulatory authorities to ensure that the natural beauty of the Poole area remained
unspoiled. More than 300 formal meetings
and countless informal discussions were held
with local authorities, government departments, environmental and conservation
organizations and the general public to
ensure that the views of area residents be
considered in the development of the field.
The area around the oil field forms part of
the Dorset Heritage Coastline and includes
areas of special scientific interest, a wildlife
special protection area, a wetland birds site
and a national nature reserve. The surface
site is designed to blend into the

wells were relevant to Wytch Farm because

of the shallow TVD of 1350 m [4420 ft].
Many other wells had been drilled with long
stepouts, but none at such shallow depths.
The base requirement for further field development was the capability to drill and complete wells at up to 6000-m [20,000-ft]
departure from onshore wellsites, which BP
felt to be a reasonable extension of existing
technology.6
The use of extended-reach wells results in
less surface disturbance because fewer wells
are needed and surface sites have a smaller
footprint. In developing Wytch Farm field,
BP sought to maximize oil recovery as economically as possible with the least disturbance to the environment and the
surrounding community. Drilling from small

Sherwood sandstone reservoir

1585 m TVD subsea
Wellsites

10 km

Bournemouth

9 km

Poole
8 km

Sherwood existing entry and

TD locations
Radius of development of offshore
reserves by extended-reach drilling

7 km
6 km

Poole Harbor

5 km

M-11

M-01

M-05

M-08
F-20
B1

B2
Gathering station

F-18

M-02
M-03
M-09

F-19
M-07

M-10

F-21

Wytch Farm extended-reach drilling

radius. Extended-reach wells from F and
M sites on a peninsula in Poole Harbor tap
reserves as far as 10 km away. The offshore reserves are developed in a step-bystep manner, generally with each well
slightly farther than the previous wells.

M-06

Purbec

London
Poole

Wellsite M
West

Sea level

185/8-in. casing
at 232 m MD
133/8-in. casing
at 1329 m MD

TVD subsea, m

500

1000

Oxford clay kellaways beds

Cornbrash/Forest marble
Fullers earth
Bridport sandstone
Liae

Mercia mudstone

N or
ne
Ar

fa

u lt

t h er

n fa u

lt

1500

Sherwood sandstone
Aylesbere group
2000

Geological cross section. The worlds longest extended-reach well has a stepout of 10,114 m and a total measured depth of 10,658 m.

36

Oilfield Review

environment, and equipment is painted in

earth-tone colors to minimize visual impact.
All lighting is judiciously placed and pointed
downward. Strict noise regulations are
imposed and ensure minimal disturbance.
An extensive impermeable containment
ditch surrounding the site can hold any fluids from potential accidents.
Teamwork and Planning

An extended-reach well requires extensive

planning and involves the commitment and
direct participation of the operator, rig contractor and all service providers. The evaluation, design and planning of Well M-11
lasted more than a year, from March 1996
until drilling began in May 1997.
Close cooperation and a smooth working
relationship were essential for such a challenging, high-profile project as Wytch Farm.
Contractors were paid on a day-rate basis
with total well performance incentives to be
shared among all participants, further
encouraging teamwork and ensuring alignment of goals. Anadrill supplied directional
well planning and drilling engineering support, directional drillers and equipment, surveying, MWD/LWD, mud logging and
coring services. Baroid provided mud supplies, mud engineering, and drill-cuttings
and waste fluids disposal. BJ Services provided cementing services. Deutag Drilling
supplied the drilling rig, crews, drillstring
tubulars, tubular running services and fishing
tools. Lasalle designed, installed and commissioned completion and electrical submersible pump equipment. Schlumberger

Wireline & Testing supplied openhole logging services, cased-hole logging services,
drillstem test and tubing-conveyed perforating and well testing; and Dowell supplied
coiled tubing services.
The focus during the early part of the third
stage of development was to build multidisciplinary teams, with contractors working in
close proximity to the operators staff.
Contractor senior representatives have
offices close to one another within the operators office complex in Poole. This setup fosters a close but informal roundtable
arrangement. Communication barriers have
disappeared, and everyone on the project
has the same goalsto drill the wells efficiently, correctly and economically.
Decisions are made and involve both the
operator and contractors. For such a system
to work effectively, a high degree of trust and
openness is necessary among personnel of
all rank. This working environment has provided the opportunity to obtain excellent
benchmark data for drilling subsequent
extended-reach wells, leading to the recordsetting 10-km target.
At the onset of third-stage development,
two of the least known factors were the
increased time and cost for extended-reach
compared to conventional wells. Typically,
the first one or two wells of any project incur
the greatest time and cost as the learning
curve begins. Efficiency and performance
improve rapidly on subsequent wells as team
members work together more efficiently, and
technology is applied more effectively.
Generally, each well at Wytch Farm has been

drilled farther than the previous wells, allowing for incremental learning through experience. Had such an incremental learning
process not been used, many problems
would undoubtedly have occurred on the
M-11 well.
Every aspect of the M-11 well plan underwent a rigorous peer review to identify potential pitfalls and develop contingency plans.
Experts from BP and its partners thoroughly
analyzed key risks and processes in reservoir
issues, well placement, drilling mechanics,
hydraulics and safety. Having outsiders analyze the well plan provided a useful check
against existing contingency plans.
Profile Design

The reservoir section targeted by Well M-11

lies between 8- and 10-km [26,000- to
33,000-ft] departure from the M site (previous page, bottom and below). For this length
departure, the relatively shallow depth of the
Sherwood reservoir posed some special
drilling challenges not present at greater
depths. There was limited scope in the trajectory design to allow the target to be
4. Knott D: BP Completes Record Extended-Reach
Well, Oil & Gas Journal 96, no. 3 (January 19,
1998): 24-26.
5. Mueller MD, Quintana JM and Bunyak MJ:
Extended-Reach Drilling from Platform Irene, paper
SPE 20818, presented at the Offshore Technology
Conference, Houston, Texas, USA, May 7-10, 1990.
6. Banks SM, Hogg TW and Thorogood JL: Increasing
Extended-Reach Capabilities Through Wellbore Profile
Optimization, paper IADC/SPE 23850, presented at
the IADC/SPE Drilling Conference, New Orleans,
Louisiana, USA, February 18-21, 1992.

10 km

East

Tertiary group

Chalk group

Gault and Greensand formations

Oxford clay kellaways beds
Cornbrash/Forest marble
Fullers earth/Inferior colite
Bridport sandstone

Mercia mudstone
Sherwood sandstone
Aylesbere group

Winter 1997

7-in. casing
at 8881 m MD

uth / 6-8 region

to so
ult
a
F
M-11z
TD 9688 m
1584.8 m TVDSS

51/2-in. liner
10655 m

M-11y
TD 10658 m
1585.2 m TVDSS

37

3D seismic
survey

1550

1560

1570

TVD subsea, m

1580

Sherwood zone
thickness
Zone
10
20
30
40
50
60

5.5 m
Absent
2.8 m
5.5 to 8 m
7.1 m
5.5 m

1590

1600

1610

Stratigraphic dip
0.4 west

Casing shoe

Mercia mudstone
20 m Standoff
Estimated present
oil-water contact
at 1621 m TVDSS

Zone 10
Zone 30
Zone 40
M-11y
kickoff
point

Zone 50
Zone 60

1620

1630

Stratigraphic dip
4 west

Original oil-water
contact at
1623 m TVDSS

Zone 70

1640
8000

8100

8200

reached optimally.7 The majority of wells at

Wytch Farm have been drilled with 80 to
82 tangent angles and were controlled by
choice of kickoff point and build rate in the
upper section.
This well was planned to have a shallow
kickoff point to allow inclination angle to be
built to 82 in the 1712-in. hole. The 1338-in.
casing was to have been run to about 1400
m [4600 ft] measured depth, and then the
1214-in. hole was to be drilled as a 7500-m
[24,600-ft] tangent section into the top of the
Sherwood reservoir. The length of the 812-in.
hole section was kept to a minimum because
reservoir drilling is three to four times more
expensive than in the 1214-in. section due to
extra bottomhole assembly equipment, mud
losses and slower penetration rates. In addition, the mudstone above the reservoir
would be exposed to a low-weight mud,
leading to concerns about borehole stability.
A tangent angle of 82 was used to keep
torque levels manageable, maximize the
likelihood of being able to run casing to a
10-km departure and permit oriented drilling
in the 81/2-in. section (above and next page,
top). The final double build and hold trajectory was similar to that on other wells,
except that steering would be further limited
in the 81/2-in. section. This trajectory would
allow the well to build angle to horizontal
starting at the 958-in. casing shoe. Previous
wells used an instrumented positive displacement motor, LWD tools and an
adjustable stabilizer to geosteer in the reservoir.

38

8300

8400

8500

8600

Because steering capability would be limited, Well M-11 was designed to be drilled as
geometrically as possible through the reservoir, with some geosteering performed by
rotary steering drilling tools.
The key to success would be performing
every phase of the well plan flawlessly.
Directional control, hole cleaning, torque
and drag, and casing flotation each played a
role. The rest of this article describes how
they come together in the drilling of this
record-setting 10-km well.
Directional Control

Steering by slide drilling is impossible at

extreme horizontal distances. Experience on
Wells M-05 and M-09 indicated that slide
drilling would be practically impossible
beyond 8 km. Drilling in the sliding mode
results in several inefficiencies that are compounded by extreme distances. The motor
must be oriented and maintained in a particular direction while drilling to follow the
desired path. This orientation is achieved
through a combination of rotating the drillstring several revolutions and working the
pipe to turn it to the desired direction. At 8 km
or more, the pipe may need 15 to 20 turns at
surface just to turn the tool once downhole,
because the drillstring can absorb the torque
over such a long distance. For the directional
driller, this technique is as much art as it is science. After the tool is positioned, drillstring
torque is required to hold the motor in proper
orientation against reverse torque created by
the motor as the bit drills.8

8700

8800

8900

This situation is beneficial in wells with low

frictional drag because adjusting weight on
bit changes reactive torque, changing toolface direction. Thus, small changes in orientation can be made by varying weight on bit,
giving the directional driller better control. In
high-drag situations like Well M-11, however,
it is difficult to keep torque constant in the
lower part of the drillstring, causing difficulty
in maintaining toolface orientation. Another
problem with slide drilling in high-angle
wells is that cuttings removal suffers from the
lack of drillstring rotation. In wells with high
drag, the drillstring cannot be lowered
smoothly and continuously, which prevents
the motor from operating at optimal conditions. In combination, these factors result in a
lower penetration rate compared to that during rotary drilling (next page, bottom). For
extended-reach wells, not only does penetration rate suffer, but there is a point at which
slide drilling is no longer possible.
The M-11 trajectory was designed to minimize the amount of sliding directional work
in the 81/2-in. reservoir section. In some of
the earlier Wytch Farm wells, a new technique was pioneered to overcome these
7. Modi S, Mason CJ, Tooms PJ and Conran G:
Meeting the 10km Drilling Challenge, paper SPE
38583, presented at the SPE Annual Technical
Conference and Exhibition, San Antonio, Texas, USA,
October 5-7, 1997.
8. Warren TM: Trends Toward Rotary Steerable
Directional Systems, World Oil 218, no. 5 (May
1997): 43-47.

