Selected Readings

In Electroacoustics
2006 - 2007
EAMT 203 / 204
EAMT 205
Professor Michael Pinsonneault
Professor EldadTsabary
Professor Kathy Kennedy
Professor Christian Calon

1984 - 2005 Prepared by Kevin Austin

August / 2005
Contributors include: Kevin Austin, Mark Corwin, Laurie Radford
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TABLE OF CONTENTS
READINGS-----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------2
ELECTROACOUSTICS AN INTRODUCTION ------------------------------------------------------2
History---------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------- 2
General Overview---------------------------------------------------------------------------------------- 2
Artistic Practice ----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------- 3
Acousmatic------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------ 4
Post Partum: But is it Music?----------------------------------------------------------------------------- 4

READING I-------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------6
AN INFORMAL INTRODUCTION TO LANGUAGE, THE VOICE, AND THEIR
SOUNDS --------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------6
Linguistic Organization---------------------------------------------------------------------------------- 6
Vocabulary, Syntax and Cases, Semantic (elements, order, meaning) -------------------------------- 6
Stress------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------ 8
Code------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------- 8
Sound As Symbol: Letters and Spelling ----------------------------------------------------------------- 9
IPA: The International Phonetic Alphabet ------------------------------------------------------------ 9
Voice as Sound-------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------- 9
Segmentation of Text and Speech ---------------------------------------------------------------------- 10
A Quick Phonetic Reference Guide --------------------------------------------------------------------- 12
Place of Articulation ------------------------------------------------------------------------------------ 13
Alphabets and Pictograms------------------------------------------------------------------------------ 14

READING II --------------------------------------------------------------------------------------- 16
DESCRIBING SOUND(S) I-------------------------------------------------------------------- 16
Function and Context ------------------------------------------------------------------------------------ 16
Mass Structures and the Cocktail Party Effect -------------------------------------------------------- 16
Segregation and Streaming & ASA -------------------------------------------------------------------- 17
ASA A Brief Introduction---------------------------------------------------------------------------- 18
Psychoacoustics------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------ 18
Spectromorphology ------------------------------------------------------------------------------------- 19

READING IIA ------------------------------------------------------------------------------------- 22

DESCRIBING SOUND(S) II OPPOSITIONS -------------------------------------------- 22
READING III -------------------------------------------------------------------------------------- 25
SIGNAL PATHS & TRANSDUCERS LOUDSPEAKERS & MICROPHONES--- 25
Signal Paths & Controls -------------------------------------------------------------------------------- 25

Transducers Sound to Electricity to Sound ----------------------------------------------------------Microphones--------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------Loudspeakers-------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------Headphones--------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------Because of speakers coloration, why not mix sounds with headphones?---------------------------Feedback ------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------

27
27
28
29
30
30

READING IV---------------------------------------------------------------------------------------32
JUNGIAN MODELS FOR COMPOSITIONAL TYPES ------------------------------------32
READING V ----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------34
PARAMETERS OF SOUND I PERCEPTUAL------------------------------------------34
Duration/Time-----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------Dynamics/Amplitude ---------------------------------------------------------------------------------Spectrum (timbre)--------------------------------------------------------------------------------------Envelope shape ----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------Morphological Classification ------------------------------------------------------------------------Psychological Implications/Effects -------------------------------------------------------------------

34
34
34
35
35
35

READING VI---------------------------------------------------------------------------------------37
PARAMETERS OF SOUND II PHYSICAL & THE HARMONIC SERIES----37
Sound, Frequency and Amplitude ---------------------------------------------------------------------Some more characteristics-----------------------------------------------------------------------------Sound Waves, Their Shape and Partials (Harmonics)-------------------------------------------The Harmonic Series La srie harmonique --------------------------------------------------------Intervals------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------Amplitude and Frequency -----------------------------------------------------------------------------Pitched Instruments, Unpitched Instruments and the Voice ----------------------------------------Instrumental Families---------------------------------------------------------------------------------Electronic sources---------------------------------------------------------------------------------------The Frequency Ranges of Instruments ------------------------------------------------------------------

37
37
38
39
40
41
42
42
45
46

READING VII--------------------------------------------------------------------------------------48
RESONANCE, VOWEL FORMANTS AND FREQUENCIES, TEMPERAMENT---48
Resonance-----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------The Mouth, Vowels and Formant Frequencies--------------------------------------------------------Schematic View of the Voice -------------------------------------------------------------------------Diagramatic representation of the vowel /i/.-------------------------------------------------------Frequencies of Notes in Equal Temperament ----------------------------------------------------------

48
48
49
50
51

CHART 1------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------ 52
INTERVALS & INTONATION SELECTED INTERVALS FROM EQUAL
TEMPERAMENT, THE HARMONIC SERIES, AND THE CIRCLE OF FIFTHS -- 52
CHART 2------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------ 53
FORMANT FREQUENCIES OF SPOKEN & SUNG VOWELS BY MEN, WOMEN AND
CHILDREN--------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------- 53
READING VIII------------------------------------------------------------------------------------ 56
ANALOG AND DIGITAL -- SOUNDS AND SIGNALS --------------------------------- 56
Analog / Digital ---------------------------------------------------------------------------------------- 56
SAMPLING RATE conversion -------------------------------------------------------------------------- 60

READING IX--------------------------------------------------------------------------------------- 63
THE EAR AND SOUND PRESSURE LEVELS (SPLS) -------------------------------------- 63
The Ear--------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------- 63
Hearing and Thresholds-------------------------------------------------------------------------------- 64
Hearing Loss--------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------- 64
Typical Sound Pressure Levels (SPLs)------------------------------------------------------------------ 65

READING X---------------------------------------------------------------------------------------- 66
PSYCHOACOUSTICS, LOUDNESS AND LOUD SOUNDS ---------------------------- 66
Psychoacoustics------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------ 66
Frequency and Pitch ----------------------------------------------------------------------------------- 66
Loudness and Intensity ---------------------------------------------------------------------------------- 66
Loudness Curves ----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------- 67
Frequency Response of Human Hearing and Hearing Loss -------------------------------------------- 68
Causes---------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------- 68
Cautions, Adaptation and Coping---------------------------------------------------------------------- 69
Hearing Protection -------------------------------------------------------------------------------------- 69
Tinnitus -------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------- 70

READING - XI----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------- 71
SPATIAL ACTUALIZATION --------------------------------------------------------------------- 71
General Considerations --------------------------------------------------------------------------------- 71
Speaker to fader----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------- 72
Specific Aspects of Speaker Placement ---------------------------------------------------------------- 73
Calon Minuit (timeline)------------------------------------------------------------------------------- 74
Calon Minuit (Projection Score)----------------------------------------------------------------------- 79

READING XII--------------------------------------------------------------------------------------87
REFLECTION AND REVERBERATION-------------------------------------------------------87
Velocity, Wavelength and Frequency ----------------------------------------------------------------Propagation --------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------Absorption----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------Reflection ----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------Reverberation Within a Room------------------------------------------------------------------------Reverberation Time and Reflection Density ---------------------------------------------------------Free Field - Reverberant Field------------------------------------------------------------------------Flutter Echo and Room Resonances--------------------------------------------------------------------Electronic reverberation -------------------------------------------------------------------------------Total Absorption: Anechoic Chambers and Out-of-Doors--------------------------------------------

87
87
88
88
89
91
91
92
93
93

READING XIII ----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------94

SOUND, VIBRATION, SPECTRUM AND MODELS FOR SPECTRAL
DEVELOPMENT:--------------------------------------------------------------------------------------94
Waves and oscilloscopes; Vibration and variation--------------------------------------------------Introduction --------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------Instrumental: -------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------Voice:---------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------Environmental:-----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------Intervallic Distances -----------------------------------------------------------------------------------

94
94
94
95
95
96

READING XIV-----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------97
COMPOSITIONAL STRATEGIES---------------------------------------------------------------97
Structural and Gestural Types ------------------------------------------------------------------------- 97
TERMS--------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------- 97
CATEGORIZATION ---------------------------------------------------------------------------------- 104

INTRODUCTION TO MODULAR ANALOG SYNTHESIS --------------------------- 106

A Guide------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------- 106
PROCESSORS ----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------- 107
SOURCES ---------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------- 107
CONTROLS-------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------- 107
LOGIC / TIMING -------------------------------------------------------------------------------------- 108
VOLTAGE CONTROLED FILTER (VCF) ------------------------------------------------------------ 109
(Multimode Filter) ------------------------------------------------------------------------------------ 109
VOLTAGE CONTROLED PHASE / FLANGE ------------------------------------------------------- 110
VOLTAGE CONTROLED AMPLIFIER--------------------------------------------------------------- 111
(VCA) -------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------- 111
RING MODULATOR (BALANCED MODULATOR) ----------------------------------------------- 112

& PRE-AMPLIFIER ------------------------------------------------------------------------------------112

ADSR ---------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------113
(Envelope Generator) ----------------------------------------------------------------------------------113
TRIGGERS and GATES---------------------------------------------------------------------------------116
VOLTAGE CONTROLED OSCILLATOR (VCO) ----------------------------------------------------117
Basic Waveshapes and Spectrums (from oscillators)------------------------------------------------118
The Generic Voltage Controled Oscillator (VCO) ---------------------------------------------------119
SAMPLE & HOLD; CLOCK (VCLFO); NOISEGENERATOR; RANDOM VOLTAGE -----------120
Sample/Hold-------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------122
Track & Hold-------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------122

ARTICLE A--------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------126
PARAMETRIC CONTROLS ---------------------------------------------------------------------126
ARTICLE B --------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------127
CONCRETE TRANSFORMATIONS----------------------------------------------------------127
ARTICLE C--------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------127
FAMILIES OF SOUNDS AND FAMILY RELATIONS -----------------------------------128
ARTICLE D--------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------129
GENERALIZED SONIC TRANSFORMATIONAL PROCESSES ---------------------129
Spectrum ------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------129
Time-----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------129
Amplitude ----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------129
The compressor - limiter / expander ------------------------------------------------------------------129

ARTICLE E --------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------130
ON AMPLITUDE ------------------------------------------------------------------------------------130
Graphic Representation of Wave ---------------------------------------------------------------------130
Envelope Follower -------------------------------------------------------------------------------------131
Processing of Envelopes --------------------------------------------------------------------------------132
Gating ---------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------134

A SOMEWHAT INCOMPLETE, SELECTIVE HISTORICAL TIMELINE OF SOUND

TECHNOLOGY-------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------135
Music Technologies Before 1948--------------------------------------------------------------135
Musique concrte; Elektronische Musik; Tape Music ---------------------------------136
Electronic Music 1948 1970-----------------------------------------------------------------136
Synthesizers-----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------136
Computers ---------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------136
Live Electronics-----------------------------------------------------------------------------------136

Timeline------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------ 137

INDEX (INCOMPLETE)--------------------------------------------------------------------------- 160

http://cec.concordia.ca/
http://www.sonus.ca/index.html
http://www.ircam.fr/?L=1
http://www.sonicartsnetwork.org/about.htm
http://www.ears.dmu.ac.uk/
and follow links from each
Google new and unusual terms.

READINGS
ELECTROACOUSTICS AN INTRODUCTION
OverView
This collection of readings provides a small introduction into parts of the discipline
of electroacoustics (ea). Assembled from shorter individual readings from 1984 to
the present, there are some repetitions and some contradictions. Electroacoustics:
sound that comes from loudspeakers. http://www.ears.dmu.ac.uk/

HISTORY
The term electroacoustics comes from electrical engineering where it refers to the study of devices
which convert electrical energy to acoustic energy, or vice versa loudspeakers and microphones
mostly.
The term has been adopted by the sonic arts community from time to time and was partly
synonymous with electronic music, musique concrte, tape music , and has been spelled as
Electro Acoustic, electro-acoustic, Electro-acoustic, and (as now widely adopted)
electroacoustic. There are also on going discussions as to whether there are differences (and
what they might be) between electroacoustics, electroacoustic music, electro-acoustic music
(see below)

GENERAL OVERVIEW
A discipline as broad as electroacoustic studies is bound to encompass many (and growing)
cognate disciplines. With sound, electricity and people at its core, it touches upon:
engineering

practices of acoustics and electrical engineering, including

hardware design and manufacturing

computer sciences

hardware and software conception and design

medical

studies regarding physical/physiological aspects of hearing;

also applied in other areas such as ultrasound tests

psychology (and
psychoacoustics)

regarding human perception and interpretation of these

perceptions

linguistics

spoken and written language in technical and theoretical

applications

history, analysis, and

aesthetics

notably the history of technology, and more recently aspects

of gender issues; and models and tools for understanding
(the nature of) the field; how thought and art are reflected
and evaluated

artificial intelligence

for perception, creation and analysis

communications studies
and journalism, radio

often mostly text, but often free sound that sets the context
and describes the environment

EAMT

Readings

sound design

the general area of design and control of all aspects of the

sound in a production, largely applied to film and gaming

video, internet, film,

performance art,
installations, theater,
television, animation
gaming

for storage, manipulation and presentation of multi-media

sound aspects of work where visual, textual, dramatic,
narrative or interactive elements are considered primary

music and recording

including the combining of live performers with pre-recorded

material, live processing, concert presentation and the
recording studio

sonic arts

and the uses of electronic technologies in the creative,

artistic discipline of electroacoustics

Computer Music

computers applied to the creation and or analysis of music,

including new methods of composition and sound
generation

electroacoustic studies

The broader discipline which integrates aspects of all of

these into a framework for creation, practice and study.

the new film medium where sound supports environment

and action through a combination of effects and music

People working in these specific areas require some degree of competence in several other areas:
the acoustician needs to know about psychoacoustics and perception; the recording engineer
needs to be conversant with acoustics, engineering and music, sound designers require sensitivity
to the dramatic and the narrative
The history of the artistic / creative discipline of ea (see last section) dates from the end of the
nineteenth century with various (uncoordinated) activities through the first half of the twentieth
century. The major change / breakthrough occurred almost simultaneously in a number of
countries France, Germany, the USA, England (and less well-known, Canada and Japan). In the
space of a few years, from the late 1940s to the mid-1950s, the field grew from an experimental
practice to an art and a generalizeable practice, and, a study for media and communications.
Paris in the late 40s saw the building of the first studios devoted to the artistic creation practice
of electronic sound art, and soon had both the first public concerts and radio broadcasts.

ARTISTIC PRACTICE
The breadth of artistic practice of sound employing electricity is extremely wide ranging from the
basic live-recording with no editing (sonic documentation), to creation or manipulation of digital
information that later becomes sound. An electric-guitar player with processing employs many of
the same pieces of equipment and software that the studio composer uses.
Along the artistic continuum from the folk-singer with a microphone to the on-line digital hypersound convoluter, there are many types and styles of sonic interest. Whether musical pitch and
meter (regular rhythmic structures with beats, notes and chords) play a central role (cf MIDI),
whether the purely sonic is central, or text (sung or spoken) is critical, and perhaps the acoustic
environment (and social implications) is important including soundscaping and historical
sound documentation, the discipline of electroacoustic studied embraces them all.

EAMT

Readings

ACOUSMATIC
One small sub-set of the entire sonic arts practice focuses on a rather specific application of
electroacoustic technologies to sound acousmatics. While the practice cannot be precisely
defined, it does have at its center working in a studio environment, and presenting in a concert
situation, the materials frequently having originated from recording with a microphone. The
manner of presentation will not include live performers or real-time processing, and will employ a
sound projection system, most often with a minimum of 12 loudspeakers without visual
accompaniment.
At the level of the aesthetic, the origins of the sounds are expected to be hidden from the hearer
so that the sound is heard purely as sound, and not as representative of a known object. But
theres more to this discussion for later!

POST PARTUM: BUT IS IT MUSIC?

Video had its roots in film which had roots in theater. Some forms of film almost look like
recorded theater. But there are aspects of film which are not part of theater for example the closeup. Certain cultural / sociological aspects of video separate it from film, notably the reduced
resources of production (a video camera and one person), and the methods of distribution, which
now include web-streamed video.
What debts does ea have to music ie, the western music tradition, classical and popular? There
are many possible approaches to the question: Do they have the same function? Do they employ
similar perceptual procedures? Are there aspects of thinking about ea which are foreign to
thinking about music(s)? Can the practitioner of one (easily) move into the practice of the other?

QUESTIONS
1.
Can you hear a sound in your head? Is listening to a sound in your head an
electroacoustic activity?
2.
In the (incomplete) organigrams on the next page determine those areas which are most
important for the researcher who would want to prepare a radio documentary on the history and
impact of technology in sound.
3.
Compare the impact of technology on artistic evolution with the impact of artistic
evolution on technology.
4.
In listening to many types of music (non-western and western) it is possible to listen to
various parts of the music: beat, melody, harmony, text, phrase structure? Do you do this all at
once? Do you hear layers, or mass structures?