Oilfield Review

9000

2D seismic
survey

M-11z Trajectory
M-11y Sidetrack drilled

Stratigraphic dip
1 east
Fault throw 7.6 m

M-11y 10,658 m total measured depth

1585.7 m TVDSS

M-11z 9688 m total measured depth

9200

9300

9400

9500

9600

9700

9800

9900

10,000

10,100

10,200

Horizontal departure, m

Sidetrack cross section. When the original borehole (M-11z) reached 9 km, the well was sidetracked to access a better part of the reservoir. The sidetracked lower bore (M-11y) was cased and completed, and the upper borehole left open. The tip of the well veers upward
to stay away from the oil-water contact and to penetrate additional formation layers for added geological information.

20
18

Rotary
Sliding

16

Penetration rate, m/hr

9100

14
12
10
8
6
4
2
0
6000

6500

7000

7500

8000

8500

9000

Measured depth, m

Rotary and sliding penetration rates. In offset Well M-05, rotary drilling penetration
rates were several times greater than slide-drilling penetration rates. Conventional slide
drilling techniques were ineffective at extreme stepout distances because of difficulty
controlling downhole torque and weight on bit.

Winter 1997

39

problems with conventional sliding for

directional control.9 The combination of the
GeoSteering tool near-bit inclination measurement and a downhole variable-gauge
stabilizer positioned above the motor
enabled drilling the wells almost entirely in
rotary mode.
Standard steerable-motor directional drilling
equipment is generally based on the tiltangle principle. A bend between 0.5 and 3
in the motor provides the bit offset necessary
to initiate and maintain changes in course
direction. Three geometric contact points
(bit, near-bit stabilizer on the motor and a
stabilizer above the motor) approximate an
arc that the well path will follow, and thus
the curve rate or dogleg severity for the system. This curvature is formed and built by
holding the entire drillstring still so that the
bend can work in a preferential direction or
in sliding mode.10
Conventional practice is to drill in rotary
mode, rotating the drillstring from the surface
to drill a straight path. If a change in direction
is needed, the drillstring is stopped with the
bent housing or tilt on the steerable system
oriented in the desired direction. This orientation is called the toolface angle and is measured downhole by MWD systems. When
drilling in this oriented mode, the entire drillstring has to slide. Drillstring drag problems
become acute in extended-reach wells and
cause problems in setting the toolface angle
and applying weight to the bit. Rate of penetration suffers. Techniques are needed to provide greater directional flexibility with rotary
drilling in extended-reach wells.

The art and science of directional drilling. The directional

driller closely monitors surface
and downhole measurments of
torque, drag and direction. It
takes a skillful directional
driller to interpret these data
and then steer the bit accordingly by tweaking the downhole tools from surface. The
result is a smooth wellbore right
on target.

40

Oilfield Review

Variable-gauge stabilizer: 71/4. to 81/2 in

ADN
Azimuthal Density
Neutron tool
Density and
porosity

MWD
Inclination,
azimuth
and shocks

CDR
Compensated
Dual Resistivity tool
Resistivity and
gamma ray

0.75
bend

GeoSteering tool,
motor, inclination,
resistivity and gamma ray

GeoSteering assembly. The Anadrill GeoSteering tool was used to drill the 81/2-in. reservoir sections of early Wytch Farm wells and to
drill out past the 9 5/8-in. casing shoe of Well M-11. This BHA configuration included a variable-gauge stabilizer to steer the well. Mud
pulses adjust the stabilizer blades in or out to alter the inclination of the assembly.

The primary components of the GeoSteering

tool are a steerable motor with an instrumented section and a fast wireless telemetry
system that passes data to the MWD system
higher up in the BHA. The instrumented sub
is built into the motor near the bent housing
which is typically about 1.5 m [5 ft] above
the bit. Packaged in the sub are directional
and petrophysical sensors, electronics for
control and telemetry and batteries for
power. Three inclinometers provide inclination data at the bit in both a survey and continuous mode. Above the GeoSteering tool, a
stabilizer with an adjustable gauge allows
the directional driller to change the directional characteristics of the BHA in rotary
mode.11 Unfortunately, rotary directional tendencies are not as predictable as those in
steering mode. The inclination-at-bit measurement from the GeoSteering tool is critical to judge the cause-effect relationship
from gauge changes to well path curve rate.
Minor directional changes can be made reliably with rotary drilling, reserving the steering mode for larger or more difficult changes
(previous page).
The first three extended-reach wells at
Wytch Farm, Wells F-18, F-19 and F-20,
were designed based on a reservoir characterization developed from the onshore reservoir, 2D seismic surveying and more recent
3D seismic acquisition, outcrop studies and
offshore appraisal wells. The basic design in
each case was to traverse the reservoir section at a constant angle of 86. A well
encountering a 50-m [160-ft] oil column
could then be drilled 20 m [65 ft] above the
oil-water contact.12 These wells were successful and had departures of about 5 km
[16,000 ft]. With the additional reservoir
information from these wells, subsequent

Winter 1997

wells were designed with an even larger

standoff from the oil-water contact. Wells
from the M site accessed poorer-quality
sands in the Sherwood reservoir and needed
even longer reservoir sections for sufficient
well productivity. BP decided to drill the next
wells with 7- to 8-km [23,000- to 26,000-ft]
ERD stepouts and vertical depth control tolerance of 1 m [3 ft].
At such distances, orienting the pipe in sliding mode would be difficult and time-consuming. Penetration rates would suffer
because of the frictional losses reducing the
amount of weight reaching the bit.
Minimizing the amount of sliding was critical.
The nature of the Sherwood reservoir complicated the picture, since it has many distinct
zones separated by near-horizontal shales.13
Previous directional drilling had shown the
formation response to be erratic, with rotary
mode performance of a BHA varying suddenly and unpredictably from holding angle,
to building angle, to dropping angle.
During drilling of the early wells, the
MWD survey measure point was typically
20 to 25 m [66 to 82 ft] behind the bit
face. The typical BHA consisted of the bit,
motor, stabilizer, CDR Compensated Dual
Resistivity tool, MWD, and ADN
Azimuthal Density Neutron tool (above). A
simple geometrical calculation showed
that if the build rate were to change by
4/30 m [4/100 ft], the true vertical depth
of the well would be altered by 0.75 m
[2.5 ft] before the problem could be
detected. With this BHA design, the deviation from plan could be quite large, and
only a rapid response with sliding mode
drilling would allow the well to stay within
the tight tolerances required. Even with

9. Bruce S, Bezant P and Pinnock S: A Review of

Three Years Work in Europe and Africa with an
Instrumented Motor, paper IADC/SPE 35053, presented at the IADC/SPE Drilling Conference, New
Orleans, Louisiana, USA, March 12-15, 1996.
Peach SR and Kloss PJC: A New Generation of
Instrumented Steerable Motors Improves Geosteering
in North Sea Horizontal Wells, paper IADC/SPE
27482, presented at the IADC/SPE Drilling Conference, Dallas, Texas, USA, February 15-18, 1994.
Lesso WG and Kashikar SV: The Principles and
Procedures of Geosteering, paper IADC/SPE 35051,
presented at the IADC/SPE Drilling Conference, New
Orleans, Louisiana, USA, March 12-15, 1996.
10. Poli S, Donati F, Oppelt J and Ragnitz D: Advanced
Tools for Advanced Wells: Rotary Closed Loop
Drilling SystemResults of Prototype Field Testing,
paper SPE 36884, presented at the SPE European
Petroleum Conference, Milan, Italy, October
22-24, 1996.
11. Bonner S, Burgess T, Clark B, Decker D, Orban J,
Prevedel B, Lling M and White J: Measurements at
the Bit: A New Generation of MWD Tools, Oilfield
Review 5, no. 2 (April/July 1993): 44-54.
12. Harrison PF and Mitchell AW: Continuous
Improvement in Well Design Optimises
Development, paper SPE 30536, presented at the
SPE Annual Technical Conference and Exhibition,
Dallas, Texas, USA, October 22-25, 1995.
13. Cocking DA, Bezant PN and Tooms PJ: Pushing the
ERD Envelope at Wytch Farm, paper SPE/IADC
37618, presented at the SPE/IADC Drilling
Conference, Amsterdam, The Netherlands, March
4-7, 1997.

41

ADN
Azimuthal Density
Neutron tool
Density and
porosity

CDR
Compensated
Dual Resistivity
tool
Dual resistivity,
gamma ray and
annular pressure

Stabilizer

MWD

Stabilizer

Downhole
weight on bit,
downhole torque,
multi-axis shocks and
directional information

Steerable rotary
drilling tool

Steerable rotary assembly. A BHA with a steerable rotary drilling tool was the primary directional system for most of the 12 1/4-in.
and 81/2-in. sections of Well M-11. The CDR tool was incorporated into the BHA design during the latter part of the 12 1/4-in. section to
help identify the top of the reservoir and determine the 9 5/8-in. casing seat.

sliding, it would be difficult to keep the

well within the 1-m vertical tolerance.14
The solution was to use the GeoSteering
tool to provide near-bit inclination data
and give immediate warning of any
change in BHA response. Gamma ray and
resistivity data could also be checked for
any unexpected changes in geology.
Another drilling equipment change for
these long wells was the inclusion of a
downhole-adjustable, variable-gauge stabilizer.15 If the GeoSteering tool identified
deviations from the required well path
early, then the trajectory could be altered
in the rotary mode by adjusting the stabilizer. This BHA design drilled the reservoir
sections successfully in Wells M-02, M-03
and M-05.
In Well M-02, with a stepout of 6760 m
[22,180 ft] and a reservoir vertical tolerance
of 2 m [7 ft], 15% of the reservoir section
was drilled in sliding mode, and the stabilizer gauge setting was changed 16 times in
drilling 891 m [2923 ft]. The sliding penetration rate was lowonly one-third the
rate achieved during rotary drilling. BHA
performance in Well M-03 was similar, but
even better in the M-05 Well. In each case,
without the flexibility provided by this set
up, considerably more time would have
been spent in sliding mode to adjust the
well path, with a corresponding decrease in
penetration rate.