EAMT

Readings

ARTISTIC PRACTICE

Artistic Practice
With Text

Studio

Live

Popular Musics

Fixed
medium
Radiophonic

Concrete
poetry
Synthesized Computer
based

concrete

Mixed

Concerts

Live
with
processing

Live
electronics

Dissemination

With text, studio, live electronics, mixed, radiophonic, poetry, synthesizer, computer music
SCIENCE AND RESEARCH

Science and Research

Applied

Theoretical

Analysis

Medical
Hardware

Audiology

Software

Psychoacoustics

Historical /
Documentary

Linguistics,
Artificial intelligence

Sociological
/ cultural

Hardware, software, audiology, psychoacoustics, linguistics, AI, analysis

A PPLICATIONS

Applications
Popular Musics

Recording Arts

Dissemination

Pop Industry

Acoustics

Hardware

Software

Games

With Text

Journalism

Direct
Digital
Media

CDs, Video
Film
Theater

Communication
Studies

WWW

Acoustics, games, film, WWW, journalism, communications

Source: after Mark Corwin (2001)

EAMT

Readings

READING I
AN INFORMAL INTRODUCTION TO LANGUAGE, THE VOICE, AND THEIR
SOUNDS
OverView
This reading examines aspects of vocal language with the objective of providing a
basic understanding of its many levels of organization. From the larger-scale
elements of vocabulary, syntax and semantics, to the most basic sound components
(vowels and consonants), a framework and terminology are developed that will be
applicable to electroacoustic composition, analysis and synthesis. Following is an
introduction to the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA).

LINGUISTIC ORGANIZATION
There are many ways of approaching an analysis of sound and electroacoustics. It is possible,
and sometimes even desirable to use the human voice, the original instrument, as a model for this
study. This is especially true in electroacoustics.
Spoken language and the various ways of looking at it are good starting points to examine the
nature and structure of any of the arts. Here well find a model to explore and develop many of
the concepts and structures that will be useful in this course, and in many other areas.
This examination of spoken or written language will start from the word, and examine larger
(macro-) and smaller (micro-) structural aspects of it. While it will be a little simplistic language
and language structures are definitely open for other interpretations and models, for now well
start with this tri-partite model.

VOCABULARY, SYNTAX AND CASES, SEMANTIC (ELEMENTS, ORDER,

MEANING)
Vocabulary:
Words form the basic vocabulary level of verbal language. They can stand alone: hat, cassette,
black, dream, we (etc), in much the same way that individual sounds can be heard but cannot be
reduced without ceasing to function. Name is a word: wor is not (according to the Word 2000
spell checker) it is a phoneme. In music, one may speak of notes, and in the visual arts, basic
line types and shapes.
Syntax and Cases:
Syntax relates to the correct or acceptable order or sequence of vocabulary elements. There are
languages, Latin, Polish and Russian among them, where the exact order of the words in a
sentence is not too critical to the expression of the meaning, as the word changes its form as it
changes case (meaning).
An example of case is the possessive, where, in English, an s is usually added (eg dogs). When
we see the word dogs, we know that the next word points to an object that belongs to the dog (eg
the dogs tail). In French, the word de in certain places denotes the same relationship (eg le chien
de Deschnes).

EAMT

Readings

English however lacks a strong case structure and the order of words is often critical to the
meaning: The man fell on the sidewalk, has a different meaning from The sidewalk fell on the man.
Man is the subject in the first form, but the object in the second. In languages with a strong case
structure, the word man would be different in each sentence.
Let us imagine a language with the following three words: MAN = hom; FALL ON = tombe;
SIDEWALK = planch. If a word is the subject it takes an A as an ending; as an object, it takes
an I. Therefore,
HOMA tombe PLANCHI, means man falls on sidewalk;
HOMI tombe PLANCHA, means sidewalk falls on man.
(Or closer to home, the old headline Man Bites Dog.) Note how in sound the sequence: <SCREAM!!
Crash!> has a different meaning to <CRASH!! Scream!>
This has led to a sense of an innately or structurally correct sequence for words. There are often
preferred (normal or correct?) ways in which words follow one another. In traditional western
music, and extending through the popular music and early jazz idioms, there are also norms or
rules for the correct sequencing of chords. (II usually goes to V to I if a particular meaning is to
be understood.)
The following sentence (sequence of words) is considered possible (correct) in English: The man
with the big black hat saw us as if in a dream. If the words were to be presented in a different order,
an English composition teacher may consider the sequence as being wrong: The black big man with
the dream saw as in a hat if us.
A psychoanalyst or creative writing teacher may see in the new sentence profound significance
or banal meandering. It could be said that the syntax of the second version is not right.
What would be the result of having words (vocabulary elements) appearing in any order?
any appearing be elements having in of order result the vocabulary What words would ()?

Semantic the meaning

While the vocabulary elements have remained constant, their order is not considered acceptable
or having meaning. Somewhere in breaking the rules, art and poetry are sometimes found.
Language forms (and meanings) are not cast in concrete, and it could be understood that
languages (verbal, musical or gestural) may exist as processes, where the action of creation is the
meaning. In the study of spoken and written language, this area comes under the study of
psycholinguistics.
There is some ambiguity present in many linguistic forms, for example, He fell on the rocks.
can have at least three meaningstwo physical and one metaphorical. Sometimes this
ambiguity is a source of interest, and sometimes a source of confusion.
The evaluation of the sentence somehow relates to its having meaning, or as the linguists would
have it, an acceptable semantic. (The understanding of a languageits semanticrelates to ones
experience, for if you have never seen the words: hour, heure, Stunde, ora, timme, sho or godzina,
they would likely have little meaning to you, (and even less if you have had no contact with the
concept of dividing the day into twenty-four of them!))

EAMT

Readings

This

text

has

meaning.

///I//s/ /t////k//s//t/ /h////z/

has

text

/h////z/
/s/
//

/I/

//

/m//i\//n//I///

meaning

this

/t////k//s//t/ /m//i\//n//I/// ///I//s/

/t/
/h/
/i\/

/s/
/s/ //
/k/
/I/

/I/
//
/t/
/z/

//
//
/z/ /m/
/t/
/z/
//
/k/

/k/
/k/ //
/m/
//

/z/
/t/
/I/

/m/
//

STRESS
In speech, many verbal characteristics effect understanding, including the rate of deliverypaced,
deliberate, nervousand the stress on different words:
Im not going to do that
Im not going to do that.
Im not going to do that.
Im not going to do that
Im not going to do that.
It is possible to have the words of a sentence have one meaning, while the delivery (intonation /
stress) conveys another or even the opposite meaning. (Why dont you come over some time?
said sarcasticaly!)
English is a language that stresses syllables by using both time (length) and amplitude (loudness).
French, and a number of other european languages (eg German), create stress patterns mostly by
the length of syllables. This helps to explain how accent works in a language, for a native english
speaker will frequently place accents in french words where none belong, and may often stress the
wrong syllable. (In french, the syllable has the middle syllable lengthened in english, the first
syllable is stressed. Compare the english and french pronunciations of: english / anglais, Paris /
Paris, music / musique.)
Up to this point, the examination of language (and sound) has been macro-structural: the smallest
unit examined has been the word. Below, we examine the more fundamental elements, microstructural, which when taken alone, do not carry specific meaning (they have no semantic
dimension).

CODE
The semantics of a phrase may also contain code which can only be understood by those who
have been initiated into its meaning. The surface features may be obscure grok, or oblique the
bug cheese, or opposite smart alec. Political correctness is a way of having newspeak where
the real meaning is obscured with a euphemism. In academia, the phrase problems with time
management implies something else. Humor is frequently based on such double meanings
(semantic dualities).

EAMT

Readings

SOUND AS SYMBOL: LETTERS AND SPELLING

In English there are 26 letters, in French, at least 32 (including , , , , , etc), and Polish also has
32. When linguists have attempted to create symbols for sounds in languages that have no written
form, among them North American first nations peoples, (indian and inuit), they have attempted
to avoid some of the sonic problems one finds in traditionally written languages (like English),
by giving one sound, one symbol.
English is a particularly goodor badexample of how not to write a language! Note:
Yesterday I read it in the red book. Do you read?
The photo by that photographer is not photographic.
Or even (How to pronounce ough (ouch!)), The bough bowed, while the doughty man who
thought, coughed roughly through the dough, and threw it. Tough!
Some written languages are almost entirely phonetic, with one symbol having only one sound,
Russian and Polish being among them. Numerous alphabets (collections of symbols) have been
invented to give one sound one symbol. The one dealt with here is the International Phonetic
Alphabet (IPA). Another is appended below for your interest.

IPA: THE INTERNATIONAL PHONETIC ALPHABET

The International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA) is (ideally) a set of symbols for the representation of
every verbal sound. It contains more than 120 symbols, of which 40 - 50 are often considered
adequate to describe standard English. A few more, and slightly different ones are required for
standard French. These symbols represent the basic phonemes, or sound elements used by these
languages. The IPA symbols appear between slashes for the sake of clarity.
Certain phonemes change their sound depending upon where the speaker is from. These
differences are referred to as accent or dialect. (coffee - kawfee, kwa-fee)
The real-world application of the IPA is more complex than it appears on paper, as dialect and
accents will shift the value of a vowel or diphthong two vowels together (* see variables
below in list), trithongs (skewer when pronounced without the /w/) change the position of the
stress, and in some cases will add or remove entire syllables.
There are also a number of words which have the same pronunciation (homonyms) in one dialect,
while being pronounced differently in another. An example is how some English people pronounce
the following words in the same weigh: sure, Shaw, shore.

VOICE AS SOUND
The human voice is the most complex and universal of any natural sound source. Physiologically,
there are three major parts used in the production of voice sounds:
the lungs (which provide the energy),
the vocal cords / vocal folds (which vibrate and produce the basic sound), and
the mouth which creates the changes in the sound that we recognize as speech.
There are two basic types of sounds, consonants and vowels, and a continuum of categories
around them: consonants (voiced and unvoiced), semi-consonants or semi-vowels, vowels (oral
and nasal) and diphthongs (etc).

EAMT

Readings

Voiced sounds are characterized by the vibration of the vocal cords, and un-voiced sounds have
no vibration of the vocal cords, but are basically forms of spectrally modified, filtered (wind)
noise. Since the vocal cords are involved, voiced soundsvowelsmay be sung, but unvoiced
sounds, not have a vibrating source, cannot be sung. Unvoiced consonants and whispering are
unvoiced sounds.
Many voiced sounds are able to be sustained, and changed as they occur. Say the word music
very slowly, taking about ten seconds on the vowel u. (It starts with a long e quality that
becomes an oo quality. There is a formant glissando between the two parts of this diphthong.)
Some unvoiced sounds can be sustained, sh, but others are transient /p/ . Try to sustain the
sound /p/. While it is possible to sustain the hhhhh quality, the identity of the /p/ is in the
way in which it starts and stops its envelope.
While working at this micro-structural level, the semantic dimension of the text is (frequently)
lost. As you continue to work at this level of the voice as sound, try to carry this form of
abstracted hearing in listening to regular speech. Ask someone who speaks a language that you
dont understand to speak to you: even just to tell you about the weather. Listen with abstracted
hearing.

SEGMENTATION OF TEXT AND SPEECH

On paper much of this seems to make sense, and is a quite useable model for handling words and
text. As you (will) have discovered, once again, the real world is more complex. The mind takes
what is a continuous stream of sound and segments it, breaking it down into component parts
and then creating sense out of them. (See also Auditory Scene Analysis [ASA], following.)
Say the phrase: It was nighttime on the river. With your mental razorblade, remove the /t/
from It. In many instances this will not be possible since in regular speech, the /t/ was not
pronounced, rather a glottal stop (back of the throat) was used to connect the /I/ of It to the
/w/ of was. Find the two /t/s of nighttime. Remove the silences between on and the, and the and
river.
Segmentation is also made difficult by elision (leaving out parts of words), contractions (combining
words which may be separate), interjections (the addition of sounds which are not part of the
thought), repetition (repeated phrases, words or fragments), incompletion (starting words without
finishing them), punctuation (missing or excessive) etc
Er an I went down, tseasy yknowhen the times righ, an-er, yer yer see, its affer
Idone it hrrnk donit, sorry, bad froat, thatIdecited thatId tied itoo tigh er, fer
well, yaknow, comfort-like
This simple task for the human ear/brain posed large problems in the area of automated
(computer-based) speech recognition, and this combined with the problems of dialect were
instrumental in delaying the implementation of speech recognition by telephone companies for
several decades.
The first attempts at automated voice recognition tried to set up sonic dictionaries and use
pattern matching to retrieve the word. A problem that exists is that a word doesnt have (only)
one sound. It has sets of characteristic elements (some of which may be missing see above), and
the machine has to match the string of elements to the sonic pattern in memory.
Compare the words pit, bit, kit, cat, pat, pot, (pit). They all have the characteristic consonant
vowel consonant pattern (cvc): four start with labial stops /p/ /b/, two with velar stops; the

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vowel moves from front to back, and they all terminate with /t/ an alveolar stop, which in
much speech is substituted with /:/ (back of mouth stop).
Segmentation is also a musical problem, for while (on the surface at the level of notation) notes
appear to be quite distinct, when viewed as continuous sound (eg in a sound editing program),
unless there are clear stress markers such as very strong beats or (regular) attack transients, it
can be quite difficult to find the points of articulation. This also doesnt account for players not
playing (quite) together, or dealing with recorded reverberation where parts of the sound are
carried over into subsequent sounds. Musical segmentation is also about forming logical groups
at the level of phrasing and grouping, not just where notes start and stop. This too is an AI
problem which is on-going.
International Phonetic Alphabet:
http://www2.arts.gla.ac.uk/IPA/ipachart.html
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/International_Phonetic_Alphabet
http://www.antimoon.com/how/pronunc-soundsipa.htm
French:
http://french.about.com/library/pronunciation/bl-ipa-french.htm
Font download:
http://scripts.sil.org/cms/scripts/page.php?site_id=nrsi&id=encore-ipa

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A QUICK PHONETIC REFERENCE GUIDE

Vowels, Nasals and

Diphthongs
IPA
/i/
/i/
/I/
//
//
/a/
//
//
//
/o/
//
/u/
/\/
//
/e/
//
/y/
//

Sounds
like:
long e

/\/
/iu/
(*) dialect forms

english

french

feel

fit
ami

short i
short e
short a

big
get
fat

short u
ah
short o
hard o
short oo
long oo
short er

sun
(are)
box

Consonants
unvoiced voiced

bte
papa

good
rule
fern

/f/
//
/s/
//
/t/
/t/

lche
mort
faux
fou
de
fut
les
neuf
mur
peu

/k/

/h/
//

Nasal
vowels

/ a~ /
/~ /
/ ~ /
/ ~ /
/ ~ /

moor
you

banc
un
bon
bain
vin

/b/
/w/
//
/m/
/v/
//
/z/
//
/d/
/d/
/n/
/g/
/l/
/r/
/j/
//
/R/

paper

fat
thing
seal
ship
chew
to
car

home
huge

ball
wet
where
man
veal
this
zeal
vision
jump
do
none
game
like
rest
you
sing
(fr) rade

/i/ /l/ // /k/ /t/ /r/ /o/

// /k/ /u/ /s/ /t/ /I/ /k/ /s/

Diphthongs (*)

feuille
/aI/
/I\/
/eI/
/a/
/\/
/o/
/I/

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high *
near *
way
now
air
so
boy *

// /l/ // /k/ /t/ /r/ /o/

// /k/ /u/ /s/ /t/ /I/ /k/ /s/
// /l/ // /k/ /t/ /r/ //
/k/ /iu/ /s/ /t/ /I/ /k/ /s/

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PLACE OF ARTICULATION
Another way of categorizing sounds is by their manner of productionthe shape of the mouth
and lips, and the position of the tongue and teeth.
Some of the major places of articulation:

1.
2.
3.
4.

5.
1. 2. 3.

4.

6.

Bilabial
Labiodental
Dental
Alveolar

5. Palatal
6. Uvular

7.

7. Pharyngeal
8. Glottal
8.

http://www.chass.utoronto.ca/~danhall/phonetics/sammy.html (with graphics!)

CONSONANTS (unvoiced / voiced)
Fricatives
Labial
Labiodental
Dental
Alveolar
Palatal /
Lateral
6. Palatal /
Velar
7. Glottal

stop fricatives

// //
/f/ /v/
// //
/s/ /z/

1.
2.
3.
4.
5.

stops
(plosives)
/p/ /b/

glides
(liquids)

semivowels
// /w/

nasal
/m/

/t/ /d/
/t/ /d/

/n/
// /l/

// // /r/ /X/

/t/ /d/

/k/ /g/

// /j/

/h/

//

/R/

VOWELS
Vowels may be described approximately as front, central or back with varying degrees of
openness.
Front
Central
Back

very open
//
//
/a/

quite open
//
//

medium
/e/
/\/
//

quite closed
/I/
/o/ //

almost closed
/i/
//
/u/ //

http://www2.unil.ch/ling/english/phonetique/api1-eng.html

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ALPHABETS AND PICTOGRAMS

There have been many systems invented for representing ideas and sounds as symbols. In verbal
language, alphabets for sounds (and pictograms for ideas / objects) have evolved in most modern
cultures. Some of these appear to have common roots, and to our eyes, many seem to be quite
unintelligible. The Russian Cyrillic alphabet (below) is used in much of Eastern Europe (Russia
etc). Note some of its similarity to Greek.

bat
bat
vat
go
do
yet
yonder
vision
zoo
ea se
yet
kick
well
mix
nut
pot
pit

row
site
tall
cool
fill
loch
bits
chair
shut
shch

let
muse
yard

The alphabet below developed by early North American native peoples scholars for the
transcription of plains indian languages. Point out some of the weaknesses of the approach (eg
sounds which are not present in english!).

at

ate(*)

all

bow

fast

goat

hat

bit

bite (*)

jaw

king

lot

old(*)

look

out(*)

boy(*)

thirst

there

up

do

you(*)

v est

RUSSIAN

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sell

chair

dip

hen

he

her

kiss

low

m usic

no

pipe

run

shore

top

yes

zebra

wig

The word music in

THAI (?)

14

azure

HINDI

Readings

QUESTIONS
1.
From this brief view it is seen that vocal sounds can be static or changing, transient or
sustained. Give a short list of natural or mechanical sounds which fall into each (or more) of these
categories.
computer fan
drops of water
clock ticking

Static
X

Changing

Transient

Sustained
X

2.
Would it be possible to group sounds into families based upon this proposed
categorization? What would be the advantages? What would be the disadvantages?
car
wind

truck
ocean

bus
distant traffic

train

plane

3.
If a person is presented with a sequence of sounds that they have never heard before, is it
possible for them to determine / discover the meaning? What would this tell you about the nature
of vocabulary? syntax? semantic?
4.
Given only the sounds of an event, how easy / difficult is it to describe the event? Why?
What is the role of a distinctive sound signature? Name some.
5.
What would a syntax of electroacoustics look like? How would (have) the rules be(en)
developed?
6.
Is there such a thing as a generalized semantic (ie universal meaning) for ea? How is the
semantic of electroacoustics determined?
7.
If electroacoustics is considered to be a language, would it need to have some / all of the
elements of vocabulary, syntax, and semantic?
8.
Could there be dialects of electroacoustics that have their own vocabulary, syntax, and
semantic? Find examples.
9.

Are there vocabulary elements in electroacoustics? How would they be identified?

10.
Words vocabulary elements of verbal language are the smallest meaningful unit. Is there
such a limit to sound? What is the smallest meaningful unit of sound?

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READING II
DESCRIBING SOUND(S) I
OverView
This reading starts an on-going examination of the methods of describing sound(s)
with words. The approach is partly psychological and introduces the model that
joins the psychological, the perceptual and the scientific in the study known as
Auditory Scene Analysis (ASA). Other models are briefly introduced to begin to
develop a framework and terminology applicable to electroacoustic analysis and
composition.

FUNCTION AND CONTEXT

There is no single, simple, widely accepted method for describing sound(s) in detail, although
many people have worked on this problem, and there are numerous research projects currently
underway in this area.
Traditionaly, sound has been broken down into two basic categories:
Noise <> Useful sounds (not-noise)
This is a useful psychological opposition categorization, as it helps determine ones relationships
to the sound, but however, does little (of necessity) to describe the sound.
At 3:00 in the morning, an ambulance siren rushing past my sleeping bedroom is noise; at 3:05 in
the morning, an ambulance siren stopping next to my unconscious body is not-noise.
With these descriptors, sound is described by function and contextwhile saying little about the
physical aspects of the sound, although one might have a mental image of ambulance siren.
The Noise / Not-noise categorization relies upon certain physiological functions of the human
ear and mind along with a number of semantic ones, eg, if a tree falls in a forest and no one
hears it, does it make a sound. This is about the definition of sound, as being a psychological or
a physical attribute. [If sound is vibration of air within certain limits, then the answer is likely yes. If
sound is the perception of these vibrations, then the answer is more likely no.]

MASS STRUCTURES AND THE COCKTAIL PARTY EFFECT

And the sound itself is problematic, being both singular and collective. A bell is a singularity (of
sorts), the ocean is a collective: a single bell sound can be described approximately by specific
physical and acoustic properties, an ocean needs to be described by the multiple (stochastic)
processes going on at the same time, so-called mass structure.
The bell can be heard as being metallic and having a particular (sense of) pitch and tone color, or
it may just be thought of as being high or low (in pitch) and sounding bell-like in tone color.
The single stroke evokes the bell quality (identity). And some bell-like sounds are not based on
bells at all, but on the function of the bell, an example being call-tones on phones which are said
to ring, even though real bells disappeared from phones in the 1980s.

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A single wave of an ocean can be considered to be more ambiguous. Striking the bell results in the
same sound, but a single wave may not be so easily as a wave on water was it a passing car?
or wind in the trees? and no two waves are identical, similar but not quite the same. The wave is
identifiable a part of a collective sound, a single breaking wave is more difficult to contextualize.
The bell has a rather clear shape (energy profile) attack (klang) > decay, while an ocean wave is
the result of the action of many smaller parts forming a larger mass structure. A small wave of
say 15 meters in width is the action of millions of individual actions brought together at one
moment when the wave breaks, which itself is not a single action. Having broken, the wave
(energy) does not stop but melds into the other parts of the dying wave.
There are a number of parallels here to the sound of a piano which has bell-like characteristics,
and the mass structure characteristics of a wave. Microphones placed over different parts of a
piano will produce different qualities of sound, but at some critical distance, all of these
individual qualities will have joined to become the sound of the piano.
An individual speaking will be heard as speech. To describe the sound of a crowd (or mob), is
different. There are many individual sound sources and they merge into a mass structure
(composite event), however, through the psychological attribute of selective hearing (known both
as the cocktail party effect where one is able to listen to a specific train of speech even with very
high background noise levels, and also the deaf teenager effect, where the adolescent is unable to
hear the parent, but is able to listen to a CD, watch tv and talk on the phone at the same time
selective psychological filtering), individual channels / streams of sound can be perceived.
Sound complexes (multiple source / additive, op cit deaf teenager effect) exist on a continuum
from multiple discrete sources (sometimes also discreet), for example a string quartet, to multiple
indistinguishable sources (eg an amusement center / video-pinball arcade). With the quartet (or
even an octet) it is possible for a trained listener to hear (and follow) up to (about) 8 independent
parts (lines), whereas the video-pinball machines, while each may be different, meld into a mass
structure very quickly.

SEGREGATION AND STREAMING & ASA

The example with the string quartet is a matter of segregation (being able to separate the four
individual lines), and then streaming them so as to be able to follow each one independently.
And this is possible even if the string quartet is a recording played through one loudspeaker. This
is segregation and streaming of musical instruments / musical lines is a feature of ear-training in
music classes. Outside of this language specific (western european concert music) situation
however, segregation of sound streams is strongly dependent upon being able to hear with to ears.
Aspects of this are dealt with in later Readings.
Another (difficult) example of segregation and streaming is applause. If there are four people
clapping their hands, is it possible to hear four separate sources, and to follow each of them?
How about with 8 people? 16? 32? At some point (dependent upon many variables, including
the speed of the claps), the ability to segregate and stream yields to mass structure listening
(modes).
A heavy-metal band is somewhere near the middle of this continuum often being a mass structure
wall-of-sound. The european orchestra occupies a wide part of the continuum, replying heavily on
language specific indicators, sometimes being heard as multiple solo lines, other times as
(multiple) mass structures, and a number of points in between.

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ASA A BRIEF INTRODUCTION

What are some of the psychoacoustic processes required to hear?
The field of Auditory Scene Analysis (ASA)
http://www.psych.mcgill.ca/labs/auditory/introASA.html proposes that given a continuous
flow of acoustical energy to the ear the wind is blowing through trees, cars pass, children play
and scream, three people are having a lively discussion, church bells are ringing and someone is
talking to you how do two simple ears (and a brain) sort it out and keep all of the elements
separated?
Previously segmentation was introduced (with the International Phonetic Alphabet), and now
with segregation and streaming, three of the four main elements of (ASA) have been introduced.
The last is integration, often almost the opposite of segregation. In listening to a low note played
on a piano, most listeners hear a note (an integrated quality). After the note has been repeated
many times (10 to 100), listeners have been known to experience the sound separating
(segregating) into some of its constituent frequency components. When heard as a sound, the
stimulus was perceived as an integrated whole, subsequently the listeners perceptual systems
segregated components.
This process happens at higher levels of perception as well. Consider an alarm clock going off.
While we know that the hammer is repeatedly hitting a bell, it is heard as a mass structure
sound. The sound of the ocean presents similar moments of hearing, where the sound is heard as
a mass sound, and/or its elements.
The four elements of ASA are:
segmentation: determining the boundaries of how a continuous stream of sound is divided into
units
segregation: hearing the singer and the guitar as two different sounds even though heard together
streaming: listening to the melody of the singer and the chords of the guitar as being two different
lines
integration: hearing the chord played on the guitar as a chord and not as three separate notes
(As will become clear, these are attributes of the perceptual system, not of the sounds
themselves.)

PSYCHOACOUSTICS
Psychoacoustics (see other sheets), describes certain individual response aspects of sounds.
Individuals are asked to evaluate certain things, and their responses are brought together to
provide a psychometric response. Psychometric responses attempt to be context independent,
although in reality this is very difficult to achieve.
If it is 12 degrees and 25 people are asked if it is warm, their responses will depend upon such
st
st
contextual matters as: Is it July 1 at 1:30 pm, or February 1 at 7:30 am? Is it indoors in
July, or indoors in February!

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Characteristic of psychometric descriptions, this aspect is variably quantifiable, measurable in a

statistical sense, somewhat repeatable and frequently somewhat predictive.
(Acoustics (see other sheets), describes certain physical aspects of sounds, frequently in
relation to the nature of the source (or sources), the way in which the sound transforms over
time, and the nature of the transmission medium (and how it changes the source).
Characteristic of scientific descriptions, this aspect is quantifiable, measurable, repeatable
and predictive.)

In the field of psychoacoustic study, and acoustic flow analysis, models are presented showing
possible relationships of three parameters and (the expected) psychological responses.
SOURCE
car engine
car engine
alarm buzzer
alarm buzzer
siren
wind (complex)
speaker

CHANGES
accelerating
accelerating
constant
beeping
cyclical
aperiodic
vocal
articulations

crowd (mob)

vocal
articulations

MEDIUM
sitting inside car
standing on sidewalk as car goes by
indoors / outdoors / moving away from it
(ditto)
(ditto)
in trees
3 cm from ear / 90 cm in front / 2 meters
behind / 10 meters to the left;
in a closet, in a bathroom, in a classroom,
outside,
a year ago
3 cm from ear, 90 cm in front, 2 meters behind,
100 meters to the left; in a closet, in a bathroom,
in a classroom, outside, in a car with a siren
going

Further readings will look into the three major areas proposed here:
psychological representations (intuitive / learned)
ASA / Auditory Scene Analysis (intuitive / learned / trained) [psychoacoustics]
acoustics (measurable / repeatable)

SPECTROMORPHOLOGY
There is a quasi-descriptive system that has evolved from the acoustic model: spectromorphology. The acoustic model describes sound in the static condition (sic) as having two
parameters:
amplitude (volume / loudness)
spectrum (tone color / timbre)
When time is added to amplitude = amplitude envelope (simple or complex)
When change is added to envelope = continuous / reiterative / periodic (and rhythmic) aperiodic
Spectrum can be simple (pitched); complex; noise-like. This quasi-continuum would contain a
sequence similar to:

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pure tone

bell
piano note
whistle

metalic complex
lotsa notes
rush / rumble

complex clang
even more notes
jumbled noise

(white) noise

The surface features of a spectrum are often described in the psychological / psychoacoustic
domain as: smooth, liquid, hollow, buzzy, granular, highly textured, uneven, edgy, coarse, fine, pitted,
knoby, fuzzy, silken, transparent, translucent, metalic (check any good Thesaurus for more terms
borrowed from the visual domain).
It is frequently useful to break the texture into component parts (segregation), to represent the
channelization (streaming), or perceived layers eg
As they sat in the living room, through the slightly ajar window, sadly, the neighbors
childrens sharp scream-laughs are underpinned by an oboe playing a liquid melody over the
sound of a door bell, while church bells behind complement the distant roar of the ocean, like
the ever/never dying sleeping breath of the once and forever dead.
There are many possible levels and types of analysis applicable here, requiring a model such as
auditory scene analysis / acoustic flow analysis, which would be most useful for film and video
soundtrack producers, but it is also possible to consider what is heard by each of the people
sitting in the room: the four-year old who wants to be outside playing, the wife awaiting news of
her husband missing at sea, the Catholic father having heard the bells marking the moments of life
every day for the past 65 years.
It is to also be noted that there are many individual envelopes in this multi-layered scene: from
the continuous nature of the ocean to the punctuations of the childrens sharp scream-laughs.
This particular description is simultaneously (and variably),
programatic [refering to some aspect of narrative or story],
emotional [appealing very directly to the listener, producing involuntary, and
unmediated responses], and
associative [that reminds me of / about]
for each listener.

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Questions:
1.
Is there a common way to hear sounds? Do people hear sounds in the same way? Do
they interpret them in the same way? Which sounds are understood the same way by most
people? Give examples of sounds which are understood in different ways by different groups of
people.
2.
Sounds can appear as being in the foreground or the background. When you are
downtown walking along the street, which sounds do you put into which category? Which (types
of) sounds will move from one category to the other. What will cause this shift? Is it voluntary?
3.
In creating an ea piece, how is it possible to focus listeners attention on specific aspects of
the sounds you are presenting? How could you create a piece in which no two people would
really hear the same things?
4.
Could you create a work in which the same listener would not hear the same things
twice? How?
5.

What is the role of focus, attention and directing of attention in listening?

6.

In what ways does hearing differ from listening?

7.
What is the maximum number of sounds you can hear at the same time? What effects this
limit?

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READING IIA
DESCRIBING SOUND(S) II OPPOSITIONS
OverView
This reading continues the examination of the methods of describing sound(s) with
words. The approach is drawn from the (dualistic) model of oppositions, from the
basic is / is not division, through the addition of modifying (or clarifying)
parameters, towards a model of description along a continuum. This proposed
framework and terminology are applicable to electroacoustic analysis and
composition.
A sometimes useful way of approaching the description of sounds is borrowed from linguistics
(lexical semantics): the use of oppositions for characterizing and delimiting (setting parameters)
of a term or object.
In language one could start to characterize the word father as:
male
not female
having a child
In this case, a single rather simplistic definition has been produced. Greater extension and clarity
could be produced by adding refinements:
responsible adult
legal guardian
loving
etc.
Similarly, some sounds (or families of sounds) can be given sets of parameters that draw them
together, or separate them.
noise
loud
static (still)
simple
single event
simple spectrum
high frequency
vocal
sung
pitched
voiced
calm
seductive
red
synthesized
straight
woodwind
singular
same

not noise
not loud
dynamic (changing)
complex
recuring event
complex spectrum
low frequency
not vocal
spoken
un-pitched
un-voiced
agitated
repulsive
green
concrete
processed
brass
mass (group or collective)
different

etc
Such lists can be created by choosing terms and seeking their (logical) opposite, or by asking
questions that can be answered yes or no. This method is sometimes used as an example of
Aristotelian logic.