42

The highly variable gauge stabilizer has six

possible settings between 714 in. and 812 in.
The stabilizer blade position is controlled
from the surface by applying mud-flow
sequences that are interpreted by a microprocessor in the tool. This adjustable stabilizer allowed some degree of build and drop
during rotary drilling and worked adequately
in previous wells at Wytch Farm, but it did
not provide azimuth control.16
To drill out 8 km and then on to 10 km,
rotary steerable directional systems were
tried for even greater control of inclination
and azimuth. It was clear that a new type of
directional drilling tool would be needed to
control direction and azimuth adequately
while rotating in the Sherwood at great
departures. Several designs were nearing
commercialization, each with a different
approach to achieving vertical and lateral
steering while the drillstring is rotated.
A prototype from Camco Drilling Group
Ltd. had been tried on Wells M-08, M-09
and M-10 at Wytch Farm to encourage and
accelerate their development and test the
feasibility of using these tools to drill the 10km well.17 These tools further reduced the
amount of time spent on slide drilling. This
rotary steerable system synchronously modulates the stabilizer blade extension and
contact pressure as a particular blade passes

a certain orientation in the wellbore. By

applying hydraulic pressure each time a
rotating blade passes a specific vertical or lateral orientation, the near-bit stabilizer forces
drilling away from that direction. Continuous
rotation of the drillstring results in reduced
torque and drag and improved hole cleaning.
These improvements led to more efficient
weight transfer to the bit and higher penetration rates. Hole direction and dogleg were
controlled from the surface during drilling
operations by sending information to the
downhole tool using a sequence of mud
pulses. This coded sequence specified steering commands from the multiple command
set preprogrammed into the tool on surface.
The BHA at total depth included the bit, steerable rotary system, stabilizer, MWD and LWD
(above). The steerable rotary drilling system
was instrumental in cutting sliding time to less
than 5% on the M-11 well and was critical to
drilling the well beyond 10 km.
Hydraulics and Hole Cleaning

Selection of a drilling fluid must balance a

number of critical factors. The fluid must provide a stable wellbore for drilling long openhole intervals at high angles, maximize
lubricity to reduce torque and drag, develop
proper rheology for effective cuttings transport, minimize the potential for problems
such as differential sticking and lost circulation, minimize formation damage of productive intervals, and limit environmental

Oilfield Review

exposure through a wellsite waste-minimization program.18 A growing industry trend of

designing wells to extend casing seats to
longer intervals requires the use of oil-base
or synthetic-base mud to provide lubricity to
help control torque and drag. This trend
means larger hole diameters deeper in the
ERD trajectory.
With 8- to 10-km extended-reach sections,
the circulation rates necessary to ensure adequate hole cleaning in these larger holes are
difficult to attain because of increases in
annular pressure losses. These pressure
losses increase the equivalent circulating
density (ECD) at the end of the well. Higher
equivalent circulating densities may cause
lost circulation, especially in fractured or
depleted upper zones. Higher pump rates
ensure a clean hole but may lead to lost circulation from higher ECD.
In Well M-11, annular pressure while
drilling was monitored in real time as part of
the LWD package. On several occasions, the
tool detected increases in ECD and warned
the driller before a lost-circulation problem
occurred. When the tool detected increases
in annular pressure at the BHA, the driller
would stop drilling to remove cuttings
buildup, thus lowering ECD.
Efficient cuttings transport is one of the primary design considerations for the drilling
fluid in an extended-reach well. The factors
that affect cuttings transport include drillingfluid density, low shear-rate rheology, flow
rate, cuttings size and concentration in the
annulus, drillpipe size, rotary speed and
drillstring eccentricity in the wellbore.
Hole cleaning is of critical importance
when drilling the high-angle tangent sections
of extended-reach wells because of the tendency for cuttings to fall to the low side of
the well. To obtain the necessary annular
velocities for hole cleaning in high-angle
and horizontal sections, high flow rates are
needed, resulting in greater demands on the
mud pumps. Experience at Wytch Farm has
shown that above a tangent angle of 80 in a
1214-in. hole, flow rates of at least 1100
gal/min [4200 L/min] are necessary to keep
the hole clean as it is drilled.

Winter 1997

To meet such rates, an existing rig may

need to increase the number of mud pumps
from two to three, increase the power rating
of the pumps from 1600 hp to 2000 hp or
more, and increase the pressure rating of the
pumps and surface system from 5000 to
7500 psi. A downside to these changes is the
increase in capital cost for additional pumps
and a doubling of maintenance costs for the
higher-pressure equipment.19 At higher surface pressures, parts replacement will occur
more frequently, but having an extra pump
results in less disruption to the drilling program during pump repairs.
To maintain sufficient flow rates on the
Wytch Farm wells, Deutags T-47 rig used a
5000-psi surface system and three 1600-hp
triplex pumps electronically controlled to
increase efficiency. If the three pumps
worked independently, there would be
potential for synchronization of the cylinders
in each pump. In such a case, the pumps
could produce pressure surges up to 750 psi,
much more than could be handled adequately by the pumps pulsation dampeners.
In effect, this electronic control system
worked like a camshaft, keeping the cylinders
40 out of phase with each other. The three
pumps worked as one nine-cylinder pump.
In addition to reducing pressure surges, this
system reduced surface vibrations, decreasing the wear and tear on the pumping system,
and detected impending pump failure to
reduce downtime. A further benefit was an
improvement in the quality of the MWD signal. With a smooth, regular pump signal, the
MWD pulses were much clearer and easier
to read at the surface, improving data quality.
Increasing the pumping capacity of the rig
required sufficient capacity in the solidscontrol equipment, particularly the shale
shakers, to handle the increased flow rates.
Removing the maximum amount of solids at
the shakers reduces the need for further
solids-control equipment. The T-47 rig had
four state-of-the-art, linear-motion shale

shakers. One of these shale shakers was outfitted with larger-mesh screens to salvage
and reuse lost-circulation material. Two centrifuges, in line after the shakers, removed
fine low-gravity solids.
Pipe rotation is another critical factor in
hole cleaning. The objective of the holecleaning program is to improve drilling performance by avoiding stuck pipe, avoiding
tight hole on connections and trips, maximizing the footage drilled between wiper
trips, eliminating backreaming trips prior to
reaching the casing point and maximizing
daily drilling progress.20 The more an
extended-reach well can be drilled in the
rotary mode instead of sliding, the better the
hole cleaning. Pipe rotation helps prevent
cuttings from accumulating around stabilizers, drillpipe protectors and tool joints.
Rotating pipe helps disturb any cuttings that
may settle to the low side of the wellbore,
keeping the cuttings suspended in and transported by the mud. Faster rotational speeds
of the pipe improve hole cleaning, but there
are some drawbacks to very high rotational
speeds. Although good for hole cleaning,
excessive rotational speed can increase the
severity of downhole vibration and shocks,
putting directional drilling and LWD equipment at electronic and mechanical risk.
Furthermore, excessive rotary speeds may
increase drillpipe and casing wear.
14. Bruce et al, reference 9.
15. Odell AC, Payne ML and Cocking DA: Application
of a Highly Variable Gauge Stabilizer at Wytch Farm
to Extend the ERD Envelope, paper SPE 30462, presented at the SPE Annual Technical Conference and
Exhibition, Dallas, Texas, USA, October 22-25,
1995.
16. Poli et al, reference 10.
17. Barr JD, Clegg JM and Russell MK: Steerable Rotary
Drilling with an Experimental System, paper
SPE/IADC 29382, presented at the SPE/IADC Drilling
Conference, Amsterdam, The Netherlands, February
28-March 2, 1995.
18. Payne ML, Wilton BS and Ramos GG: Recent
Advances and Emerging Technologies for Extended
Reach Drilling, paper SPE 29920, presented at the
International Meeting on Petroleum Engineering,
Beijing, China, November 14-17, 1995.
19. Gammage JH, Modi S and Klop GW: Beyond 8km
Departure Wells: The Necessary Rig & Equipment,
paper SPE/IADC 37600, presented at the SPE/IADC
Drilling Conference, Amsterdam, The Netherlands,
March 4-6, 1997.
20. Guild GJ, Wallace IM and Wassenborg MJ: Hole
Cleaning Program for Extended Reach Wells, paper
SPE/IADC 29381, presented at the SPE/IADC Drilling
Conference, Amsterdam, The Netherlands, February
28-March 2, 1995.
Lockett TJ, Richardson SM and Worraker WJ: The
Importance of Rotation Effects for Efficient Cuttings
Removal During Drilling, paper SPE/IADC 25768,
presented at the SPE/IADC Drilling Conference,
Amsterdam, The Netherlands, February 23-25, 1993.

43

Torque and Drag

140

Hook load
Weight on bit

Hook load, thousand lbf

Weight on bit, thousand lbf

120

100

80

60

40

20

0
0

1000

2000

3000

4000

5000

6000

7000

8000

9000

Measured depth, m

Hook load during slide drilling the 121/4-in. section of Well M-11. The hook load during
slide drilling followed the expected trend (parallel black lines) down to 6000 m measured depth. After this depth, there was considerable gain in hook load. Beyond 8000 m,
applying weight on bit during slide drilling was difficult, if not impossible. Drilling past
this measured depth therefore required rotation to overcome friction and allow weight to
be transferred to the bit.

S u r f a c e t o rq u e , t h o u s a n d f t - l b f
B i t t o rq u e , t h o u s a n d f t - l b f

35
M-09 surface torque
M-11 surface torque
M-11z surface torque
M-11z bit torque

30

25

20

15

10

0
0

1000

2000

3000

4000

5000

6000

7000

8000

Torque levels have been closely monitored

throughout the extended-reach development
program. In extended-reach wells, torque
levels are generally more dependent on
wellbore length than on tangent angle.
Higher-angle wells do, however, tend to
reduce overall torque levels, as more of the
drillstring will be in compression, and consequently, tension and contact forces around
the top build section are reduced.
In Wytch Farm extended-reach drilling,
three sizes of grade S135 drillpipe were used.
In the Well M-11 1214-in. hole, the drillstring
configuration consisted of 8000 m [26,000 ft]
of 658-in. drillpipea length dictated by the
racking capacity within the derrickon top
and 512-in. pipe below. The larger pipe at the
top provided strength to resist torque loads.
The main factors in drillstring design in this
part of the hole included pump pressure limitations, torque capacity and hole cleaning.
In the 812-in. hole, the drillstring configuration consisted of 4500 m [14,700 ft] of 5-in.
S135 drillpipe on bottom and then 512-in.
S135 pipe to surface.
The considerations in drillstring design for
the 812-in. hole included fishing capability,
equivalent circulating density and torque
capacity. The 512-in. drillpipe had doubleshoulder, high-torque tool joints, and the 5-in.
drillpipe joints underwent stress balancing
and used high-friction-factor pipe dope to
increase the torque capacity to match that of
the topdrive. Nonrotating drillpipe protectors
were run in trials on earlier wells and helped
reduce torque somewhat, but there was a
trade-off because they caused an increase in
annular pressure drop and therefore in equivalent circulating density. The drillpipe protectors also suppressed drillstring buckling.

9000

Measured depth, m

Torque during rotary drilling of the 121/4-in. section of Well M-11. The parallel lines
indicate the torque trend predicted for the M-11 121/4-in. section. The recorded surface
torque matched the prediction quite accurately.

44

Oilfield Review

45

10-km well
section at
total depth

Surface torque, thousand ft-lbf

40
35
30
25

F-19
F-21
M-03
M-05
M-08
M-09

20
15
10
5
0
3000

4000

5000

6000

7000

8000

9000

10,000

11,000

Measured depth, m

Surface torque during reservoir drilling. Modeling the actual surface torque in the 81/2-in.
sections of offset wells produced reasonable estimates of the expected torque at 10-km.
The predicted torque range at 10 km reaches the upper limit of the top-drive capacity.

In drilling extended-reach wells, drillpipe is

rotated not by the rotary table but instead by
the topdrive, which travels the length of the
derrick and permits drilling with an entire
stand of pipe. The topdrive also provides
backreaming capacity and the capability to
push casing down the well when high drag is
encountered. Maximum output from the topdrive system is closely related to the maximum torque capacity of the drillpipe used.
The Deutag T-47 rig has a continuous topdrive output of 45,000 ft-lbf and a maximum
intermittent rating of 51,000 ft-lbf. Inevitably
there will be some torsional variation, so the
top-drive torque rating needs to be sufficiently
high to accommodate these peak values.
The use of MWD tools that measure downhole torque, rotational speed and downhole
weight on bit in real time helps identify conditions that lead to stick-slip, which can produce detrimental torque variations in the
drillstring. During stick-slip, the bit will
alternately stop rotating (stick) and then accelerate (slip) while the drillstring rotates at a

Winter 1997

constant speed. The long drillstring can wind

and unwind when this occurs, leading to
excessive torque on connections, drillstring
failures, premature bit wear, BHA failures
and inefficient drilling. Fluctuations in
drillpipe torque from downhole stick-slip
can be minimized by adjusting drilling parametersweight on bit, pump rate or rotational speedprovided fluctuations in
downhole torque are detected early.
Changing design parameters to control surface torque is not necessarily beneficial in
minimizing drag. Overcoming axial drag in
these high-angle wells is a significant challenge (previous page, top). The critical operations, in particular, are running the 958-in.
casing inside the 1214-in. hole and drilling
the 812-in. hole in an oriented mode.
Experience to date has shown that running
the liner and completion tubing is less difficult yet still requires close monitoring of drag.

Extensive reviews of previous wells helped

predict surface torque for the 1214-in. section
of Well M-11. Two independent methods
were used to analyze these data. The first
method, composite forecasting, is a plot of
surface torque from all previous Wytch Farm
extended-reach wells with upper and lower
trend lines used to predict torque ranges for
the section. The second technique uses a
drillstring simulator program to examine
torque values from the most recent wells and
calculate upper and lower bounds for the
section. This determination of friction factor
has proven remarkably consistent for the
1214-in. section (previous page, bottom).
These analyses uncovered a strong correlation between wellbore length and torque in
the 1214-in. hole.
Similar analyses were performed on the
812-in. hole to predict likely torque values.
Composite plots from previous wells showed
a trend of increasing torque with measured
depth (above left). Close assessment of each
well generated some unexpected results:
torque levels tended to flatten after a certain
length of openhole section was drilled,
resulting in low openhole friction factors.
These low-friction factors reflect good
hole-cleaning practices and controlled addition of fibrous lost-circulation material.
Crushed almond hulls helped control fluid
loss in the reservoir section, and this lost-circulation material had a beneficial side effect
in that it reduced drillstring torque in openhole sections during rotary drilling. These
materials apparently form a low-friction
layer between the drillstring and formation.
Once this relationship was discovered, a
recovery system was added to the rig shale
shakers to collect and reuse the lost circulation material continuously as part of the
torque-reduction program. The effect of hole
cleaning on torque is significant in the 812-in.

45

200

hole. Low-torque troughs form after periods

circulating the well clean following a BHA
change or after a wiper trip. Higher torque
levels occur after slide drilling or rotary
drilling a long section (left, top and bottom).

180

Hook load
Hook load, thousand ft-lbf
Weight on bit, thousand ft-lbf

160
140

Casing Flotation
120
100
80
60
40

Weight on bit

20
0
9000

9200

9400

9600

9800

10,000

10,200

10,400

10,600

10,800

Measured depth, m

Hook load and weight on bit in the 81/2-in. section of Well M-11. During rotary drilling
the 81/2-in. section, the hook load decreased slightly while still maintaining effective
weight on bit. Rotating the pipe lowered friction factors and helped keep the hole clean
to allow successful drilling past 10 km.

50
45

Torque, thousand ft-lbf

40

Surface

35
30
25
20
15
10
5

Bit
0
9000

9200

9400

9600

9800

10,000

10,200

10,400

10,600

10,800

Measured depth, m

One of the major hurdles to overcome in

drilling and completing a 10-km well was running 958-in. casing to a departure beyond
8000 m. Experience on other Wytch Farm
wells showed that running the 958-in. casing
became increasingly difficult with greater
departures. Casing design analyses using friction factors from offset wells indicated that
drag would be too high to run the planned
8800 m of casing conventionally in Well M-11,
even with full weight from the travelling block.
Various options, such as a tapered casing
string, altered fluid properties and casing
flotation, were tried on intermediate-length
wells to identify the best approach for Well
M-11. Of the options tried, casing flotation
proved to be the only method with sufficient
potential to get the casing to total depth. In
principle, casing flotation is a simple technique. Essentially, casing is not filled as each
joint is run into the wellbore, as is done in
typical casing operations. The goal is to have
the casing close to neutrally buoyant, so it
becomes virtually weightless in the mud, and
drag is minimal.
On Well M-03, the entire 958-in. casing
string was floated into the well to observe the
actual running weight compared to predictions. This exercise was important because it
indicated that the mud weight as measured
at the surface needed to be slightly lower
than calculated to reduce positive buoyancy
and allow the casing to sink. The mud rheology had to be reduced as much as possible
prior to running the casing because of the
high surge pressure caused as the casing was
pushed into the well.21
21. Cocking et al, reference 13.

Torque in the 81/2-in. section of Well M-11. Bit torque remained relatively stable
throughout the 81/2-in. reservoir section. The surface torque showed some fluctuation
but remained within the range predicted (parallel black lines) by torque and drag simulators.

46

Oilfield Review

In a long extended-reach section, an entire

air-filled casing string can become positively
buoyant and resist being pushed farther into
the well. In such cases, the technique is
altered by partial casing flotation, during
which the casing string is divided into two
sections with the lower portion filled with
air and the upper section filled with mud.
The section filled with mud is in the nearvertical section of the well and provides
weight to help push the lower, buoyant casing into the well. A shear-out plug separates
the air-filled and mud-filled sections of casing. The plug holds the mud in the upper
section but can be opened with applied
pump pressure to circulate fluid through the
entire casing string.
In a further prelude to Well M-11, the
958-in. casing was partially floated on Well
M-08. The mud weight and rheology were
decreased prior to running the casing. The
first 2000 m [6600 ft] of casing were run with
air. A shear-out plug was run in the casing at
that point, and the remaining 1500 m [4900
ft] to surface was run and filled conventionally. In addition to flotation, the casing was

Mud

also rotated at various times during the operation. Rotating the casing on Well M-08 was
merely a test of the procedures before they
had to be used on Well M-11. Once the casing begins to float in the well, the actual
torque required for rotation is small. In fact,
the actual running weight and torque closely
matched predicted values, proving that these
techniques could be used effectively on the
extreme-departure well.
This flotation method was used again on
Well M-09 to run 958-in. casing to 6580 m
[21,589 ft]. This flotation method was eventually deployed on Well M-11 to run 958-in.
casing to 8890 m [29,162 ft] measured depth
(below). The casing was floated to 7080 m
[23,228 ft] prior to installation of the flotation
collar. The casing was run into the openhole
for another 20 stands prior to filling the upper
section of casing to achieve the additional
running weight.
To handle positive casing buoyancy safely, a
push-tool was installed below the topdrive on
the rig. This tool engaged over the box connection of the casing and allowed the full
weight of the topdrive and blocks to be

133/8-in. casing at 1425 m

Flotation collar

95/8-in. casing

Air

Double float collar

Side-jetted float shoe

121/4-in. openhole to 8890 m

applied to the string. A set of bidirectional,

hydraulic, flush-mounted slips held the
buoyed casing in the hole. The slips were
anchored to the rotary table and provided the
necessary hold-down force on the casing.
A Look at the Future

Well M-11 was completed with an electrical

submersible pump and brought into production on January 12, 1998, at a rate of 20,000
BOPD [3200 m3/d]. Wytch Farm production
currently averages more than 100,000 BOPD
[16,000m3/d], 80% of which comes from
extended-reach wells.
The design of Well M-11 took more than a
year, and its completion provided an excellent test of the industrys capabilities. The success of this well has opened up even more
targets and the potential to access reserves
that would have remained out of reach or
required huge capital outlays just a few years
ago. The current focus at Wytch Farm is to
drill 5-km stepout infill wells faster and
cheaper than previous wells. Another
extreme well, with a stepout of some 11 km
[36,000 ft], is in the initial planning stages.
Also under consideration are several 6- to 8km multilateral wells.
All aspects of extended-reach technology
have to move forward. The next step will be
in completions and interventions, where
wellbore workovers and maintenance will
be critical.
The future for GeoSteering technology and
rotary steerable tools is bright. Currently,
these steerable systems are used primarily on
relatively expensive extended-reach wells
where they can provide a technical capability beyond the limit of standard motor-driven
systems. Here, these systems can be run economically even if their cost is high. Further
work will focus on increasing the reliability,
upward telemetry systems and operating time
of these tools while cutting costs.
KR

Partially floated 9 5 8 -in. casing. Casing flotation experiments on Wells M-03, M-08 and
M-09 proved the concept for the extreme test in Well M-11. The bottom section of casing,
containing air, remained neutrally buoyant to allow the casing to slide more easily
along the well path. The mud-filled upper section provided the weight necessary to push
the entire string to bottom. Once the casing was landed, pump pressure was applied to
shear the plugs in the flotation collars and allow circulation.

Winter 1997

47

Exploring for Stratigraphic Traps

Discovery of new resources in mature provinces and deep offshore

demands new technology to find the most elusive of petroleum
reservoirs, stratigraphic traps, which may well hold the vast majority
of the new millenniums yet-to-be-discovered hydrocarbons.