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The oppositions could describe physical properties, psychological states, or models of

production or transformation. Frequently, a good place to start is with a large list of the
parameters of the oppositions, some of which will form trees or hierarchies
Processed

>

filtered (a special case of spectral change)

reverbed (a special case of repetition / delay)
slowed down (a special change of speed change)
re-enveloped (a type of amplitude modulation)

It may happen from time to time that through this process you will find sounds which are closely
related, creating a family (or network) of sounds. Surface features may hide underlying
commonalities, for example spoken voices played at extremely high speed may sound like
swarming insects, while slowed down 3 octaves may sound like hungry trolls.
It will be up to the individual as to whether grouping sounds whose surface characteristics are so
different is a worthwhile categorization. Members of a family may be in opposition to each other,
while sharing a common heritage at some point.
As seen in the first list, the oppositions can easily include psychological parameters, auditory
scene characteristics, or simply acoustical ones. Sometimes families of sounds are represented as
being along a continuum, or several continuums.
Many pieces can be understood in terms of this model. Sometimes the oppositions are very wide:
crashing/chaotic
peaceful and slowly evolving
or very narrow
upward female sung glissando

downward female sung glissando

so that what in one context may be an opposition, in another context may be a criteria for unity.
In many cases, the oppositions chosen represent points on a continuum rather than a simple
opposition. In one genre of ea/cm composition loosely called exploration of the object, the
objective is to create families of sounds closely (and not so closely) related to each other through
various sonic transformation processes. Frequently, verbal language is too coarse to be able to
clearly articulate the differences between: a big bell, a bigger bell, a larger bell, an even larger bell
and a humungous bell, but providing end points from the largest bells in the world (in Moscow) to
the minute Tinkerbell (in a childs mind). Such parametric continuums can contribute to the
expression of a profile / identity / classification of a sound.
In some circumstances it is useful to define / articulate the negative space the way a stone
sculptor removes the unwanted pieces of rock. In ea, an example includes acousmatic which has
(a) the non-centrality of pitch, (b) the non-centrality of metric rhythm, and (c) does not have live
performers or real-time processing.

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QUESTIONS
1.
Can you create a series of questions that when answered yes or no will show the
similarities / differences between some short ea pieces?
2.
Is this method of Aristotelian logic applicable to human perception and interpretation?
Give (counter-) examples.
3.
In the table below, where possible provide a similar term, and an opposite word
applicable to sound. In some cases there may be many; in some cases you may decide that there
are none, or they are ambiguous.

Similar Term

Opposition

natural
high
regular
thin
noisy
melodic
calm
weird
jittery
sad
dry
voiced
incomprehensible
gesture

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READING III
SIGNAL PATHS & TRANSDUCERS LOUDSPEAKERS & MICROPHONES
OverView
This two-part reading starts an examination of the signal path and some of its
components It briefly looks at a number of transformations that a sound (signal)
may pass through on its way from being an idea, back into being an idea. A brief
examination of microphones and loudspeakers covers the two main types of
transducers in the studio.

SIGNAL PATHS & CONTROLS

The objective of the sound is to originate from a source, and arrive at a receiver. A simplified view
of this is:

!!
Idea > Receiver

!!

But life isnt so simple. Another simple view is:

!!
Idea (source) > processor > receiver

!!

The processor (a black box in this case), has an input and an output. It does something to the
input signal and the output is used. The beauty of the black box is that it functions without the
user having to know why or how it does what it does. This particular model however, has no
controls.
Another feature of this model is that the signal changed its form, and was converted from one
medium to another (transduced), and then converted back.
The improved model does this:
Now there are two processors,
and one of them has two
controls.

!!

!!

This basic model can be extended to describe a signal path, where an originating signal (a source),
is converted into various forms of energy (transduced), processed by any number of devices, and
is received.

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!!

neurological
activity
(electrochemical)

transduction

muscular
activity
(electrochemical)

vibration
(mechanical
energy)

vibration
in air
(acoustic
energy)

signal
(electrical
energy)

There are four kinds of energy used up to the point where the idea has become an electrical signal.
transduction

electrical
signal

storage

processing

signal processing

sound
(acoustic
energy)

The electrical signal is processed by any number of devices, and then is converted back into
acoustic energy.

transduction

outer
ear

middle
ear

!!

neurological
transmission

inner
ear

acoustic -> mechanical -> electrochemical

hearing and
cognition

Inside the head, the acoustic energy becomes electro-chemical again.

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TRANSDUCERS SOUND TO ELECTRICITY TO SOUND

In the studio, we deal with three basic types of information in the signal chain: sound, analog
(electricity) and digital information. Transducers or converters, depending upon the particular
instruments or equipment involved, transform the signal from one form to another.

Transducer
Mechanical
movement (sound)

Microphone

Electricity

Electricity

Loudspeaker

Mechanical
movement (sound)

Analog (electrical)
signals

Analog to Digital
Converter

Digital (electrical)
signals

Digital (electrical)
signals

Digital to Analog
Converter

Analog (electrical)
signals

A microphone converts sound (mechanical vibration) into electricity. A loudspeaker converts

electricity into mechanical vibration (sound). There are various devices that convert information
into and out of digital form, the analog to digital converter (ADC), and the digital to analog
converter (DAC). (ADC and DAC is covered in another READING under sampling rates.)

MICROPHONES
Microphones are available in many types based upon (a) the way in which sound is
transducedcondenser, dynamic, ribbon, crystal and carbon types etc; (b) specific
functionconcert recording, public address, telephone, underwater etc; and (c) directional
characteristics omnidirectional, directional.
In general, dynamic microphoneswhich use a small magnet and coilare quite robust;
condenser microphoneswhich include electret condenser microphonesrequire a power
supply; ribbon microphones are extremely delicate; and crystal and carbon microphones were
used in almost all telephones until a few decades ago.
Different applications have differing requirements for microphones: concert recording requires
extremely wide and flat frequency response; public address microphones need to reproduce voice
very clearly while being robust and tending to reject feedback; telephone mics must be clear,
robust and very small; underwater microphones must be water-proof.
The two basic families of directional characteristics are those that (ideally) respond equally well to
sounds coming from all directionsomnidirectional, and those that respond better to sounds
from one direction (or more) than othersdirectional.

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Within the directional category, there are two basic types, the unidirectional mic (more sensitive to
one side), and the bi-directional mic, or the figure-of-eight. Each has its particular use and
applications. Remember that while the microphone pick-up patterns shown below are two
dimensional, in fact, microphones respond in three dimensions.

Simplified view of directional characteristics

Just as different guitar amplifiers have a different sound qualitya function of their unique
frequency responsenot all microphones respond equally well to all frequencies. It is sometimes
desirable to have this characteristic as it helps color and give a distinctive character to the
sound. Microphones range in price from $9.95 to over $7,000. All other things being equal, quality
comes with price.
Inside the housing for the microphone, there may be as many as four capsules, which will have
four signal outputs. While most microphones are monophonic, for much live recording, single
point stereo microphones are common.
Some microphones are rugged and can be dropped (eg telephone and rock vocalist mics), most
are quite delicate. Avoid dropping microphones, for while some may not break, others may cost
from $200 to $1000+ to repair.

LOUDSPEAKERS
There is no perfect loudspeaker, and as with microphones, a loudspeakers use will largely
determine its prefered characteristics. Size, weight and required frequency response vary from
application to application as for example in sound reinforcement (amplification) for a concert,
headphones, music in a cafeteria, recording studio monitors, bus or train station public address
systems, or telephones.
All loudspeakers change the quality of the (electrical) signal that goes to them. The amount of
change that is acceptable (or desirable) is a function of many things: the intended use and the
inherent limitations of the use, what the designer thinks a sound should sound like, and the
amount of money that you want to spend.
There are physical limitations for a vibrating body, which is what a loudspeaker is. Given this,
loudspeakers often contain two or more different speakers inside them, each designed to handle
a particular range of frequencies. A two-way speaker system will have a larger woofer to handle
the low frequencies, and a tweeter to handle the highs. A three-way system will have three
components, the previous two and a mid-range driver.
It sometimes happens that each of these loudspeaker components will have its own power
amplifier, in which case, the system is referred to as a bi-amped or tri-amped loudspeaker
system. Sub-woofers for handling very low frequencies are common in hometheater systems,
and as low frequencies are not directional, the sub-woofer can be placed almost anywhere.

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Typical loudspeakers.
(A) Small full-range loudspeaker.
(B) Two-way loudspeaker system, with a horn (tweeter)
(C) Three-way loudspeaker, similar to a home stereo loudspeaker
Loudspeakers cost from $9.95 to over $20,000+ a pair for your home or studio stereo system. The
actual quality of the sound you hear is strongly dependent upon the environment and placement
of the speakers, especially for low frequencies.
A loudspeaker which is hung in the middle of a room radiates (more or less) in all directions,
particularly at low frequencies. If the speakers seem to lack bass, putting them against a wall will
improve the bass output, since the low frequencies radiate through only half a sphere. Putting a
speaker in a corner will increase its bass response more again, as it will be radiating the same
amount of energy through one-quarter of a sphere. Placing it at the junction of two walls and the
floor will increase it even more. The bass is radiated through only one eighth of a sphere.
You may have also noticed that closed rooms have more bass, or better low frequency response
than rooms with open doors or windows. (This is used to great advantage (?) by boom-box /
earthquake cars.)
Because the loudspeaker is creating sound in a room, if the room has unusual acoustical
characteristics, a bad echo or is particularly absorbent at some frequencies, the sound heard will
also have these characteristics. What you will hear will be the original sound, plus the coloration
added by the loudspeaker, plus the unusual acoustical characteristics of the room. Well, wouldnt
it be better to use headphones then?

HEADPHONES
Headphones are, if not carefully used, dangerous. It is very easy to produce very high sound
pressure levels with very little power because the transducer is so close to the ear. It is also quite
natural to turn up the volume to be able to overcome ambient noise from the outside. In general, a
listener needs about 20dB more signal than is leaking in from noise.
The danger is that if the ambient outside or surrounding noise is 75 80 dB, such as streets
downtown, you will need sound pressure levels of 95 100 dB in order to hear everything on the
CD / radio. Similarly, the mtro sometimes has levels even higher than that. These sound pressure
levels (90 dB and higher) are dangerous for your hearing as both long term and short term hearing
loss will be an eventual result.
There are times and places for headphone listening, however the electroacoustic studio is NOT
one of them. As you will or already may have experienced, it is possible to unexpectedly get very
loud sounds in the studio (feedback, fast forward tape on the heads, a loose synthesizer cable
that suddenly makes contact, a system beep ). You do not want these sounds right next to your
ears. Such sounds have the potential to destroy the speakers. What will they do to your ears?

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There are three general types of headphones: those that cover the entire ear; those that sit
on the ear (open to the air); and those that fit into the ear canal. The first type have the
advantage of most effectively blocking external noises, but after long periods of use may be
somewhat uncomfortable. The second type often need higher sound pressure levels to be
effective, and therefore are potentially dangerous. The third type, while small, may need high
sound pressure levels, and through physical contact, may irritate the ear canal. The second and
third types also have irregular low frequency response since the bass depends upon the exact
placement of the earphone.

BECAUSE OF SPEAKERS COLORATION, WHY NOT MIX SOUNDS WITH

HEADPHONES?
Speakers are the weakest link in the audio chain. But they do reproduce the sound in air, and you
will have acoustical mixing. As shown in the diagram below, sounds from the left speaker will
reach the right ear (delayed slightly), as well as reflected sounds, and similarly with the right
speaker. This does not happen with headphones. To gain a sense of what something will sound
like in a real room, it is necessary to hear it in a real room.
Headphones

Loudspeakers
Direct sound
Sound leaking
to the other ear
Reflected sound

The headphone directs sound into one ear, while with loudspeakers in a room, each ear receives
sound from both loudspeakers, and at least two reflections from nearby surfaces.
The ear then converts the sound back into electrical impulses for the brain. There are many
speculative views on trying to develop a method where the acoustical element of sound
transmission would be entirely by-passed, that is, plugging the brain directly into the source
(usually another brain).

FEEDBACK
The general concept of feedback is that the output is returned to the input. With positive
feedback, there will be an increase in the effect, with negative feedback, there will be a reduction.
In a situation with microphones and loudspeakers, a signal from the loudspeaker that gets back
to the microphone (and amplifier), could build up into a howl, whistling or roar.

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QUESTIONS
1.
Given that the acoustics and sound reproducing systems of the creator and the listener are
not the same, what can be done to assure the integrity of the artists sonic conception?
2.

Is it possible to have electroacoustic pieces that do not involve sound?

3.
Is the studio dead? What are the advantages / drawbacks to having / not having knobs,
buttons and sliders on equipment?
4.
Popular music recording is all processed and assembled. As foods list the ingredients and
additives, should recordings list their non-living additives?

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READING IV
JUNGIAN MODELS FOR COMPOSITIONAL TYPES
OverView
This reading approaches compositional and analytic concerns by adapting a fourpart model proposed by (among others) Carl Jung. The proposition is presented
largely through a single diagram at the end, which may be familiar to those who have
examined palmistry or astrology.
Carl Jung, in some of his writing, postulated four general personality types which are present in
everyone, with one or more in domination from birth. The individual eventually achieving balance
and completion through knowledge / realization / contact / sense and full utilization
of all of them. Jung describes them as two pairs, a rational pair and an irrational pair, and they
are (roughly speaking): thought and feeling (rational), sensation and intuition (irrational).
Thought: which relates to the intellectual processesthe application of the mind (and
analytical processes) to problems, processes and situations (thoughts, ideas, form,
structure).
Feeling: which relates to the emotional processesthe (immediate / gut) response of the
individual to problems, processes and situations (like, dislike, mood).
Sensation: which relates to the immediate sensory processesthe here and now of the
physical sensation without reference to anything beyond the absolute, immediate present
(absolute perception of stimulus).
Intuition: which relates to the processes of the past and future as reflected through the
presentthe interpretation of the present almost metaphorically, (through the
relationship of symbols). The present is only a set of symbols about other things (this is
not printing on a piece of paper).
It is possible to place these four points in a two-dimensional space, and apply them to
electroacoustic compositional types. Just as it is very rare (if not impossible) to have a pure
personality type, works usually have elements of two (or more) of the compositional types.
Let us (for the moment) slightly rename the categories for our purposes, as: structural (thought),
emotional (feeling), sonorous (sensation), and metaphorical (intuition).
Much of the work of the acousmatic tradition (new French concrete school) appears to be
centered in the metaphorical, emotional domains, with strong support from the sonorous region
(Dhomont, Calon, Normandeau, Harrison, Wishart). The sensation aspect is so important in the
acousmatic tradition that it is often repeated that the original source of the sounds should remain
hidden from the listeners perception.
Much algorithmic composition, and computer-based synthesis appears to draw upon the
structural, sonorous areas. (Truax, Degazio, Xenakis) A good reason why these types of
compositions could seem to come from different worlds.
Much of Stockhausens work seems to fall into all four categories, being structurally conceived,
emotional in impetus, interesting and challenging in terms of sonority, and metaphorical in
meaning.

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These, like all models, are not absolute realities, but potentially useful points of reference.

SENSATION

Music is the sound

COMMUNICATION

OTHERS

MARS

JUPITER

sensory / sonorous
MERCURY

SUN

SATURN

Conscious

(artificial)
immediate

air

Active
fire

BODY
feeling
release
SPIRIT
EMOTION
The self and the
inner world

I
R
R
A
T
I
O
N
A
L

SELF
thought / structure control
The self and the outside world
< RATIONAL >
MIND

Passive

THUMB
earth

(real)

logic / will

OBJECTIVES

MOON
water

INTELLECT

SOUL

passive
observation
fundamental

Music is what remains

when the sound is gone.

Subconscious
metaphorical

INTUITION

ka 98 - ix - 14

Of interest also may be Jungs proposition of the anima and animus; the anima being the female
element in the male unconscious (feeling / sensuous mirror / revealing), the animus being the
male element in the female unconscious (logic / mechanisms for control object / hidden).

QUESTIONS
1.
Jung also proposes a collective unconscious fundamentals held by all human beings.
Are there similar fundamentals that tie together the discipline of electroacoustics?

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READING V
PARAMETERS OF SOUND I PERCEPTUAL
OverView
This reading draws together a number of elements that can be used to more precisely
and clearly articulate elements related to the description of features of sounds. This
is applicable to composition, synthesis and analysis.
It is useful to be able to dissect a sound and discuss its various aspects and characteristics in
both measurable and intuitive fashions. Analyzing a sound by the following criteria gives one
both detailed information about it as well developing an overall understanding of it as a
composite event/phenomenon. With this information, one can then begin to place single sounds
in the context of other sounds and sound complexes and develop criteria for comparing and
combining similar or very different sound materials.

DURATION/TIME
- continuous
- reiterative
- periodic (metric / unmetered)/aperiodic
This parameter cannot exist in isolation, and most frequently represents a grouping of the
parameters of amplitude and spectrum. Examples from the continuum would include the rumble
of the city (continuous), an air conditioner turning on and off, or elevators arriving and departing
(reiterative), the beat of dance music, your heart (periodic), a bird singing (aperiodic).

DYNAMICS/AMPLITUDE
- steady state
- fluctuating (periodic, aperiodic)
Often difficult to separate from spectrum, the volume of the sound could be roughly continuous
taken over a short period of time a city, the ocean, (virtual steady state), or fluctuating
passing traffic (aperiodic).