Jack Caldwell
Abu Chowdhury
Peter van Bemmel
Houston, Texas, USA
Folke Engelmark
Lars Sonneland
Stavanger, Norway
Norman S. Neidell
Zydeco Energy, Inc.
Houston, Texas

For help in preparation of this article, thanks to Colin

Hulme and Dick Ireson, Geco-Prakla, Gatwick, England;
Bobbie Ireland and Rutger Gras, GeoQuest, Houston,
Texas, USA; Greg Leriger, Geco-Prakla, Houston, Texas;
Evelyn Medvin, Coherence Technology Company, Houston, Texas; and Roy Nurmi, Schlumberger Wireline &
Testing, Houston, Texas.
GeoViz, MultiWave Array, Nessie and SCT (Seismic Classifier Toolbox) are marks of Schlumberger. Coherence
Cube is a mark of Coherence Technology Company.
SUMIC is a mark of Statoil (Den Norske Stats Oljeselskap).
CM-5 is a mark of Thinking Machines Corporation.

48

There was a time when exploration consisted simply of following surface signs such
as seeps, creek beds and salt domes, and
drilling where the party boss poked his stick;
but those days are gone. Petroleum seismology has revolutionized the search for hydrocarbons and brought about a period of
remarkable discoveries. Seismic exploration
has expanded dramatically with the tandem
advent of 3D seismic technology and powerful computer capabilities. Exploration has
been a race at sea and on land for ever
greater efficiency. The current limits of contemporary technology were apparently
reached last year, however. In marine seismic acquisition, eight streamers formed
750-meter [2460-ft] wide swaths and
10,000-meter [32,800-ft] offsets, and in land
seismic acquisition, very large-channel
capacity, 24-bit recording systems and
three-component sensors were employed.
Computing power has also grown exponentially, with massively parallel computers
such as the CM-5 (576 nodes and over
74 gigaflops of power) cutting processing
time to a tenth of what it was just ten
years ago. Sophisticated software systems
are now integrating the process flow so
seamlessly that engineering, petrophysical,
geological and geophysical data can be
merged at the explorationists workstation to
facilitate interpretation.

Despite these tremendous technological

strides, easy discoveries have become a
thing of the past. All of the worlds more
obvious reservoirs have been found, and
most have been tapped and put into production. Those in accessible areas that have
been the easiest to identify, the hydrocarbons
trapped in structural faults and anticlines that
manifest themselves so readily in 2D and 3D
seismic data, are almost all in production, as
are the stratigraphically entrapped reservoirs
that revealed themselves as bright spots in
otherwise lackluster seismic data.
Today, fully 40% of the oil found in mature
hydrocarbon provinces is being found in
stratigraphic traps. 1 In fact, most of the
remaining oil and gas in these areas probably
lie in such traps, making future exploration
deliberate searches for these elusive geological units. Worldwide, except for those
principally structural accumulations in Russia
and the Persian Gulf, some 60% of known
giant oil and gas fields (500 million bbl
[79 million m3] oil and 3.5 Tcf [4.7 billion
m3] of gas) are stratigraphic. These include
Venezuelas Bolivar Coastal with 30 billion
bbl [4.9 billion m3], the 6 billion-bbl [1 billion-m3] East Texas field, and Mexicos Poza
Rica field, with 2 billion bbl [0.3 billion m3].
Furthermore, as exploration presses farther
into the worlds deepwater provinces, the
prospect is frequently a stratigraphic trap,
toothe Shell Mars field, with 700 million
bbl [111 million m3], for example, and RamPowell with 250 million bbl [38 million m3].

Oilfield Review

3D image of a stratigraphic trap in

south Texas. This three-dimensional
GeoViz visualization highlights a
meandering channel system. Data
shown include 2D seismic lines
(multlcolor vertical sections) and
well logs (green and tan curves).
Gas-saturated sands (red) and
water saturation (blue) are clearly
seen. A productive well was
accurately positioned on the basis
of this interpretation.

Regardless of the method of exploration,

todays undiscovered stratigraphic traps are
difficult to find and are frequently encountered purely by accident while drilling stepout wells to further delineate a field. That
notwithstanding, with ever greater success,
the technological advances in the geosciences that helped reveal so many of
yesterdays hydrocarbons are now being put
to the task of identifying these less discernible reserves. These lie in isolated depositional units beneath seismic datas hills
and valleys, the pinchouts, unconformities,
reefs and barrier bars collectively known as
stratigraphic traps (above).
Structural Versus Stratigraphic Traps

Hydrocarbons migrate upward from their

source through porous subterranean strata
until their route is blocked by a layer of
impermeable rock, and they accumulate
beneath the sealing body, structure or trap.
Geologists divide these traps into two types,
structural and stratigraphic. Structural traps
are formed by tectonic forces after the sedimentary rocks have been deposited. They
generally fall into two categories: anticlines,
where the rock has been folded or bent
upward, and faults, where movement along
a joint or fracture has driven an impermeable layer above a permeable layer.
Stratigraphic traps, on the other hand, are
most often formed at the time the sediments
are deposited. They fall into three categories: pinchouts, most common in stream

Winter 1997

environments where a channel through a

flood plain has been filled with permeable
sand that was then surrounded by less permeable clays or silts when the channel
moved; unconformities, where a permeable
reservoir rock has been truncated and covered by an impermeable layer following a
nondepositional period or a time of erosion;
and carbonate reefs, fossilized coral constructions and associated deposits that arose
from ancient ocean shelves and were overlain by layers of both permeable and impermeable rock (see Types of Stratigraphic
Traps, page 51).
Pinchout and unconformity traps are often
found in sand-shale beds in basins that
have experienced considerable tectonic
activity, where there are unconformities and
overlaps as well as marine, coastal and fluvial facies. Reefs, however, are frequently

found either on stable shelves beside troughs

containing fine clastic sediment or in evaporite basins. Since reef traps exhibit an
anticlinal structural expression, their delineation with traditional seismic methods is
ordinarily accomplished with relative success, unlike pinchouts and unconformities,
whose physical subtleties have evaded
explorationists until recently. For this reason, we are focusing mainly on nonreef
stratigraphic traps. We examine why they
have been so difficult to identify, and then
describe the seismic acquisition and processing techniques that have been developed to bring these features to light.
Why Are They Difficult to Find?

Stratigraphic traps were first identified in

Pennsylvania in 1880, but exploring for them
remained a mystery until the mid-1930s,
when seismology began to be applied in the
petroleum industry.2 Explorationists find structural traps far easier to identify than stratigraphic traps in both 2D and 3D seismic data
2. For background on early exploration for stratigraphic
traps: Halbouty MT: The Time is Now for All Explorationists to Purposefully Search for the Subtle Trap,
and other contributions to AAPG Memoir 32: The
Deliberate Search for the Subtle Trap. Tulsa, Oklahoma, USA: American Association of Petroleum Geologists (1982): 1-10.

49

because structural traps are seen as highly

dipping reflections and discontinuities in otherwise smooth reflections. Thus for years,
acquisition and processing techniques have
been tailored to accentuate these features,
allowing interpreters to concentrate their
efforts on faults, anticlines and reef formations
rather than their more subtle stratigraphic
counterparts. Other methods, such as detecting bright spots (reflections with anomalously
high amplitudes), are used with some success
on both structural and stratigraphic traps. Certainly, many bright spots do illuminate stratigraphic traps, which make these traps so easily identified with todays techniques that
experts say few await discovery (right). But,
until recently, the search for the more elusive
unconformities and pinchouts has been
thwarted by limitations in seismic data,
namely low resolution, noise and a multitude
of technological barriersthe need to expand
bandwidths, attenuate multiples (false reflections), reduce differences of scale between
seismic data and well logs, bring core and log
measurements into harmony, and improve
synthetic seismograms.
Stratigraphic traps are generally visually
subseismic, so thin or so conformable to
their surrounding geometry that their subtleties are nearly invisible in traditional seismic data. The detail that can indicate a
stratigraphic trap in seismic data may well
be just a small part of a single seismic trace,
perhaps only a small bump on an otherwise
smooth wiggle or a change of curvature or
slightly different wave shape that wasnt present earlier.
Detecting these subtleties requires data of
the highest possible quality. For these purposes, high quality means large bandwidth
or a wide range of frequencies to resolve
small features, and low noise. Yet some
stratigraphic traps generate the very noise in
the seismic data that makes them hard to
see. For example, some stratigraphic traps
are associated with unconformity surfaces
or surfaces of major velocity contrast.
Reflections off these surfaces can reverberate or reflect multiple times, giving rise to
the type of seismic noise called multiples.
The presence of these multiples in data can
conceal the trap and make it difficult to
define its exact depth. Frequently, however,
there is no strong reflection associated with
a stratigraphic trap. Instead, the trap is associated with a gradual change in lithology
instead of an abrupt contrast. In these cases,
a more typical seismic signature would be
small changes in the character of a reflection from one trace to another (right).

50

Bright spot in the seismic record. A bright spot anomaly is a high-amplitude seismic
event. On the left panel, the bright spot shows up in the center as a black reflection of
positive amplitudes. On the right panel, the same bright spot shows up as a seismic
attribute, here in pink and red.

Transgressive channel top

Channel infill sequences

Erosional channel base

A channel-formed stratigraphic trap, the Flounder formation, in Gippsland basin, offshore Australia with diagnostic features indicated. Note the sigmoid pattern, the truncated
seismic events (arrow) indicative of an unconformity, and the amplitude changes from
one trace to another (between the chevrons).

Oilfield Review

Types of Stratigraphic Traps

Stratigraphic traps were first recognized in 1880 by

Structural

Carll, but not so named until 1936 by Levorsen, who

defined them simply as traps in which a variation in
the stratigraphy is the chief confining element in the
reservoir which traps the oil. He noted that, the
dominant trap-forming element is a wedging or
pinching-out of the sand or porous reservoir rock, a
lateral gradation from sand to shale or limestone; an
uplift, truncation, and overlap, or similar variation in

Fold

the stratigraphic sequence, to differentiate them fur-

Fault
Stratigraphic

ther from structural traps.1 Structural traps, conversely, are usually formed by tectonic forces after
sedimentary rocks are deposited and include anticlines or folds and faults (right).
Stratigraphic traps include pinchouts, in which a
lens of permeable sand is surrounded by less permeable silts and clays. These form in both land and
submarine stream environments. Here sand

Pinchout

Reef

Unconformity

is deposited in the stream channel and in coastal

settings when beach sediments are covered by
impermeable clays that are laid down if sea level

Types of Traps. Structural traps are generally classified as either anticlines or folds, or faults. Stratigraphic traps are
generally categorized as pinchouts, unconformities and reefs.

rises. Unconformities represent a gap in the geological record due to erosion, nondeposition, or both

(right). The reservoir seal may be created by alteration of the exposed portion of the reservoir rock

Deposition

Uplift and tilting

itself, or by deposition of a later impermeable layer.

Reefs, either mound or shelf-margin carbonate units,
form by growth of coral and deposition of calcite preErosion

cipitated from seawater.

1. Both citations by Gordon R: Stratigraphic Trap Classification,

in Payton CE (ed): AAPG Memoir 26, Seismic Stratigraphy
Applications to Hydrocarbon Exploration. Tulsa, Oklahoma
USA: American Association of Petroleum Geologists (1997):
14-27.
Deposition

Uplift

Angular unconformity

The development of an unconformity. An unconformity is typically created through a process of deposition, uplift and
titling, erosion and redeposition.

Winter 1997

51

Synthetics for a survey design in the Gulf of Mexico. A synthetic seismogram shows the
correlation between log and seismic data and can indicate how well a stratigraphic target will be mapped. Here the most important tracks are tracks 3 and 4, representing the
synthetic and the seismic data (repeated for clarity). The impedance log in track 2 is
created from the velocity log in track 1 and the density log in track 8. Track 6 indicates
the semblance, or accuracy, of the match between the synthetic and seismic data, with
green representing high semblance. Track 5 is the recorded seismic line and includes the
well trajectory (vertical red line)which missed both red bright spots. SP and porosity
logs are shown in tracks 7 and 8, respectively.

Fortunately, many reservoirs formed by

stratigraphic traps also have a structural
component that makes them easier to discover. They are found to have stratigraphic
elements many years later, when cumulative
production volumes surpass original estimates.3 In the North Sea, Gulf of Mexico
and Campos basin of Brazil, giant stratigraphic traps are only recently coming to
light after decades of exploitation of smaller
predominately structural traps, suggesting a
bright future in exploration for stratigraphic
traps in nominally mature provinces.
Because they are so hard to see, exploration for stratigraphic traps requires knowing
where to look. It is fundamental to understand the structural setting and important,
even if difficult, to recognize the depositional setting of a prospect to know where to
anticipate the occurrence of stratigraphic
traps.4 The application of seismic stratigraphy
to existing seismic data and well logs aids in

52

this understanding by providing needed

information on the direction of sedimentary
flow, whether the sea level was rising or
falling, and other depositional conditions.5
Designing for Discovery

Explorers dont select a drillsite based on

intuition and the whim of the party boss any
more. Nor are todays seismic shoots simple
exercises in geometry; considerable geological and geophysical input goes into the
planning of a modern survey.6
To reduce the risk of an expensive dry
hole, as much a priori knowledge of the
location as possible is factored into the
development of a stratigraphic model from
which to design a new, comprehensive 3D
seismic acquisition program. This preliminary model indicates not only the target
depth for the survey, but when a stratigraphic trap is the target, provides an
approximation of how large the trap is, so
that the final survey can render the desired

subsurface coverage. All known geological

layers are included in the model, as are their
velocities and densities. With ray tracing or,
in the case of a targeted stratigraphic trap,
applying the full-wave equation, a seismic
survey can be simulated to optimize the
measurements and fine-tune the survey
design (left).
The technology for both onshore and offshore exploration for stratigraphic traps has
been in existence for 20 years, beginning
with sequence or seismic stratigraphy, then
3D acquisition and its higher resolution of
the details in seismic data. Offshore, however, advances in technology have recently
been changing the way acquisition is being
performed in deep water and mature
provinces. There, to alleviate the two most
troublesome problems associated with
exploring for stratigraphic traps, low-resolution data and related multiples, the survey is
conducted in one of two ways. Towed multistreamer surface acquisition with long
streamers (from 3 to 12 streamers, 5000 m
[16,400 ft] to 10,000 m long) can yield
wider bandwidths for higher resolution and
obtain offsets long enough to attenuate multiples (next page, top). And, more recently,
four-component (4C) ocean-bottom cable
(OBC) acquisition has become feasible,
which not only achieves greater resolution
in the resultant seismic data, but provides
more reliable information on the lithology
and porosity of the target than can be
obtained by towed streamers.7
Shear Enlightenment

Although the resolution and signal quality

achieved by towed acquisition have
improved the ability to image stratigraphic
traps, 3D seismic exploration is even further enhanced by employing the new technology of four-component seabed systems.
Geco-Prakla took the concept of a seabed
system with external hydrophones and
geophones, originated by Statoil as SUMIC,
and developed its new seabed system as an
entirely self-contained cable with internal
hydrophones and geophones, the Nessie
4C MultiWave Array system (next page, far
right). The four components comprise three
orthogonally mounted geophones and one
hydrophone mounted within the oceanbottom cables that are laid in direct contact with the seafloor.
This form of deployment allows measurement of rock properties that towed or vertical hydrophones cannot measure, since
hydrophones record only compressional (P)
waves. The vast majority of surveys, including those recorded on land, rely entirely
upon P waves to obtain a seismic image, but
appropriately deployed geophones, onshore

Oilfield Review

A wide array acquisition. Back deck of the seismic acquisition vessel Geco
Topaz conducting a survey with a wide array of long streamers.

or offshore, also record shear (S) waves,

which react differently to the properties of
the rock they penetrate (see Full-Wave
Spectrum: P and S Waves, next page).
Because stratigraphic traps are not necessarily associated with structural events and
are not domal in shape, they are often invisible in P-wave data, but are equally as often
readily identified in combination P and S
data. This is because shear waves have
complementary information to that of the
P waves, which allows more complete characterization of the elastic properties of the
rock and fluid and allows identification of
the subtle changes in lithology that come
with stratigraphic traps.
Because shear waves do not travel through
water, the cable must be in direct contact
with the seabed to accomplish the 4C shoot,
a deployment that requires precise positioning of the cables as they are laid from the
back of the acquisition vessels. Once a seismic traverse has been shot, the cable is
either dragged or taken in and redeployed in
a new location; additional lines of seismic
data are acquired until the entire area has
been covered.

Winter 1997

The information obtained in a four-component survey complements that from P waves

in eight ways. First, because S waves are relatively unaffected by pore fluids, including
gas, they can be used to obtain structural
and stratigraphic information in areas where
the presence of such fluids precludes coherent images from P waves only. Targets below
gas chimneys and gas clouds are notoriously difficult to image with P waves, and
S waves have been highly successful in
this application.
3. Pettingill HS: A Historical Look at Worldwide Turbidite Production: Future Opportunities in Stratigraphic Traps, presented at the 1997 AAPG Annual
Convention, Dallas, Texas, USA, April 6-9, 1997,
abstract A92.
4. Brown LF and Fisher WL: Seismic-Stratigraphic Interpretation, Depositional Systems, in Payton CE (ed):
AAPG Memoir 26, Seismic Stratigraphy Applications
to Hydrocarbon Exploration. Tulsa, Oklahoma, USA:
American Association of Petroleum Geologists (1977):
213-248.
5. Mulholland JW: Sequence Stratigraphy: Basic Elements, Concepts, and Terminology, The Leading Edge
17 (January 1998): 37-40.
6. Ashton CP, Bacon B, Mann A, Moldoveanu N,
Dplant C, Ireson D, Redekop G and Sinclair T: 3D
Seismic Survey Design, Oilfield Review 6, no. 2
(April 1994): 19-32.
7. For a discussion of the system: George D: Multicomponent Seismic Acquisition Complements Conventional Towed Streamer, Offshore Magazine 57, no. 10
(October 1997): 70-72.

Seafloor cable. The Geco-Prakla Nessie

4C cable system is reeled out for deployment from surface vessels.

53

Second, S waves yield independent information about rock properties, allowing

more complete prediction of both fluid type
and rock lithology. When only P waves are
recorded in a seismic section, it is frequently
difficult to discern whether a detected direct
hydrocarbon indicator event is due to the
presence of hydrocarbons or is simply due
to lithologic changes. Shear-wave data
lessen this difficulty considerably when
acquired simultaneously with P-wave data.
In areas where P-wave data produce amplitude anomalies and the S-wave data do not,
the presence of hydrocarbons is likely. If the
anomaly is observed in both S-wave and
P-wave data, it is most likely either a diagenetic or lithological phenomenon. The ratio
of P-wave to S-wave velocities, VP /VS, is
often used to predict lithology, and the
P-wave amplitude to the S-wave amplitude
ratio may turn out to help predict fluidsaturation differences.
Third, in deepwater acquisitions, the triplesensor nature of the geophone data provides
a unique opportunity for demultiple processing. Shear waves contribute another
velocity function to use in distinguishing
between multiples. Since shear waves produce multiples themselves that are similar to
those produced by P waves, this helps the
interpreter sort the principal reflections from
the multiples to image more accurately.
Fourth, by acquiring both P and S waves,
explorationists expect to illuminate shadow
zones beneath high-velocity salt structures.
Because the raypaths bend at a boundary of
two different velocities, and salt bodies
often have irregular boundaries, shadow
zones, areas with no reflections, are
created. By using both P and S waves, some
of the shadow zones of one are illuminated
by the other. Therefore, better structural
and stratigraphic images can be achieved
beneath salt.
Fifth, variations in seismic velocities, both
P-wave and S-wave, may help identify different lithologies. The use of interval traveltime ratios, Ts /Tprelated to but easier to
measure than interval Vp /Vsover a relatively small time window in the seismic
data, may indicate lateral or vertical
changes in lithology and pore fluid type.
Further, the use of these ratios, in conjunction with seismic facies interpreted from
reflection patterns, provides a relatively
powerful way to begin inferring lithologic
information at a scale more detailed than
most seismic velocity models.

54

Full-Wave Spectrum: P and S Waves

Conventional seismic surveys use compressional or

reflect differently at interfaces (next page, top). A P

pressure (P) waves to penetrate the earth and sea

wave reflecting as a P wave, called a P-P reflection,

and reflect back data on the strata and structures

is symmetric about the point of reflection at the com-

these energy waves encounter. When these waves

mon midpoint (CMP) halfway between the source

become disturbances propagating through the body

and receiver. A P-S reflection is asymmetric at the

of a medium, they either remain compressional

point of reflection, called the common conversion

waves (P waves) or are converted into shear waves

point (CCP), which is different from the CMP. The dif-

(S waves).

ference in reflection points must be taken into

Compressional waves occur when a liquid, solid or

gas is sharply compressed. The compression sets off

account through processing.