SPECTRUM (TIMBRE)
- simple, complex, statistical (noise)
- waveshape (periodic, aperiodic)
- descriptive quality/character
- granular, smooth, liquid, hollow, buzz-like, etc.
Spectrum is seldom static, and occupies an enormous multi-dimensional continuum from simple
(sine tone) to complex (white noise). To find where a sound fits (or doesnt fit) on the
continuum(s), try producing it with your voice. The sound of the wind, while containing more
frequencies than a bell, can be simulated with the mouth, while the bell cannot. A variable
dividing line is the question of the perception of a (single) pitch within a sound. The rumble of
the city has no perceived pitch, but a saxophone does (in most cases). In ea/cm, spectrum its

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evolution and transformation has been the center of much research and composition. Whereas
with other parameters the examples have been drawn from objects and experiences in the
physical world, timbre often borrows terms from the visual and metaphorical arts.

ENVELOPE SHAPE
- Envelope (amplitude/time)
- complex/simple (multi-staged)
- superimposed/juxtaposed events
This refers to the way in which sounds begin and end: attack and decay, and as such is a
combination of time and amplitude, or more frequently, time, amplitude and spectrum. Struck
and keyboard musical instruments tend to have simple envelopes of a basic attack / decay
nature an impulse of energy being applied and being allowed to die away. Many other sounds
have more stages to them, as for example the voice or a bowed string instrument where the
source of energy (air or bow motion) is able to be varied producing multi-stage complex
envelopes. In many circumstances, individual sound envelopes are superimposed and are
perceived as envelope complexes (mass structures) rather than individual events.

MORPHOLOGICAL CLASSIFICATION
- as sound objects (objets sonores)
- in relation to other classes of sound
Sounds are frequently differentiated by whether they are perceived by their unique physical
characteristics (french horn, electric guitar), or are perceived as a modification of a sound
(speech sped up and played backwards). The identity of the sound in these types of
classifications can be understood as having a family type relationship.
The identity of the string family (violin, viola, cello, double bass) is quite strong and quite
coherent. One can imagine instruments that would fit between members of the family. Such a
family is that invented by Adolphe Sax in the 1840s the saxophones, which number 14, are all
closely related. The seven or eight classifications of voice similarly form a family, if somewhat
looser in description.

PSYCHOLOGICAL IMPLICATIONS/EFFECTS
- emotional
- programmatic
- associative
These parameters have been covered elsewhere in the READINGs, and relate almost completely
to the personal and cultural biases of the individual. (The sound reminds me of when I was a
little kid and we used to go to the lake. It just makes me want to cry.)

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QUESTIONS
1.
In the light of this READING, re-read the questions from READING VI. How could you
amplify / clarify some of your answers.
2.
Consider such films as Alien. How are the psychological effects achieved purely through
sound?
3.
How can you tell the difference between messy kids eating and heavy breathing, and the
Alien sounds?

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READING VI
PARAMETERS OF SOUND II PHYSICAL & THE HARMONIC SERIES
OverView
This reading starts the examination of the physical aspects of sound. The most basic
parameters of frequency (high and low), amplitude (volume), and spectrum (tone
color) are introduced. These concepts provide a framework and terminology
applicable in aspects of sound, from simply hearing, to instrument design and
performance, to synthesis, composition and analysis.

SOUND, FREQUENCY AND AMPLITUDE

The air around us is made up of molecules that are in constant vibration. Because the vibration is
very fast, very small and random, we cannot hear them (too high in frequency and too small in
amplitude), but air is the medium by which sound travels to our ears. There are about 450 000 000
000 000 000 000 molecules in one cubic centimeter of air.
Above a certain number of vibrations per second the frequency, measured in Hertz (Hz) our
ears do not respond to sounds. This is often considered to be above 15,000 or 20,000 vibrations
per second (15 kHz 20 kHz; k = kilo = one thousand). Dogs can hear sounds to 40 kHz and
higher, dolphins over 60 kHz, and bats significantly higher than that (100kHz+).
When the vibrations are very slow, less than 20 30 Hz, humans do not perceive sound, however
dolphins and whales do respond to extremely low frequency (infrasonic) underwater pressure
waves.
The decibel (dB, or incorrectly, db) is a measure of the amplitude of a sound. (In common usage,
how loud the sound is.) When the vibration is large (high amplitude), we perceive loud sounds.
Sounds can be loud enough to cause instant deafness as in the case of standing behind a jet taking
off (160+ dB), or they may cause deterioration of the hearing, leading to eventual deafness from
continued exposure such as at rock concerts, bars, discos, the Mtro or even downtown New York
(90 dB to 125 dB). (See also READING IX.)
Being in a silent place does not mean that there is no vibration, it means that the vibration is too
small for us to perceive. For most people, this is in the range of 5 25 dB, but with hearing loss,
the quietest sound able to be perceived could easily be in the 40 60 dB range. Normal quiet
conversation varies between 45 and 60 dB in most settings.

SOME MORE CHARACTERISTICS

Sound travels in waves, through air, with a velocity of about 344 meters per second (m/s),
3seconds per kilometer, at 20, and a little faster, with a velocity of 386 m/s at 100. Some other
materials have velocities of: rubber 54 m/s; carbon dioxide 258 m/s; water 1450 m/s; steel 5
000 m/s; glass up to 6 000 m/s.
The particles that transmit the energy of the wave move about their central point of rest. Imagine
a loudspeaker making a sound. The electricity from the amplifier goes to the loudspeaker where it
is converted (transduced) into mechanical energy, pushing the cone of the speaker in and out.
When the speaker cone moves out, the air in front of it is compressed into a high pressure zone,
called a compression, and as the cone moves back, it creates an area of low pressure, called the
rarefaction.

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TIME -->> -->> -->> -->> -->> -->> -->> -->>

one cycle
positive pressure
normal pressure
negative pressure

Compression
Rarefaction

The top representation is as the wave would be shown on an oscilloscope, the bottom
representation shows the compression and rarefaction as they would appear in air. From any
point on one wave to the same point on the next wave is one cycle. If there are 400 such cycles
per second (vibrations per second), the frequency is 400Hz.

As a sound wave moves away from its point of

origin, be it a loudspeaker, guitar or voice, it
moves out (ideally) in all directions. As the
sound travels, its amplitude is reduced (gets
quieter) at the rate of approximately 6 dB for
every doubling of distance.
Keep in mind that this occurs in threedimensions.

This is the ideal figure, and refers to the behavior of sound out of doors (free-field condition).
Inside a building or room, this number changes due to reflection from surfaces, echo and
reverberation (see other readings). In a free-field condition, sound which is 65 dB at the distance
of 1 meter from its source, will be about 59 dB at 2 meters, 53 dB at 4 meters, 47 dB at 8 meters,
and 29 dB (very quiet) at 64 meters. (See also Reading XII, following.)

SOUND WAVES, THEIR SHAPE AND PARTIALS (HARMONICS)

Even the simplest sounds around us can be understood as being made up of many frequencies
they contain many components (partials). Through Fourier Analysis, it is possible to determine
the frequencies and amplitudes of these partials. Just as it may be understood that the color green
contains pigments of blue and yellow, sounds have many component frequencies, except for the
sine tone, which has only one.
When a guitar and a piano play the same note at the same intensity, they sound different. They
both are at the same frequency (this is what is meant by same note), and they are the same
amplitude (dB). The difference is one of tone color or timbre. Other terms for this being waveshape,
spectrum, components, or harmonic content.

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THE HARMONIC SERIES

LA SRIE HARMONIQUE

Take a string. Set it into vibration. It vibrates as a whole.

Touch it in the middle (1/2); it vibrates in two equal parts.

Touch it at 1/3 or 2/3 of its length; it vibrates in three equal parts.

Touch the string at 3/4, 4/5, 5/6 ... of its length and it will vibrate in 4, 5, 6 ... equal parts. As
the string vibrates in more parts, it vibrates at higher frequencies. (For example: as a whole at 100
Hz, in halves at 200 Hz, thirds at 300 Hz etc.)
The full-length vibration (1/1 or 1:1) produces the fundamental (first partial). The half-length
vibration (1/2 or 2:1) produces a frequency (second partial) one octave above the fundamental
etc. The components of this entire set of vibrations makes up the harmonic series. While harmonic
components theoretically extend to infinity, 32 to 64 partials are usually adequate to synthesize
or represent most natural sounds (except for those which are noise-like).
The frequency of the partials varies inversely as the fraction of the string length that produces
it. The shorter the string length, the higher the frequency.
All of the partials with their different amplitudes combine to form the spectrum of the sound.
There are two basic types of spectra, harmonic and inharmonic.
In a harmonic spectrum, the frequencies of the components are whole number ratios whole
number multiples of the fundamental frequency (ie: x 1, x 2, x 3, x 4 ). With a fundamental
frequency of 55 Hz, the harmonic components (with decreasing intensity) are 55 Hz, 110 Hz, 165
Hz, 220 Hz, 275 Hz, 330 Hz ... (see below).
With an inharmonic spectrum, the components are not whole number ratios. For example, a
timbre with the inharmonic components of :
171 Hz, 306 Hz, 477 Hz, 783 Hz, 1260 Hz, 2043 Hz has ratios of:
1 : 1.79 : 2.79 : 4.58 : 7.37 : 11.95.
Music theory names some of the lower intervals of the harmonic series. Above the fourth partial,
many of the intervals are approximations in relation to equal temperament, for example, 8:9 and
9:10 the major 2nd and the major tone and no common name exists for the 6:7 and 7:8
intervals.
The first twelve components with a fundamental of 55 Hz (A) are:

?
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w
4

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w n7
6

11
w
#
#
w

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The arrows indicate intervals of the octave.

INTERVALS
Frequency
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
10
11
12

55 Hz
110 Hz
165 Hz
220 Hz
275 Hz
330 Hz
385 Hz
440 Hz
495 Hz
550 Hz
605 Hz
660 Hz

Name

Ratio and Interval

A1
A2

1:1
1:2
2:3
3:4
4:5
5:6
6:7
7:8
8:9
9:10
10:11
11:12

E3
A3
C#4
E4
(G4)
A4
B4
C#5
D#5
A5

Perfect unison
Perfect octave
Perfect fifth
Perfect fourth
Major third
Minor third
(not used in western music) (n/a)
(not used in western music) (n/a)
Major second (large) [major tone]
another Major second [minor tone]
smaller Major second (n/a)
smaller Major second (n/a)

Notice that the interval is determined by the ratio of the frequencies, for example both 110 : 220
and 330 : 660 are perfect octaves1:2 ratios. The higher in the series, the closer together the
pitches become, and the smaller the intervals. The smaller the ratio, the smaller the interval. (See
Reading VII below for more detail.)
Equal temperament is the standard intonation system used in western music. Sought after for
many hundreds of years, but in general use only since the early 1700s, equal temperament
divides the octave into 12 equal parts, making all 12 semitones exactly the same size. This
arbitrary structure is an important part of tonal music since it allows modulation to any key,
with an equal degree of consonance.
The components in a harmonic spectrum usually have different amplitudes. In most timbres, the
lower partials have greater amplitude than the higher ones. The strength of specific partials varies
from instrument to instrument even from note to note, and with varying dynamics. Differences
between individual tone colors are determined in large part by differences between the intensities
of the partials.
8ve

8ve

AMPLITUDE

8ve 8ve

FREQUENCY

10 1 1 1 2 1 3 1 4 1 5 1 6 . . .

(linear graph)

Harmonic partials expressed in a linear graph form. The frequency difference between the
partials remains constant, and since there are more partials in higher octaves, the
representation of the octaves makes them further apart.

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8ve

8ve

8ve

AMPLITUDE

8ve

12

16

Harmonic partials expressed in an exponential graph form. The distance between the partials
FREQUENCY
gets smaller, as the representation
of the octave (exponential)
is kept constant.

. . .

AMPLITUDE AND FREQUENCY

(i) A sine tone (two cycles)

(ii) A sine tone an octave higher (same

amplitude, four cycles)
(iii) A sine tone, the same frequency as
(i), at one half the amplitude.

(iv) A sine tone one octave below (i)

(two cycles), at twice the amplitude.

When looking at the representation of a wave, the amplitude parameter is expressed by the
height of the wave (the vertical displacement): the greater the vertical displacement, the higher
in amplitude (louder). The frequency parameter is expressed by the length of the wave: the
longer the wave, the lower the frequency.
There are many ways of graphically representing sound, some of which are introduced here. After
a period of working with these methods, it often becomes possible to evaluate or assess some
aspects of sounds based upon some of these representations. (See also Article E, p96.)

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PITCHED INSTRUMENTS, UNPITCHED INSTRUMENTS AND THE VOICE

One way of categorizing acoustic instruments is to divided them into two general groups, pitched
and unpitched. The spectrum of pitched instruments tends to be harmonic, that is the partials are
very closely related to the harmonic series, while unpitched instruments tend to have inharmonic
spectra.
Few pitched instruments produce an exact harmonic series due to the physical properties of the
material from which they are made (wood, metal, hair, skin). There are always (slight) elements of
inharmonicity. These slight variations from the theoretical harmonic series make acoustic
instruments psychoacousticaly more interesting than their electronic counterparts. Percussion
instruments, bells and other spectrally more complex sounds usually have inharmonic spectra.
There are sounds that contain (theoretically) an infinite number of sine tones, the family of noise
sounds. The most frequently used being white noise and pink noise. The wave shape of this type
of sound is a random fluctuation. (See below).
With the voice, the vocal cords (vocal folds) produce a buzz-type sound that is very rich in
harmonics / partials. This sound is altered (filtered) by the vocal tract. These are the voiced
sounds. Unvoiced sounds like /k/, /s/, //, /p/ are produced by blowing air through the
vocal tract, and the changes in tone color (spectrum) are produced by changing the shape of the
mouth, and positions of the lips, tongue, throat, teeth . These unvoiced sounds are noise-type
sounds.

INSTRUMENTAL FAMILIES
Another basic method for categorizing (world music) instruments is based upon the way in which
they produce sound, developed by Erich von Hornbostel and Curt Sachs in the early part of the
twentieth century. They proposed four main categories:
Idiophones sound is produced by the natural vibration of the material
Membranophones sound is produced by the vibration of a membrane or skin
Chordophones sound is produced by the vibration of string(s)
Aerophones sound is produced by the vibration of air.
To these acoustic categories has been added:
Electronic sound is produced by electronic means.
These four (five) categories are further divided into 25, 40, 85 or more than 300 sub-categories,
and there are also compound or hybrid instrument (electric guitar).
The brief descriptions below account for most instruments.
Idiophones sound is produced by the natural vibration of the material
Instruments in this group include rattles, tambourines, bells, gongs, cymbals, and bar idiophones
(xylophones etc).

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Vibrating
material

The object itself (the vibrating

material) produces enough sound
energy to be heard.
Sound Waves

Some of the sub-categories include:

stamping
stamped
shaken
- rattles
- jingles
- pellet bells
percussion
- bells

It may be struck, plucked, bowed,

scraped or stamped on.

- gongs
- vessels
- bars
concussion (cymbals)
friction
scraped
plucked

Membranophones sound is produced by the vibration of a membrane or skin

Instruments in this group include drums of all shapes and sizes.

Vibrating
skin

Sound Waves

The vibrating skin needs a rim to

keep it under tension. Many drums
have an attached resonator to
amplify particular resonant
frequencies.
It may be struck, scraped, bowed or
stamped on.

Some of the sub-categories include:

drums (tubular)
- cylinder
- conical
- footed
- barrel
- waisted

- goblet
drums
- friction
- frame
- vessel
mirlitons (kazoos)

Chordophones sound is produced by the vibration of string(s)

Instruments in this group include the violin family, guitars, lutes, harps, zithers, pianos,
harpsichords etc.

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Vibrating
string
Sound Waves
Bridge

The vibrating string alone is not loud

enough to be heard. Its vibration is
passed through the bridge into a
sound box which amplifies it.
It may be bowed, scraped, plucked,
or struck.

Sound box

Some of the sub-categories include:

harps
- bow
- angle
- frame
lyres
lutes
- plucked
- round-backed
- flat-backed
- guitar
- bowed
- fretted
- unfretted

- violin
zithers
- simple
- long
- chin
- koto
- plucked board
- harpsichord
- struck board
- dulcimer
- piano

Aerophones sound is produced by the vibration of air.

Instruments in this group include the flutes, woodwinds, brass, accordions, organs, harmonicas,
bagpipes, whistles etc.
Source of
vibration

The vibrating source alone is

not loud enough to be heard.
Its vibration is passed into
resonating chamber which
tunes and amplifies it.