The combination of P- and S-wave data rather

small particle vibrations in the same direction that

than P-wave alone can yield previously unavailable

the compressional waves are traveling. Shear waves,

information about fluids in the pore spaces and

on the other hand, are waves of shearing action and

improve the potential for identifying the prospect

occur only in solids. In shear waves, the small rock

lithology. Because gas in a formation causes the

particle motion is perpendicular to the direction of

compressional velocity to slow but has little effect on

wave propagation. They may be generated by a seis-

shear waves, the combination of compressional and

mic source in contact with a rock formation or by the

shear measurements helps in identifying gas-related

non-normal incidence of P waves on rock. The gener-

amplitude anomalies. In addition, S-wave data are

ation of S waves from a reflected P wave is called

also able, in some cases, to image structures that P

mode conversion. It is slight for small incident angles

waves cannot adequately portray, such as reservoirs

and becomes more pronounced as the offset

with gas clouds in porous rocks above the reservoir

increases.1

(next page, bottom).2

The velocity at which these waves travel is con-

Until recently, P and S waves could be acquired

trolled by the mechanical properties of the rock, its

simultaneously only onshore, but with the advent of

density and elastic dynamic constants. In fluid-

ocean-bottom cable (OBC), both can be obtained.

saturated rocks, these properties depend on the

Although the marine seismic source continues to

amount and type of fluid present, the composition of

generate only P waves, once those waves have

the rock grains and the degree of intergrain cemen-

reflected off deep strata, they may be converted and

tation, formation pressure and temperature. Soft,

propagate upward as S waves. The new 4C seabed

loosely consolidated rocks are generally less rigid

cable system is in contact with the ocean floor and

and more compressible than hard, tightly consoli-

can record both waveforms.

dated rocks. As a result, P and S waves travel slower

in soft rock than in hard. Extremely unconsolidated
rocks support only weak shear-wave propagation.
P waves and S waves propagate through rock and

1. Sheriff RE: Encyclopedic Dictionary of Exploration

Geophysics, SEG Geophysical Reference Series Number 1.
Tulsa, Oklahoma, USA: Society of Exploration Geophysicists,
1973.
2. George D: Shear Data Acquisition Permits Correlation of
Seismic, Log Data, Offshore Magazine 55, no. 3 (March
1995): 37-38.

Oilfield Review

P and S waves. When P waves (red) reflect as P

waves, they do so symmetrically about a common midpoint (CMP). When P waves convert upon reflection to an
S wave (black), they do so asymmetrically, about a common conversion point (CCP).

Value of shear waves. Shear waves are useful for

imaging beneath gas clouds, as they travel through this
low-velocity zone relatively undisturbed. The lateral displacement of the CCP due to P-S reflection must be
taken into account in processing.

Gas
S wave

P wave

CMP

P wave
S wave

CCP

P-S
5000

7000

P-P

3000

4000

Shot

Receiver
Boat heading

1.4 km

Receiver

Shot

Imaging through gas with shear waves. The lower panel shows an image created by migrating P-P CMP-stacked
seismic data. The center of the image is weak and disrupted by a gas cloud obscuring the crest of the structure. The
top panel shows migrated P-P CCP-stacked data. The reflectors are clearly imaged all the way across the panel.

Winter 1997

55

Sixth, experience with a few situations in

the North Sea has shown that some reservoirs have low P-wave reflectivity while having relatively high P-to-S mode-conversion
capabilities. Therefore, these reservoirs,
which can not be seen at all on P-wave data,
become visible using the mode-converted
shear waves. An extension of this idea leads
to the conclusion also that by acquiring both
P and S waves, seismic information and log
and core data can be correlated more convincingly, and perhaps explains why correlation has been difficult in some areas.
Seventh, a stationary acquisition system like
the Nessie 4C MultiWave Array permits true
3D acquisition, meaning complete offset and
azimuth distributions within the data. Towed
3D surveys, while providing coverage of a
3D volume, do so with a series of essentially
2D traverses, as the source is in line with the
receiver cable. By acquiring P and S waves
propagating in all azimuths, velocity
anisotropy (the variation of a property with
direction) of P and S waves may be determined. Velocity anisotropy can be especially
pronounced in S waves, and depending on
the type and amount, can be used to help

Raw data

Data migration

3D cube reprocessing:
Enhanced frequency content

3D cube reprocessing:
Improved vertical resolution

3D cube inversion

Relationship between seismic response and petrophysical properties

Seismic stratigraphic interpretation

Construction of attribute maps

Construction between attributes and petrophysical properties

Construction of property maps

Reconciliation between static and dynamic models

Methodology Used by Geoscientists.

Oblique

Complex oblique

Sigmoid

Complex
sigmoid-oblique

Oblique (parallel)

Shingled

Sigmoid
offlap

Aggradational
offlap

Shelf
edge Oblique
offlap

Shelf
edge
Channel-overbank
complex
Drape

Toplap

Sequence
boundary

Onlap

Downlap
Downlap surface

56

Slope
front fill

Mound

Onlap

Truncation
Sequence
boundary

Apparent
truncation

Apparent
truncation

Depositional and termination patterns. Types of depositional and termination patterns sought in seismic
data indicative of stratigraphic traps,
including discontinuities.
[After Visher, reference 9, main text.]

Oilfield Review

discriminate rock types, detect source rocks

and identify principal fracture directions. For
example, shales are often highly anisotropic,
displaying transverse isotropy wherein the
vertical velocity is different from the horizontal velocity. Sometimes this can be observed
in 4C seismic data, and could indicate a
shale, suggesting the existence of what is a
common sealing formation for many stratigraphic traps. Velocity anisotropy is also an
important consideration when processing
surface seismic data for stratigraphic interpretation, as small errors in velocity can impact
the resolution of the final seismic image.
An eighth benefit of acquisition with the
Nessie 4C MultiWave Array is it allows for
the calibration of AVO (amplitude variation
with offset) analysis derived from streamer
survey data. An AVO effect occurs when the
reflection coefficient at an interface changes
as a function of distance between source
and receiver. When P-wave energy strikes a
particular interface, some of it will be transmitted as P waves and some will be
reflected as P waves, while some of the
energy will reflect as S waves and be transmitted as S waves. Some lithology-fluid
combinations generate dramatic AVO
effects, and the observed AVO signatures, or
anomalies, can be diagnostic of hydrocarbons. But these effects are not seen in conventionally processed seismic data, because
the processing step of stacking averages
amplitudes from traces at different offsets.
If an AVO effect is suspected, the seismic
data can be processed to preserve and highlight rather than average amplitude variations. The data can also be visualized in 3D
cubes in the same way stacked data are visualized. But in this case there would be multiple cubes: one for near-offset data, one for
medium offsets and one for far offsets. A multitude of 3D cubes can be produced, limited
only by how much offset information is captured in the analysis. Geco-Prakla scientists
have created as many as 23 different offset
ranges for a survey (previous page, top).
8. Mitchum RM and Vail PR: Seismic Stratigraphy and
Global Changes of Sea Level, in Payton CE (ed):
AAPG Memoir 26, Seismic StratigraphyApplications
to Hydrocarbon Exploration. Tulsa, Oklahoma, USA:
American Association of Petroleum Geologists (1977):
49-213.
9. Visher GS: Exploration Stratigraphy. Tulsa, Oklahoma,
USA: PennWell Books, 1990.

Winter 1997

Once an AVO anomaly has been detected,

it needs to be interpreted to identify the
rocks and fluids that created it. This is done
by generating models and comparing
observed AVO effects to the modeled ones.
Most models contain information from
P waves alone, and the shear-wave velocities required for the model are extrapolated
from distant well logs or inferred from
empirical transforms relating P to S velocities. Shear-wave velocities extracted from
Nessie 4C MultiWave Array data provide
crucial input for construction of the models
and allow for more reliable interpretation of
lithology and fluids in the trap.
Processing

Geco-Prakla researchers have developed

the SCT Seismic Classifier Toolbox software
system for seismic stratigraphic mapping or
inversion specifically for the identification
of stratigraphic traps. The SCT methodology is based on work done by Peter Vail
when he was at Exxon.8 An extension of
the Vail technique, which was developed

using 2D seismic data, the process begins

by identifying depositional environments
and their sequence boundaries in the 3D
seismic data volumes and, within the
sequence boundaries, identifying certain
stratigraphic and geometric patterns that
should be sought (previous page, bottom).9
Using advanced image processing algorithms that allow the geometry of interbed
reflections between the sequence boundaries to be enhanced, primitivescomputer
templateswere developed to map these
patterns automatically.
The goal is to determine the lithologic
composition of the stratigraphic objects. The
objects are defined by their boundaries,
which may be subtle and difficult to delineate. Boundaries are sometimes identified
implicitly by the way some of the seismic
reflectors terminate against them. This is
especially the case with submarine fan systems and their associated channels. For this
reason, the Geco-Prakla SCT method
includes reflection termination recognition
systems (below).

Terminations. Both top and base of a submarine fan system in the Gulf of Mexico
have been interpreted. The customized color bar at the lower right of this seismic display emphasizes the high amplitudes of the gas-bearing fan sand at the center of the
screen. The gamma ray log curve (yellow line) is interpreted to present a submarine
fan system. Termination of the fan system is represented by the edges of the black
bright spot within the red and blue layers. The sand thickness decreases below seismic
resolution near the edges.

57

Offset

Voxel cube. Volume cell, or voxel interpretation of a 3D survey from the Gulf of Mexico
with GeoViz software. The voxel interpretation in red highlights the distribution of a particular seismic attribute, or characteristic, that maps the extent of a bright spot.