Vibrating
air column

The source may be vibrating

lips, a reed or reeds, or the edge
of an object.
Sound Waves

Some of the sub-categories include:

blow hole
- end-blown flute
- side-blown flute
- panpipes
whistle mouthpiece

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- whistles
- recorder
single reed
- clarinet
- saxophone

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Readings

 double reed
- shawm
- oboe
- bassoon
bagpipes
cup mouthpiece
- cylindrical
- trumpet
- trombone
- conical

- french horn
- tuba
free reed
- accordion
- mouth organ
- sheng
free aerophones
bull-roar
organs

The european orchestra is often classified into the families of:

Strings violin, viola, cello, double bass
Woodwinds flute, oboe, clarinet, (saxophone), bassoon
Brass trumpet, horn, trombone, tuba
Percussion drums, cymbals, mallet instruments, piano
Electroacoustics is a medium, characterized by the use of electricity in the conceptualization,
ideation, production, capture, storage, manipulation, analysis, presentation, distribution,
perception and / or cognition of sound. The single most pervasive feature being the use of a
loudspeaker to transduce electricity to acoustic sound.

ELECTRONIC SOURCES
Spectrally, the sine tone is the simplest wave shape having only one component the
fundamental. Certain types of sounds, like those of oscillators on synthesizers, have a purely
harmonic spectrum. They may include, the sine wave, the triangle wave, the sawtooth wave and
the square (or variable pulse-width) wave. Each of these waveshapes has a different harmonic
spectrum.

f
f + 1/2 (2f) + 1/3 (3f) +
f + 1/9 (3f) + 1/25 (5f) +
f + 1/3 (3f) + 1/5 (5f) +
Notice that while the partials of the triangle and square wave (odd numbered partials) are the
same frequency, they sound different because their partials have different amplitudes.
Another electronic source is the noise generator (white or pink). It should be noted that in this
way, electronic sources are akin to the voice, with oscillators being like the vocal cords, and noise
being like unvoiced sounds.

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White noise has a waveshape that is a random fluctuation, and it (theoretically) contains all frequencies.

THE FREQUENCY RANGES OF INSTRUMENTS

Below is a chart giving the basic ranges of most orchestral instruments. These are the
fundamentals of their notes, and they all have partials that continue upwards well beyond their
basic ranges. Acoustic instruments also have formant frequency characteristics, so their tone
colors change as they play through different registers, and with different dynamics. Electronic
instruments often dont have this degree of timbral subtlety.
C0
C2
C6
C8
C4

Bassoon

Flute
Oboe
Clarinet

Horn
Trombone
Tuba

Bass

Cello

Picc

Trumpet

Violin
Viola

Soprano
Alto
Tenor
Bass
Piano
Electronic Instruments

16 Hz

65.5 Hz

261 Hz

1046 Hz

4186 Hz

16 kHz

The sustained portion of an instrumental sound is usually relatively constant in frequency and
spectrum, much like a vowel. Instrumental sounds also have a very small period at the beginning
of the sound, the attack or attack transient, which is unstable, and is usually spectrally very
complex, much like a consonant.
Some reference points:
note
A
C
C

freq (Hz)
27.5
65.4
262

reference
lowest note on piano
cello C
middle C

note
A
C
C

freq (Hz)
440
1047
4186

reference
tuning pitch
high C
highest note on piano

QUESTIONS
1.
The approaches to instrumental classification above have taken a particular physical
approach to grouping. When the sound source (eg ea) may not be able to be identified directly,
how could you start to describe the physical characteristics of the source?

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2.
Frequently in ea, sound sources are complex sources, for example in having been
processed in a number of ways time stretched, pitch shifted, filtered . Is it useful to try to
identify the original sound source and also to identify the processes used in its transformation?
What are the advantages of such an approach? What are the disadvantages?
3.
Create a list of environmental sounds and place them into the three categories of noiselike, un-pitched and pitched. Where would you place the following: a toilet flushing; a bus
pulling away from a stop; a door closing; a squeaky door; chatter; walking down a corridor;
dishes being washed; typing on a computer keyboard. What kinds of modifiers would need to be
added to each of your selections to clarify your classification?
4.
Another classification system could be based upon environment. Describe the sounds
found in a restaurant. Compare this list to the sounds found in a Mtro station. Compare these
lists to the sounds found on a fishing wharf.
5.
Do sounds in a piece which are out of classification draw attention to themselves? How
could you create the effect of drawing attention to them? How could you reduce the effect of the
misplacement?

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READING VII
RESONANCE, VOWEL FORMANTS AND FREQUENCIES, TEMPERAMENT
OverView
This reading examines the important acoustical characteristic of resonance the
tendency of a system to reinforce particular frequencies. Resonance is central to
speech (formant frequencies), musical instruments (to produce pitches and timbral
identity), and in acoustics (reverberation etc). Following a brief introduction to
intonation, the charts provide numerical and graphical representations of vowel
formants for compositional, synthesis and analysis purposes.

RESONANCE
When a string is plucked, energy is introduced into the system and this energy is lost (as sound
and heat) through the vibration of the string at a particular frequencyits resonant frequency.
Blowing across the top of a bottle, a note is produced. The air inside the bottle is acting something
like the vibrating string, and a flute works on the same principle as a bottle. The air inside a bottle
(or the tube of the flute) vibrates, or resonates, at a particular frequency.
If you sing a note near this resonant frequency next to the top of the bottle, it will resonate a little,
and the closer the note is to the bottles resonant frequency, the more the air in the bottle will
resonate. This is called sympathetic vibration or resonance.
This is a simple form of amplification of a particular frequency. If you play two different notes
near the bottle one of which is at the resonant frequency of the bottle, the sympathetic vibration
of the bottle will amplify that particular frequency.
This sympathetic vibration or resonance, that in effect amplifies particular frequencies, will also
amplify particular partials of a sound that contains frequencies at or near the resonant frequency.

THE MOUTH, VOWELS AND FORMANT FREQUENCIES

The vocal tract which includes the mouth, is an incredibly complex cavity, especially in terms of
its ability to change its shape and size. Changing the size and shape of the vocal tract changes its
resonance characteristics.
Sing a note to the vowel /i/ (IPA); feet in English, fit in French. Sing the same note (pitch)
with the vowel /a/; papa. Make them equally loud. They are the same frequency (Hz), the same
amplitude (dB). They contain the same frequencies of harmonicsbut they sound different.
Due to the difference in shape of the vocal tract for these two vowels, the mouth is resonating
differently to produce the different sounds (which create the different vowels). The vocal cavity is
reinforcing particular frequencies; these resonances are formant frequencies.
Each particular shape of the vocal tract produces particular resonance frequencies, and it is
because these formant frequencies are relatively fixed, that we are able to identify the same
vowel when sung on different notes (pitches) or said by different voices. (A little like an
acoustical silhouette.) It has been determined experimentally that a minimum of three formant
frequencies are required for accurate identification of most vowels. Some sample vowels and their
formant frequencies are given below.

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f1
f2
f3

/i/ heed
270
2290
3010

// head
530
1840
2480

// had
660
1720
2410

// hot
730
1090
2440

// good
570
840
2410

/u/ whod
300
870
2240

(For more detail, see the Charts following.)

Below is a diagramatic representation of the vowel /i/.

20 dB
10 dB
0 dB

- 10 dB
- 20 dB
1 kHz

2 kHz

3 kHz

0
- 10
- 20
- 30
0

1 kHz

2 kHz

3 kHz

The side view of the mouth shows the position of the tongue (see notes on IPA), and to the
right is a graphic representation of the formant frequencies that this mouth shape produces.
Frequency is shown ascending, left to right. There are three peaks, at approximately 270 Hz,
2290 Hz and 3010 Hz.
Below the mouth is a representation of the harmonic series as produced by the vocal cords and
at the bottom right is the resultant spectrum of this basic spectrum modified by the mouth (a
formant filter).
More detail on the formant frequencies of ten spoken and sung vowels for women, men and
children is provided below, as a table of frequencies, charts, and musical notation. This
information has particular application in voice processing and synthesis.

SCHEMATIC VIEW OF THE VOICE

There are three main parts to vocal production which have their analogy in synthesis. The lungs
correspond to an amplifier (envelope), the vocal cords to an oscillator, and the vocal tract to a
(complex) filter.

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DIAGRAMATIC REPRESENTATION OF THE VOWEL /I/.

Below is a speech spectrogram of the text I can see y(ou). Notice particularly the ee, /i/, has
three dark regions, reflecting greater amplitude. These are the same three resonant peaks (formant
regions) shown above.

Examine the word I. This is actually a diphthong, or a vowel which changes its quality over its
duration, in this case /aj/ - /ai/ (ah-ee). Note that its final spectral characteristics are very
similar to the /i/ of see. In some dialects, can /k/ ///n/ also contains a diphthong, as in /k/
/a\//n/.
The /k/ of can, is unvoiced as shown by its not having any clearly defined formants or
frequencies below 1.5 kHz, the same as /s/ in see, with no frequencies below 3.5kHz. These are
not fixed frequency ranges for /k/ and /s/, for if you say the /k/ of can, and then the /k/ of
key, and the /s/ of see, and the /s/ of soul, you will notice a difference. (Remember the variants
from the /SSSS/ assignment.)
Knowledge of this, and realtime computer displays of spectrograms have allowed speech
therapists to assist deaf children in learning to speak. The child vocalizes into a microphone,
and the frequency and amplitude of the lowest three vowel formants are displayed on a screen
at the same time as the correct positions and amplitudes are displayed. The child changes the
shape of the mouth to get the formants that they are producing to match the displayed
formants. With this method, the vowels are pronounced correctly.
Consonants are produced by tongue position, eg /k/ and /t/. In this case, a small artificial palate
(the roof of the mouth) is placed in the childs mouth. Sensors on the artificial palate, through
a computer, display the tongue position, and again, the child is required to match the position
of their tongue with the displayed position. This however is a little more difficult.
The sustained portion of an instrumental sound is usually relatively constant in frequency and
spectrum, much like a vowel. Instrumental sounds also have a very small period at the beginning
of the sound, the attack or attack transient, which is unstable, and is usually spectrally very
complex, much like a consonant.

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FREQUENCIES OF NOTES IN EQUAL TEMPERAMENT

Following is a table, based upon the modern use of A = 440 Hz, for the conversion of the names
of notes to their frequency, from the lowest A on the piano (fundamental of 27.5Hz), to 2 1/2
octaves above the piano (26.56 kHz). The numbers have been rounded, and this accounts for
minor errors. The distance between any two notes is the 12th root of two.

EQUAL TEMPERED PITCHCLASS TO FREQUENCY CONVERSION

A
A#
B
C

27.50
29.13
30.87
32.70

55.00
58.27
61.73
65.40

110.0
116.5
123.4
130.8

220
233
247
262

440
466
494
523

880
932
988
1047

1760
1865
1976
2093

3520
3729
3955
4186

7040
7459
7902
8372

14080
14918
15804
16744

A
A#
B
C

C#
D
D#
E

34.64
36.70
38.89
41.20

69.30
73.41
77.78
82.40

138.6
146.8
155.6
164.8

277
294
311
330

554
587
622
659

1109
1175
1245
1319

2218
2349
2489
2637

4435
4699
4978
5272

8870
9398
9956
10544

17740
18796
19912
21088

C#
D
D#
E

F
F#
G
G#

43.65
46.25
49.00
51.93

87.30
92.50
98.00
103.83

174.6
185.0
196.0
207.6

349
370
392
415

698
740
784
831

1397
1480
1568
1661

2794
2960
3136
3322

5588
5920
6272
6645

11176
11840
12544
13290

22336
23680
25088
26560

F
F#
G
G#

The frequency of notes of the equal tempered scale is the 12th root of 2 (1/12 of an octave). this is
an irrational number (approximately 1.05946). Tuning by the harmonic series produces intervals
which are exact ratios of frequencies. A convenient (linear) division of the octave is the cent,
1/1200th of an octave, there being 100 cents in a semitone.
If the perfect fifth (eg the interval from C to G the first two notes of Twinkle Twinkle Little
Star) is tuned from the harmonic series, it is 702 cents; in equal temperament it is 700 cents. When
the two notes C and G in the middle of the piano are played, if they are tuned by the harmonic
series, they produce a very stable sound. If the tuning uses equal temperament, there is a slow
pulsing / beating of the sound. The same is true of other intervals, notably the major third.

Chart 1, following gives a Note Name, an approximation, an Interval (based on having C as the
lower note), the Ratio is the ratio of the frequencies of the two notes. The Cents is size of the
interval in cents (1/1200th of an octave), which is then given in two categories, as found in the
Harmonic Series and the Circle of Fifths. When perfect fifth intervals are used as the basis of
intonation (Pythagorean tuning), the sequence of notes (moving both directions from C) is

Gb Db Ab Eb Bb F

The problem that arises is that Gb and F# differ by 23 cents, as do Db and C# the Pythagorean
comma.

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CHART 1
INTERVALS & INTONATION SELECTED INTERVALS FROM EQUAL
TEMPERAMENT, THE HARMONIC SERIES, AND THE CIRCLE OF FIFTHS

Note name
C
B
B
B
Bb
Bb
Bb
A
A
A
Ab
Ab
Ab
G
G
Gb
F#
F#
F
F
E
E
E
Eb
D# / Eb
Eb
D
D
C#
C#
C# / Db
Db
C

Interval
P 8ve
+7
+7
+7
7
7
+6
+6
6
6
6
6
P 5th
P 5th
5th
X4th
X4th
P4
P4
+3
+3
+3
+3
3
+2
+2
2
2
2
2
P unison

Ratio
2:1
243:256
8:15
8:9
4:7
27:32
3:5
5:8
49:62
3:2
729:1024
1024:729
2:3
62:49
4:5
5:6
32:27
9:8
2187:2048
16:15
256:243
1:1

Cents
1200
1110
1100
1088
1000
996
970
906
900
884
814
800
793

Harmonic Series
1200

Fifths

# of Fifths

1110

5 th fifth

996

2 nd fifth (d)

906

3 rd fifth

793
702

4 th fifth (d)
1 st fifth

589
611

6 th fifth (d)
6 th fifth

407

1 st fifth (d)
4 th fifth

294
204

3 rd fifth (d)
2 nd fifth

114

7 th fifth

90
0

5 th fifth (d)

1088 ()
970 ( )
884 ()
814 (+)
702 (+)

700
589
611
600
500
498 ()
407
400
386
316
300
294
204
200
114
112
100
90
0

396 ()
316 (+)
204 (+)
112 (+)
0

(d) = descending

There are many sources of information on this topic, including work by Alain Danilou,
RWYoung and John Chalmers Jr. This table has been freely adapted from Danilous 1958 book,
Tableau comparatif des intervalles musicaux.

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Chart 2

FORMANT FREQUENCIES OF SPOKEN & SUNG VOWELS BY MEN,

WOMEN AND CHILDREN

F(1)

Man
Woman
Child

front
/i/
(ee)
270
310
370

F(2)

M
W
C

2290
2790
3200

1990
2480
2730

1840 1720
2330 2050
2610 2320

1190
1400
1590

1350 1090
1640 1220
1820 1370

840
920
1060

1020 870
1160 950
1410 1170

F(3)

M
W
C

3010
3310
3730

2550
3070
3600

2480 2410
2990 2850
3570 3320

2390
2780
3360

1690 2440
1960 2810
2160 3170

2410
2710
3180

2240 2240
2680 2670
3310 3260

(dB)

4
24
28

3
23
27

2
17
24

1
12
22

1
10
27

5
15
20

1
5
28

0
7
34

1
12
34

3
19
43

M
W

300
400

375
475

530
550

620
600

500
550

400
450

700
700

610
625

400
425

350
400

F(2)

M
W

1950
2250

1810
2100

1500 1490
1750 1650

1200
1300

1150 1200
1350 1300

1000
1240

720
900

640
800

F(3)

M
W

2750
3300

2500
3450

2500 2250
3250 3000

2675
3250

2500 2600
3050 3250

2600
3250

2500 2550
3375 3250

Spoken

Formant
amplitude
Sung
F(1)

/I/
(ih)
390
430
530

//
(eh)
530
610
690

//
(a)
660
860
1010

central
//
(u)
640
760
850

//
(er)
490
500
560

back
//
(ah)
730
850
1030

//
(or)
570
590
680

/U/
(put)
440
470
560

/u/
(oo)
300
370
430

Sources: Peterson and Barney, JASA 24: 175 (1952), Rossing, The Science of Sound (1990) p 320, 352
Sung vowels: Appleman (1967) The Science of Vowel Pedagogy, Indiana U Press

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The first three formants (ascending) of sung vowels for men, women and children

4000
3500
3000

F3

2500
2000
1500
F2

1000
500

F1

/i/

/I/

// // // // // // /U/ /u/
Children
Woman
Man

The first three formants (ascending) of spoken vowels for women and men.