The patterns produced by SCT processing

of the 3D volume are then passed through
classification, a type of generic inversion
process wherein the desired stratigraphic
pattern defines a set of attributes that are
sought in the data. This produces either a
catalog of patterns that the interpreter can
use, or these patterns can go directly into
the actual 3D volume following pattern
enhancement.
At this point, the system is trained by the
interpreter, who can simply point at a particular pattern and instruct the SCT system to
recognize comparable patterns in the seismic dataset. The toolbox runs all of the seismic volume through the enhancement step
and classifies based on the patterns that
have been presented as the training data,
either from the catalog or the identified patterns in the dataset. This produces a class
volume, or voxel set, in the cube (above).
Each voxel will have one value for each of
the classes or stratigraphic patterns that
were defined for the SCT process or it will
have a value that indicates there is doubt in
the pattern that has been identified.
At the end of the session, a set of voxel
volumes is produced from the kinematic, or
geometric, part of the seismic data, indicating the density of the bedding between the

58

sequence boundaries and how the bedding

terminates within the retaining system. At
this point, the dynamic information is
added, such as the reflection strengths of the
various geometric patterns that were identified. These help discriminate between the
types of lithology that may be lying between
each of the stratigraphic objects.
Even if the 3D seismic data being processed through the set are solely acoustic or
P-wave information from conventional
towed streamers, there is some dynamic
information that can be used to identify
stratigraphic traps, including the same set of
primitives. In addition, AVO methods can
provide a fair understanding of lithologies.
This is an implicit way of getting shear-wave
information without the added cost of multicomponent acquisition.
Available well logs are now added to the
process. To put the well and seismic data on
the same scale, the log is used to construct a
synthetic seismogram by convolving reflection coefficients from the sonic and density
log with a band-limited seismic wavelet.
This process achieves the same low resolution as that of the selected wavelet.
In a case study for Statoil in the Danish
sector of the North Sea, for example, the
Norwegian state oil company had a 2D
line and two wells in which Geco-Prakla

was able to identify two stratigraphic

sequences with the SCT Seismic Classifier
Toolbox system and map them in 3D. One
of the wells showed hydrocarbons in the
sands of a submarine channel system. The
SCT approach, using fluid indicators from
the ratio of P- to S-wave velocities, Vp/Vs,
measured in both the wells and inferred
from the seismic data, made it possible to
determine the reservoirs fluid distribution.
To discriminate between hydrocarbonbearing lithology and non-hydrocarbonbearing lithology, it is essential to calibrate
the lithological effect of the Vp/Vs ratio versus its fluid effect. If perturbations are present, they can be associated with fluid rather
than lithology. The Danish example was a
2D traverse, not a 3D multicomponent OBC
dataset, which would have allowed further
identification of each layer of the stratigraphy with its full elastic field observations.
Nevertheless, it was processed through a
new set of software tools Geco-Prakla calls
model-based processing, which assured
consistency between the 3D geometric
model of the dataset and its P-wave velocity
models, and confirmed the identification of
hydrocarbons in the stratigraphic trap in
zones not tapped by the wells.

Oilfield Review

Visualization and Attribute Analysis

Looking for stratigraphic traps in seismic

reflection data, the geophysicist searches
for subtle variations within formations
rather than the obvious structures. This
requires analyzing the seismic attributes, or
characteristics, of the seismic traces. Key
attributes of the seismic data reveal whether
the trap is structural or stratigraphic and
provide additional characteristics that are
helpful in determining the precise nature of
the lithology.
In mapping sand channels, for example,
the termination attribute is analyzed to
determine the shape of the channel, where
a reflector terminates against a particular
channel. If there are channel complexes and
high amplitudes are present, they will also
be visible in the seismic datas texture and
can be verified. The texture of the seismic
traces, another attribute, the rough or
smooth appearance of the data, serves as an
excellent indicator of lithology. When the
sediments are deposited under high-energy
conditions, as are sands, the seismic data
look chaotic; if quiet sedimentation, such as
clays, then the data appear smooth (right).
Of the many different seismic attributes,
the majority of which have arguable value
in exploration, amplitude, the maximum
departure of a wave from the average value,
is the most important indicator of stratigraphic traps. This is because amplitudes
can light up stratigraphic traps as bright
spots, in which the amplitudes are dramatically greater or less than those of the adjacent layers. Even more important is when
there is an updip drop in amplitude,
because it can indicate a potential reservoir
unit. In addition, when a stratigraphic interval thins with two beds coming together as
happens in a pinchout, wavelets from these
two beds merge causing reinforcement, or
brightening of amplitude, and the location
of that brightening is where the trap lies.
A great deal of information about the rock
properties of the formation is available from
amplitude. If true amplitudes are obtained,
reflection coefficients derived from the data
can be employed to compute acoustical
impedance. This, in turn, can be related
to density, velocity and porosity. Amplitude
is also a major factor in estimating the net
pay of the stratigraphic field, because
amplitude changes with the amount of
hydrocarbons present.
10. For a discussion of transformation in the context of
time-lapse or 4D seismic: Pedersen L, Ryan S and Sonneland L: Seismic Snapshots for Reservoir Monitoring, Oilfield Review 8, no. 4 (Winter 1996): 32-43.

Winter 1997

Textural contrast in seismic data. In this example from the

Gulf of Mexico, the seismic horizon has been artificially illuminated to reveal the seismic texture. The rough sections correspond to high-energy areas of erosion at the level of the
mapped surface, and may be channel incisions. The smoother
areas represent quieter regions, depositional settings where fan
systems may have developed.

One useful attribute in identifying stratigraphic traps in 3D seismic data is amplitude versus azimuth, an aspect of anisotropy
that combines both travel time and amplitude information and can indicate appropriate hydrocarbon reservoirs by whether the
unit has closure and whether its amplitude
is dim in the updip direction. Another use,
in mapping fracture zones, from which primary production often comes, is that it indicates areas of weakened amplitude, which
is caused by a poor coupling of S waves
across fractures. Azimuthal coverage is typically 360 in a 4C survey, thus assuring the
acquisition of this key attribute.
Accurate velocity measurement is also
essential to correctly interpreting structures
as stratigraphic traps, and particularly in
gauging variations in the recorded velocities.
Incorrect analysis can result from following
the wrong reflecting wavelet. If the medium
is 4C 3D seismic data, the measurement of
shear information is much more reliable,
permitting the use of the anisotropic effect
and identification of both the P-wave layer
velocity and the S-wave layer velocity, and
adding to the discrimination power with
respect to different lithologies, pore fluids
and abnormal pressure regimes.

Although amplitude and velocity are integral to an accurate interpretation of 3D seismic data, different attributes are important
in different aspects of the interpretation process. To determine which are more important, discrimination analysis is undertaken
by compressing the seismic data into a set
of attributes that might be relevant for the
particular problem that has been identified,
in this case the discovery of stratigraphic
traps. From these attributes, a set of attribute
transformations is selected.10
In what is called attribute space in the
model, points are defined for each position
with several attribute values. These can be
thought of as clusters. Separations between
the clusters permit discrimination, because
they show that there is no overlap between
the two classes of attributes. If, for example,
there are only two attributes, the attribute
space is two-dimensional and appears as a
crossplot, with each of the axes in that crossplot now an attribute parameter. If there are
two separate clusters in that crossplot, then

59

Coherence Technology

Stratigraphic features frequently are better imaged by

Coherence Cube processing, a recently perfected
methodology that may be applied either after or during the processing of 3D seismic data and utilized
Lineation anomaly

during the interpretation to further reveal the stratigraphic trap (below right). A nontraditional procedure,

Coherence processing

Coherence Cube processing, which was developed in

the geophysical labs at Amoco and licensed exclusively to Houston-based Coherence Technology Company, processes 3D seismic data not for imaging
Channel

reflections, but for imaging discontinuities by analyzing waveform similarity (below). Traces that are similar to each other are mapped with high-coherence
coefficients, and when similarities end, discontinuities
may be inferred. As a consequence, when visualized
in a 3D volume or cube, coherence coefficients
enhance the detection and understanding of stratigraphic features (as well as faults) that are often not
visible in traditionally processed data.
Stratigraphic features are frequently difficult to see
in seismic data due to the low level or chaotic nature
of the seismic reflections they provide. Coherence

Multiple images of a subtle channel processed for coherence. What appears to be a barely perceptible, low-amplitude
body in the black and white section of stacked data is revealed by Coherence processing (right) to be a subtle submarine channel, with its trend and areal extent (red arrow) clearly visible. (Images courtesy of
Coherence Technology Co.)

Cube processing brings stratigraphic features into

focus as it computes the variations in the waveform
regardless of the amplitude of the reflectors (previous

page, top). Lateral definition of these stratigraphic

Coherence Cube

Conventional
seismic data

High-Coherence Event

2000
Low-Coherence Event
2500

High- and low-coherence events. In a high-coherence event (top), waveforms are similar from trace to trace. In a low-coherence event (bottom),
waveforms are disimilar. (Images courtesy of Coherence
Technology Co.)

3000
3500
4000

High coherence
Low coherence

Integration of conventional seismic line with Coherence Cube (Created by Coherence Technology Co. using GeoViz software from GeoQuest). Zones of low coherence (black) are interpreted as discontinuities.

60

Oilfield Review

features can be seen best in the horizontal or time

domain. In areas of high dip or where stratigraphic
features transit different stratigraphic horizons, flattening of key surfaces, horizon slices, may be beneficial in obtaining a greater understanding of the
stratigraphy contained in the dataset. However, interpretive bias can enter the dataset when using horizon
slices in tracing stratigraphic features, since a geoscientist is required to go through the difficult, time-consuming and subjective process of picking the horizon.
The Coherence Cube technique increases the
probability of finding hydrocarbons by indicating

Offse

stratigraphic (and structural) traps that were not visible with traditional procedures. Estimates of 3D
dimensional seismic coherence are obtained by calculating localized waveforms within the regular grid
of a 3D seismic dataset. A sharp discontinuity is produced by stratigraphic boundaries.

Horizon slice. GeoViz 3D workspace showing horizon and surface slicing, which
allows detection of pay sands adjacent to a horizon or surface. High relative
amplitudes are shown in red and yellow.

In areas such as the Gulf of Mexico, where high

seismic amplitudes frequently indicate hydrocarbon
accumulations, their stratigraphic milieu is more
readily identified from coherence data because they
provide a different perspective in combination with
amplitude data.1

1. George D: Coherence Cube Reveals Stratigraphic Features

More Readily than Traditional 3D Time Slice Plots, Offshore
Magazine 56, no. 3 (March 1996): 22-23.

discrimination between those two cases with

that particular attribute set has been successful. If, however, the two clusters are overlapping, then there is no discrimination.
Geco-Prakla has patented a set of new
attributes that allow the reconstruction of all
the information that exists in a given layer
for example, between the top and base of
the reservoir. And it can be done in an
orthogonal sense; for each new attribute that
is added to the classification system, additional information is obtained, limited only
by computer running time.
Once the attributes have been selected that
the geoscientist feels are key to a valid interpretation, a number of identification methodologies may be applied, including horizon
slicing (above). Coherence Cube processing
reveals the stratigraphic trap further (see
Coherence Technology, previous page).11
11. Risch DL, Chowdhury AN, Hannan AE and Jamieson
GA: How Modern Techniques Improve Seismic Interpretation, World Oil 215, Part I (April 1994): 85-94;
and Part II (May 1994): 63-70.

Winter 1997

Now, and in the years to come, the

petroleum industry is relying on discovery of
new resources in two areas: mature
provinces and the deepwater offshore frontier. Both demand new technology to find
the elusive hydrocarbons that lie beneath
the earth and sea. Since stratigraphic traps
may well hold the vast majority of the new
millenniums yet-to-be-discovered hydrocarbons, particularly when reefs are considered
among them, The time is now for all explorationists to purposefully search for the subtle trap, in the words of Michel T. Halbouty.
New acquisition technology now illuminates these stratigraphic traps as never
before, and remarkable advances in processing and interpretation software and
methodology reveal their attributes for analysis, visualization and verification. Difficult
to find, yes, but as the giant stratigraphic
traps around the world testify, well worth
the search.
DG

61