4000
3500
3000

F3

2500
2000
1500
1000

F2

500

F1

/i/

/I/

// // // // // // /U/ /u/
F Woman
F Man

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The formant frequencies of the ten english vowels previously given for men, women and children
are presented below in the format of traditional music notation.

The mens formants are shown by a

, the womens by a

w , and the childs by a | .

The bottom staff sounds as written, the middle staff sounds one octave higher (8va), and the top
staff sounds two octaves higher (15ma). The childs highest formant is around 3.7kHz, the highest
Bb on the piano. The lowest male formant is around 270 Hz, just above middle C (C3, MIDI 60).
When vowels are sung, highly trained singers shift the formant frequencies slightly with different
vowels so as to take advantage of the resonance characteristics. Note that the range for most
formants (bandwidth = Q) is on average, about a perfect 4th. With a filter, a Q of about 4 to 6
will suffice in many circumstances.

99-IV

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READING VIII
ANALOG AND DIGITAL -- SOUNDS AND SIGNALS
OverView
This reading presents some of the principles of sampling, and analog to digital
conversion.

ANALOG / DIGITAL

amplitude

Sound is a continuous variation in air pressure occuring above a certain minimum threshold (with
the amplitude measured in decibels), and between the frequencies of (about) 20 Hz and 20,000
Hz. These variations in air pressure are continuous in nature and can be represented in graphic
form in various ways, for example (as a wave shape):

time:
This is roughly analogous to the motion of a transducer (microphone, loudspeaker, ear drum), in
response to these variations in air pressure.
The changes in air pressure, if visualized in air, are more likely to look like:

time:
where low pressure (rarefaction) is represented by the white, and high pressure (compression) is
represented by the black. The scale from white to black in continuously (infinitely) variable: it
does not occur in discrete steps. This is also how it is represented (and recorded) on analog tape:
as variations in the level of the magnetism (flux).
positive pressure
equilibrium
negative pressure

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compression

positive flux

equilibrium

equilibrium

rarefaction

negative fkux

Readings

In digital form, the amplitude of the signal (waveform) is measured (SAMPLEd) at fixed times
(RATE), and stored as a number. The analog wave is converted to a digital form (A/D
CONVERSION).

time:

amplitude

1 2

3 4

5 6

7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16

80
70
60
50
40
30
20
10
0
(sampled value)

30

50

65

TIME:
7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16

5 10 15 20 25 30 35 40 45 50 55 60 65 70 75 80
SAMPLE VALUE:

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Readings

The process is the same with more complex waves:

Notice that when the SAMPLING RATE, (the number of sample per second) is increased, the
resultant digital representation is closer to the original.

Another aspect of digital sampling related to how many numbers are used to represent the
amplitude (QUANTIZATION). In most sampling systems today, the numbers from 1 to around
32,000 (32,768) are used (16 bit). Newer systems employ more bits and can represent 524,288
levels (20 bit), 8,388,608 levels (24 bit), 134,217,728 (28 bit), half a billion (30 bit).

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In the example below, notice the effect of increasing quantization on the accuracy of the resultant
digital representation when the QUANTIZATION moves from 4 to 16 levels.

11
10
01
00

Four levels (2 bits)

111
110
101
100
011
010
001
000

Eight levels (3 bits)

Sixteen levels (4 bits)

Higher sampling rates combined with higher resolution quantization combine to yield a more
accurate digital representation of the original analog signal. The CD standard is 44.1kHz at 16
bits, but much software now handles 96kHz at 24 bits resulting in several millions of times greater
resolution.

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SAMPLING RATE CONVERSION

32 KHZ SAMPLING RATE
req

32k

req

32k

req

32k

req

32k

req

32k

27.50

1163.6

110.00

290.91

440

72.73

1760

18.18

7040

4.55 A

A#

29.13

1098.7

116.50

274.68

466

68.67

1864

17.17

7456

4.29 A#

30.81

1038.5

123.25

259.63

493

64.91

1972

16.23

7888

4.06 B

32.69

979.0

130.75

244.74

523

61.19

2092

15.30

8368

3.82 C

C#

34.63

924.2

138.50

231.05

554

57.76

2216

14.44

8864

3.61 C#

36.69

872.2

146.75

218.06

587

54.51

2348

13.63

9392

3.41 D

D#

38.88

823.2

155.50

205.79

622

51.45

2488

12.86

9952

3.22 D#

41.19

776.9

164.75

194.23

659

48.56

2636

12.14

10544

3.03 E

43.63

733.52

174.50

183.38

698

45.85

2792

11.46

11168

2.87 F

F#

46.25

691.89

185.00

172.97

740

43.24

2960

10.81

11840

2.70 F#

49.00

653.06

196.00

163.27

784

40.82

3136

10.20

12544

2.55 G

G#

51.88

616.87

207.50

154.22

830

38.55

3320

9.64

13280

2.41 G#

55.00

581.82

220

145.45

880

36.36

3520

9.09

14080

2.27 A

A#

58.25

549.36

233

137.34

932

34.33

3728

8.58

14912

2.15 A#

61.63

519.27

247

129.82

986

32.45

3944

8.11

15776

2.03 B

65.38

489.48

262

122.37

1046

30.59

4184

7.65

16736

1.91 C

C#

69.25

462.09

277

115.52

1108

28.88

4432

7.22

17728

1.81 C#

73.38

436.12

294

109.03

1174

27.26

4696

6.81

18784

1.70 D

D#

77.75

411.58

311

102.89

1244

25.72

4976

6.43

19904

1.61 D#

82.38

388.47

330

97.12

1318

24.28

5272

6.07

21088

1.52 E

87.25

366.76

349

91.69

1396

22.92

5584

5.73

22336

1.43 F

F#

92.50

345.95

370

86.49

1480

21.62

5920

5.41

23680

1.35 F#

98.00

326.53

392

81.63

1568

20.41

6272

5.10

25088

1.28 G

G#

103.75

308.43

415

77.11

1660

19.28

6640

4.82

26560

1.20 G#

20.00

1600.0

60.00

533.33

120.0

266.67

240

133.3

480

66.67

180.0

177.78

300

106.7

360

88.89

500

64.00

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44.1 KHZ SAMPLING RATE

req

44.1k

req

44.1k

req

44.1k

req

44.1k

req

44.1k

27.50

1603.6

110.00

400.91

440

100.23

1760

25.06

7040

6.26 A

A#

29.13

1514.2

116.50

378.54

466

94.64

1864

23.66

7456

5.91 A#

30.81

1431.2

123.25

357.81

493

89.45

1972

22.36

7888

5.59 B

32.69

1349.1

130.75

337.28

523

84.32

2092

21.08

8368

5.27 C

C#

34.63

1273.7

138.50

318.41

554

79.60

2216

19.90

8864

4.98 C#

36.69

1202.0

146.75

300.51

587

75.13

2348

18.78

9392

4.70 D

D#

38.88

1134.4

155.50

283.60

622

70.90

2488

17.73

9952

4.43 D#

41.19

1070.7

164.75

267.68

659

66.92

2636

16.73

10544

4.18 E

43.63

1010.9

174.50

252.72

698

63.18

2792

15.80

11168

3.95 F

F#

46.25

953.51

185.00

238.38

740

59.59

2960

14.90

11840

3.72 F#

49.00

900.00

196.00

225.00

784

56.25

3136

14.06

12544

3.52 G

G#

51.88

850.12

207.50

212.53

830

53.13

3320

13.28

13280

3.32 G#

55.00

801.82

220

200.45

880

50.11

3520

12.53

14080

3.13 A

A#

58.25

757.08

233

189.27

932

47.32

3728

11.83

14912

2.96 A#

61.63

715.62

247

178.90

986

44.73

3944

11.18

15776

2.80 B

65.38

674.57

262

168.64

1046

42.16

4184

10.54

16736

2.64 C

C#

69.25

636.82

277

159.21

1108

39.80

4432

9.95

17728

2.49 C#

73.38

601.02

294

150.26

1174

37.56

4696

9.39

18784

2.35 D

D#

77.75

567.20

311

141.80

1244

35.45

4976

8.86

19904

2.22 D#

82.38

535.36

330

133.84

1318

33.46

5272

8.36

21088

2.09 E

87.25

505.44

349

126.36

1396

31.59

5584

7.90

22336

1.97 F

F#

92.50

476.76

370

119.19

1480

29.80

5920

7.45

23680

1.86 F#

98.00

450.00

392

112.50

1568

28.13

6272

7.03

25088

1.76 G

G#

103.75

425.06

415

106.27

1660

26.57

6640

6.64

26560

1.66 G#

20.00

2205.0

60.00

735.00

120.0

367.50

240

183.75

480

91.88

180.0

245.00

300

147.00

360

122.50

500

88.20

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48KHZ SAMPLING RATE

req

48k

req

48k

req

48k

req

48k

req

48k

27.50

1745.5

110.00

436.36

440

109.09

1760

27.27

7040

6.82 A

A#

29.13

1648.1

116.50

412.02

466

103.00

1864

25.75

7456

6.44 A#

30.81

1557.8

123.25

389.45

493

97.36

1972

24.34

7888

6.09 B

32.69

1468.5

130.75

367.11

523

91.78

2092

22.94

8368

5.74 C

C#

34.63

1386.3

138.50

346.57

554

86.64

2216

21.66

8864

5.42 C#

36.69

1308.4

146.75

327.09

587

81.77

2348

20.44

9392

5.11 D

D#

38.88

1234.7

155.50

308.68

622

77.17

2488

19.29

9952

4.82 D#

41.19

1165.4

164.75

291.35

659

72.84

2636

18.21

10544

4.55 E

43.63

1100.3

174.50

275.07

698

68.77

2792

17.19

11168

4.30 F

F#

46.25

1037.8

185.00

259.46

740

64.86

2960

16.22

11840

4.05 F#

49.00

979.6

196.00

244.90

784

61.22

3136

15.31

12544

3.83 G

G#

51.88

925.3

207.50

231.33

830

57.83

3320

14.46

13280

3.61 G#

55.00

872.7

220

218.18

880

54.55

3520

13.64

14080

3.41 A

A#

58.25

824.0

233

206.01

932

51.50

3728

12.88

14912

3.22 A#

61.63

778.9

247

194.73

986

48.68

3944

12.17

15776

3.04 B

65.38

734.2

262

183.56

1046

45.89

4184

11.47

16736

2.87 C

C#

69.25

693.1

277

173.29

1108

43.32

4432

10.83

17728

2.71 C#

73.38

654.1

294

163.54

1174

40.89

4696

10.22

18784

2.56 D

D#

77.75

617.3

311

154.34

1244

38.59

4976

9.65

19904

2.41 D#

82.38

582.7

330

145.68

1318

36.42

5272

9.10

21088

2.28 E

87.25

550.1

349

137.54

1396

34.38

5584

8.60

22336

2.15 F

F#

92.50

518.9

370

129.73

1480

32.43

5920

8.11

23680

2.03 F#

98.00

489.8

392

122.45

1568

30.61

6272

7.65

25088

1.91 G

G#

103.75

462.7

415

115.66

1660

28.92

6640

7.23

26560

1.81 G#

20.00

2400

60.00

800.00

120.0

400.00

240

200.00

480

100.0

180.0

266.67

300

160.00

360

133.33

500

96.00

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READING IX
THE EAR AND SOUND PRESSURE LEVELS (SPLS)
OverView
This reading and the next provide a brief introduction to the physiology of the ear,
thresholds of hearing, loudness, hearing loss and ear protection.

THE EAR
The ear is physically divided into three parts, each having a particular function. The outer ear
consists of the pinea (which helps collect sound), and the ear canal, at the end of which is the ear
drum. The ear drum vibrates like the skin of a drum as sound waves hit it.
The middle ear starts on the inside of the ear drum, and through three small bones, the ossicles,
(the smallest bones in the body), the hammer, anvil and stirrups, the vibration of the ear drum is
converted into mechanical motion and this motion is transferred via the oval window to the
cochlea in the inner ear.
The cochlea (a tiny snail-like structure) contains a semi-rigid membrane, the basilar membrane,
which runs through its center. Inside this, the organ of Corti, contains the hair cells which convert
the mechanical movement into the electrical impulses which travel through the auditory nerve to
the brain.
The eustachian tube connects the middle ear to the throat and helps balance the air pressure on
both sides of the ear drum. Swallow to hear it open and close.

http://www.nlm.nih.gov/medlineplus/ency/imagepages/1092.htm
http://www.enchantedlearning.com/subjects/anatomy/ear/
http://hope4hearing.org/anatomy.htm
https://www.awarinst.com/anatomy.htm
http://www.drf.org/beltone/ear_anatomy.htm

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The cochlea is filled with a fluid which also circulates through the semi-circular canals. These
three canals are important in maintaining physical balance and are important in preventing
dizziness and vertigo.

HEARING AND THRESHOLDS

Hearing tests, in their most basic form, test each ear for the quietest sound that can be perceived
(the threshhold of hearing). In a suitable environment, with headphones, one ear at a time, a series
of tones are played becoming progressively quieter with the individual being asked to indicate
that they are able to hear the tone. Most hospital testing facilities test for speech bandwidth 250 8kHz this range being considered adequate for speech perception. There are a number of other
tests (bone conduction, masking etc) to determine the general condition of the hearing.
125

250

500

1kHz

2kHz

4kHz

8kHz

0
10
20
30
dB 40
50
60
70
80

The (stylized) audiogram above shows the response of two ear, one with the open circle (O),
and one with the closed circle (). Note that threshold is shown from top to bottom, with the
lowest threshhold (greatest sensitivity) at the top. This audiogram only tests from 250 to
8kHz, in one octave steps up to 2kHz, then in half octave steps to 8kHz.
In both cases, there is some hearing loss at around 4kHz, but the threshold measured at
1kHz, would be taken as being 10 dB for the top line, and 45dB for the bottom line. To get a
sense of how sounds would be heard by these two ears, reproduce the curve inverted with a
graphic equalizer.

HEARING LOSS
Hearing loss, ie, threshhold shift, can be temporary or permanent, and can be general in nature or
restricted to specific frequency ranges. A temporary threshhold shift is one where there is decreased
sensitivity for a short period of time (minutes to weeks in duration), and after a recovery period,
hearing returns to (almost) normal levels. There is however most often a slight shift of the
permanent threshhold with each occurrence.
With age, we all lose part or all of our hearing. The loss occurs in two or more of the following
forms: loss of sensitivity, loss of frequency response, and internal noise or ringing (tinnitus) (see
below). Exposure to high sound pressure levels accelerates this loss. (Ringing in the ears, not to be

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confused with Ringing in the Years, or a Ring in the Ear, above.) Diseases, either in the ear or
elsewhere are also contributing factors, and there are a range of forms of psychological deafness.
Often the early stages of the loss are not noticed, as when losing sensitivity, it just happens that
we are unable to hear very quiet sounds and since our environment is generally quite noisy, we are
unaware of this loss. After the age of thirty, it is common to begin to experience extreme high
frequency loss (over 15 kHz), and by 65, it is not unusual to have significantly increased
thresholds (loss of sensitivity) over 5kHz (AM radio / telephone quality).
One of the major difficulties related to all hearing loss, but particularly pronounced with noiseinduced hearing loss is that certain frequencies, or frequency ranges may be more affected than
others, so that it is possible to have hearing loss (permanent threshhold shift) at around 4kHz. Such
a loss will have serious impact on the individuals ability to assess sound quality, and will show
up particularly in situations of mixing sound for other people (or recordings).
Over the next decade, medical science will begin to report exactly how much loss is present in 25
to 50 year olds, as this is the first generation to have been constantly voluntarily exposed to high
sound pressure levels in the forms of concerts and through regular (ab-)use of headphones.
In loud environments, protect your ears and your hearing. You only go deaf once in each ear.

TYPICAL SOUND PRESSURE LEVELS (SPLS)

These figures will provide a rough guide to sound pressure levels. SPLs are normally measured in
such a way that the volume level is averaged over a period of time, and adjusted in various ways
to match the hearing characteristics of the ear with weighting curves (similar to loudness curves).
0 dB
15 - 25 dB
25 - 40 dB
40 - 55 dB
55 - 65 dB
65 - 75 dB
75 - 85 dB
85 - 90 dB
90 - 100 dB

The theoretical threshold of hearing

Quiet country
Suburbs at night
Quiet street
Average level of conversation and lectures with no outside sounds
Average daytime city noise on a commercial street not downtown
Downtown day and evening traffic
Conversation becomes difficult
Approaching peak levels at an orchestral concert, extended exposure is
dangerous.
100 - 115+ dB Recording studio, clubs and rock concert levels
115 dB +
Very dangerous without ear protection: deafness follows more rapidly
High peak levels are dangerous, but the ear has a reflex which helps protect it from occasional
sudden loud sounds. This is done by a tiny muscle pulling the stapes away from the ear drum,
but this reflex is not effective over extended periods of time, such as exposure to high SPLs in
rock concerts or many recording studio situations.
Questions
1.
Do musicians have any responsibility to the public to warn them, and/or try and protect
them from the extremely high sound pressure levels of much music that people are exposed to?
1a.

How can this be done?

2.

What would your advice be to a 15 year old who regularly listens to sounds over 105dB?

3.
How would you protest unacceptably high sound pressure levels in a concert, work or
public environment?

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READING X
PSYCHOACOUSTICS, LOUDNESS AND LOUD SOUNDS
PSYCHOACOUSTICS
Decibels (dB), Hertz (Hz), and Fourier Analysis are all scientific tools of measurement for sound.
It is possible to measure a sound of 47kHz, with an SPL of 15 dB, but nobodyexcept perhaps
a local batwould hear it. Psychoacoustics deals with the other side of soundthe perception of
sound, and the interpretation of sonic stimuli.
The scientific measurement of sounds are carried out by calibrated equipment and are measured
against defined standards, but psychoacoustic data is collected by asking people to assess and
judge sounds. These results will vary from individual to individual (and from test to test) and
will be defined as norms based upon statistical distribution and averaging of responses.
If a tree falls in a forest and there is no one there to hear it, does it make a sound?
This conundrum is a semantic question, not one for philosophical debate. If sound is defined (in
the scientific sense) as vibration in air of between 30 and 15,000 Hz, above 10 dB, then the
answer is yes. If the vibration of the air must be perceived by a person (psychoacoustic), then
the answer is no.

FREQUENCY AND PITCH

The frequency of a sound is normally taken as the number of vibrations per second (Hz) of its
fundamental, while pitch is understood as how high or low people perceive (the pitch of) a
sound to be. While this usually corresponds closely to frequency, there are times when changing
the intensity or spectrum of a sound without changing its frequency results in the change of the
perception of the pitch of a sound. (In certain frequency ranges, louder sounds appear flatter
[lower in pitch] than less loud sounds of the same frequency! Most disturbing when trying to
tune.)
When dealing with sounds containing inharmonic spectra, it is not possible in most cases to speak
of the fundamental frequency (pitch) of the sound, but we are normally able to categorize sounds
as low, middle or high, and can often compare sounds as lower or higher. Examples of this are
drums, cymbals, and gongs.

LOUDNESS AND INTENSITY

A sound may not be loud on Saturday night downtown, but listen to that sound on Sunday
morning in the suburbs! Some confusion surrounds this term, but technically, loudness, is
perceptual (psychoacoustic), and cannot be measured.
The intensity of a sound is measured in decibels, the loudness is measured in phons, and the
technique used for developing the phon scale was to test people.
This was done by playing various frequencies for people, through headphones, and asking them
which sound was louder. It happens that some sounds that have the same intensity (dB level),
sound different in loudness. This is particularly true in terms of very low and very high
frequencies. This difference between the measured level and the perceived level of a sound led to
the development of loudness level contours or more usually, loudness curves.

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LOUDNESS CURVES
When listening to quiet sounds, the ear is much less sensitive to low frequencies, notably below
400 Hz. The loudness curves also show that the ear is somewhat more sensitive to sounds in the 2
500 - 5000 Hz range than would be expected from just looking at decibel levels (intensity). As
the frequency increases, especially over 10 kHz, the ears sensitivity decreases very rapidly. With
aging, and other processes of hearing loss, sensitivity to high frequencies decreases virtually to the
point of disappearance.
In the diagram given below, the intensity level, in dB, is the vertical scale to the left and the
frequency in Hz is given across the bottom. The bottom curve of the graph represents the ideal
absolute threshold of hearing (although this is true for less than 2 % of North Americas
population).

120
100

dB

80
60
40
20
0

100 Hz

1 kHz

10 kHz

Equal Loudness Curves (or contours)

The ear is not equally sensitive to all frequencies. This sensitivity also varies with the amplitude
of the signal. The equal loudness curves show what the intensity of a sound must be at different
frequencies, to be perceived as equally loud. The curves are equally spaced at 1 kHz (1000 Hz),
and the 80 dB curve, for example, is the one that crosses 1 kHz at 80 dB. Notice the ears
increased sensitivity around 4 kHz.
In order for a sound of 100 Hz to sound as loud as a sound of 1 000 Hz at 40 dB, the 100 Hz
sound must have a sound pressure level (SPL) of about 62 - 64 dB. A difference of some 22 - 24
dB. (Find the curve that crosses 1 kHz at 40 dB, and follow it down to 100 Hz.)
In order for a sound of 100 Hz to be as loud as a sound of 1 kHz at 100 dB, the 100 Hz sound
must have a sound pressure level of about 101 dB. A difference of only 1 dB! This means that 100
Hz and 1 kHz at 100 dB, will sound about equal, but in order for them to balance one another
when they are reduced in level by 40 dB (to 60dB), the 100 Hz will sound some 20 - 25 dB quieter
than the 1 kHz tone.

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You may have noticed that when you turn the stereo down, the bass seems to disappear. To
compensate for this, many equipment manufacturers add a loudness switch to their equipment to
boost the bass when the volume is turned down.
These changes in the tonal balance of the sound, the relationship between low, mid and high
frequencies at different sound pressure levels is something to be considered when mixing sounds.
It may sound ggrreatt!! at 100 dB, but at 55 dB theres no bass. As a specific example in relation
to mixing, given below is a comparison of the perceived spectral balance of a signal at 100 dB and
at 60 dB. The example is normalized for 1 kHz and shows major differences in the frequency
ranges below 500 Hz and above 2 kHz.

100 dB
60 dB

20 dB

When listening at high sound pressure levels, not only is it not possible to produce a spectral
balance that will be the same at lower listening levels, but monitoring for long periods of time at
100 dB is very dangerous.

FREQUENCY RESPONSE OF HUMAN HEARING AND HEARING LOSS

As shown above, the statement that people can hear from 20 to 20 kHz is deceptive, for even
under ideal conditions, with ideal hearing, a 20 Hz tone has to be of an intensity of more than 70
dB before it can even be detected! The ear is less sensitive at very low frequencies and the curves
also show that the ear is less sensitive at very high frequencies.

CAUSES
There are four major causes of hearing loss (i) exposure to loud sounds, (ii) age, (iii) disease and
(iv) genetic. Everyone loses their hearing to some extent as they get older. The hearing loss takes
two forms, the first being a gradual loss of high frequencies sounds just become duller. By the
age of 65, most people hear very poorly over 5 000 Hz. The second form of hearing loss is what is
generally referred to as going deaf.
This takes the form of loss of sensitivity to quiet sounds. This is characteristic of all three types of
hearing loss, and is not normally detected until it is quite well establishedit just seems that
people are talking more quietly or mumbling more, and the individual asks for repetition of what
was said more often. To a certain extent, hearing aids are able to assist somewhat in many cases
of hearing loss.
Exposure to loud sounds is the greatest threat to hearing today and it takes two basic forms,
voluntary and involuntary. Exposure to 100 dB for 100 minutes (an average rock concert length,
but well above the average concert level) will result in a marked hearing loss (about 30 dB) for up

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to 36 hours. This happens mostly around the 4 000 Hz range, and repeated exposure increases
the extent of the hearing loss, which becomes permanent threshhold shift.
Repeated exposure, even over a long period of time, will lead to early hearing loss. 10 years of
daily exposure of 7 minutes to 103 dB signals will cause significant loss.
The noise level of the city goes up every year. Cars, buses, Mtro, ventilation systems etc, all add
the ambient noise level in the city. Some studies have suggested that city noise may be increasing
by as much as 1 dB per year, which is equal to 5 10 dB per decade. If normal quiet conversation
goes on at 45 - 55 dB, a city ambient noise level of 65 dB in the 1980s (Guy and de Maisonneuve)
is now closer to 75 dB (and getting louder). Levels where quiet conversation is impossible.

CAUTIONS, ADAPTATION AND COPING

Rule number one: they are your ears, protect them when the sound is too loud. This will include
wearing ear plugs or other protection when the situation is dangerous, or avoiding the situations
entirely. Even in concerts, while you may feel a little strange sitting with your fingers in your ears,
remember, they are your ears and youll only go deaf once. At your next visit to a doctor, request
a referral to an audiologist and have a hearing test done, While most people can live with poor
quality hearing, working in sound, we cant work without knowing our limitations.
The process of adaptation to hearing loss includes not being aware of the problem. People seem
to mumble more, and telephones arent as loud or as clear as they used to be. (Many of the newer
cheap phones have a very limited frequency response to begin with.)
When older (or younger) people get hearing aids for the first time, they often complain that they
sound tinny (they have become accustomed to poor high frequency response) and that the world
is too noisy. The option of silence is golden.
Secondary noises make comprehension for the hard-of-hearing difficult, and if the conversation
changes topic quickly, the somewhat deaf individual may lose track of the discussion, and often,
general or confusing answers and questions follow such a change. At such times, gentle
suggestions of getting and using a hearing aid may be in order.

HEARING PROTECTION
Three types of hearing protection are standardly availabledry cotton (or paper) plugs; plastic
or wax inserts and; full ear-muffs. The diagram below gives the approximate amounts of sound
attenuation. (In an emergency, a slight amount of reduction is possible by using a small, wellfitting wad of Kleenex, soaked in water, cooking oil or vaseline.)

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Attenuation with ear protectors (in dB)

0
Dry cotton plugs
10 dB

20 dB

Properly fitted wax

or plastic inserts

30 dB

Well-sealed full
ear-muffs

40 dB

Muffs and inserts

50 dB
100 Hz

200 Hz

500 Hz

1 kHz

2 kHz

5 kHz

Freely adapted from Berendt,

Corliss and Ojalvo, 1976

TINNITUS
It is estimated that one person in two will experience significant noise in their ears. The chronic
condition of this noise, tinnitus, can be in the form of high frequency whistles (steady state or
transitory), ringing bells, beeping tones, rushing wind-like noises, bangs, pops, crickets etc. It is
considered that there is no specific cure for this condition, although some people report relief with
some forms of acupuncture.
It may come about for genetic, and / or environmental reasons. Continuous exposure to loud
sounds is known to cause hearing loss and tinnitus. Certain foods, stress, allergies, fatigue have
all been known to contribute to the condition.
The sounds may be generated by the ear itself, and sensitive microphone may be able to detect
their presence. Other forms come about in the inner ear and the auditory nerve itself. There are
various ways of reducing the effects when the tinnitus is not too severe, and these include
masking with either music or gentle band-passed white noise.
Consult your doctor!

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READING - XI
SPATIAL ACTUALIZATION
Overview
A brief look at some of the features of sound projection, notably as it is practiced in
the Oscar Peterson Hall of Concordia University from the mid-1990s to the middle
2000s. Following the brief introduction are the preparation notes for the sound
projection of Minuit by Christian Calon, as prepared by Kevin Austin, revised in
1995.

GENERAL CONSIDERATIONS
Many who work in studios are limited to a two-channel playback, or even just headphones.
Having heard multi-channel sound playback, be it film, home-cinema or other multi-loudspeaker a
number of issues arise to which there are no firm answers. Works composed as two channels may
be presented over projection systems, but if the composer is not present to oversee or do the
projection themself, what can / should be done.
It has been found that with many pieces, projection over an array of speakers opens up the
sound. It is possible to hear into sounds, and separate them in ways not possible in most normal
studio situations. On rare occasion, a composer prepares notes on the nature of the projection,
and sometimes there may even be a performance score, but few multi-channel systems are the
same. The Concordia set-up was more or less stabilized into its current configuration in about
1994/95, so it is somewhat more predictable, and able to be learned with some degree of
confidence.
A major consideration is that the audience is spread out in the hall, and frequently the sound
projectionist is behind the best seats in the house. This requires some familiarity with the system
to employ it to maximal advantage, as the projectionist needs to run on instinct more than on
what they hear.
Directionality is governed largely by the amplitude of the signal, and in cases of multiple sources
of the same signal, proximity. The listener will hear a sound originating from the nearest possible
source, even if has somewhat less amplitude than other sources. This Haas or precedence effect
is a consideration, especially for the speakers along the sides of the hall which are closer to more
listeners than any others.
A common mistake is to treat the loudspeakers like light-sources. If there are two lights at some
distance (10 meters) and they are 1 meter apart, it is possible to turn them on and off and the eye
will see motion, and detect whether one or both are on. Sound sources are not the same. If two
speakers are at this distance, in most cases it will be impossible to tell whether one or both are on.
When six (or more speakers) are on, the addition of more speakers has much less result than
might appear.
As a rule of thumb, use fewer speakers (at any given time), and when a speaker is not in use, turn
if off completely. Even a small amount of leakage from a speaker being left slightly on will
destroy much of the spatial effect of the projection.
The majority of works presented in concert have two-channel sources CD. The left channel of
the source is split (via a passive splitter) into one half of the input channels of the mixer, and the
same with the right channel. Each of the split signals is fed to one input, and the direct out of this
input is sent to one (amplifier and) loudspeaker.

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SPEAKER TO FADER
As each fader controls one speaker, the question arises as to the layout of the one-dimensional
faders to the two dimensional speakers. The example below is simplified for the sake of clarity.
In this case there would be eight speakers, labeled channels A - H.
A

One view of this is that there are stereo pairs of speakers, A-B, C-D, E-F, G-H. and the mixer
faders would be assigned in pairs, from the front to the back.

A B

C D E

F G H

This is useful for works in which the channels are pairs or mostly stereo images. The advantage
is that the adjacent faders match the pairs of speakers, front to back.

G E C A B

D F H

An alternate to this is the Butterfly where the left faders, moving from the center, control the
left speakers, from front to back. This situation allows for a more dynamic sound projection and
requires a little more care when the stereo image needs to remain solid. This mapping allows for
front to back and circular motion quite easily.
A third alternative is a hybrid where some of the speakers (the MAIN group) are in the Butterfly,
but extra / specials are kept as stereo pairs.

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SPECIFIC ASPECTS OF SPEAKER PLACEMENT

In concept, the speakers are split into three virtual groups the MAINs, the SOLOs, and
specials. The diagram below shows the conception of two circles of speakers around the
audience main and solo.

SOUND PROJECTION
Not to scale BASICS uCuE

98 x
01 IX

There are four to six more speakers above and around the stage.
MAIN - FRONT

SOLO - WIDE

MAIN - FRONT

SOLO - WIDE

SOLO - FRONT
AUDIENCE

MAIN - SIDE

MAIN - SIDE

SOLO - SIDE

SOLO - SIDE

MAIN - BACK

MIXER

MAIN - BACK

SOLO - BACK

SOLO - BACK
MAIN SPEAKERS
SOLO SPEAKERS

The INPUTs on the MIXER are setup in the following fashion:

SPECIALs

SOLOs

BACK / SIDE / WIDE / FRONT

ABOVE

MAIN

FRONT / SIDE / BACK

The sound projectionist is at the mixer, somewhat behind the audience and through the motion of
the faders, the signal level in each loudspeaker is adjusted. Quick-tips: Few is better than more
when a speaker is not in use, turn it completely off. Being behind the audience, remember that
they are closer to the front speakers and the side speakers if it sounds balanced at the mix
position, there is too much front and side for the audience. Prepare well before going in. Develop
ideas of what you may want to try. Experiment. Have someone else do some projection while you
stand in the middle of the audience area. Move about the audience area to get a sense of what
will be heard in different locations.

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CALON MINUIT (TIMELINE)

A brief study in the preparation of a sound projection timeline.
The first step was to listen to the piece many times, then to prepare a text timeline with (simple)
indications of key points and important, easily identifiable features. This included one or two word
descriptions of sounds / effects, and text. This is a very detailed piece and there are about 220 cue
points in the 40 minutes, averaging about 5 or 6 per minute.
With the basic timeline created, ideas for speakers / directions / changes were added at the cue points.
0:00 Birds, swing, fade up
MAIN
0:15 + REAR
0:23 vielle histroire
0:34 le jour sgards
+ SIDES
0:43 triangulaire
- SIDES
0:51 crpescule
0:58 birds into reverberated field
- MAIN
1:15 OUT
- REAR
Stasis
1:17 slow fade up of chord
+ ABOVE
Slow L-R Panning
1:25 voice in & underlying walking
1:33 distant garbled voice
+REAR
1:39 traffique (1:40 clickk)
1:48 toujours (minor chord)
Stasis
1:57 sans cesse (background clears)
-REAR
No Panning
2:03 partout (strong reverb)
+ DIST
2:07 voice out long chord cresc peaks at
2:14 where reverb begins & fade
2:23 vocal chord
2:25 dautre
2:27 down gliss
+ SIDES
Slight panning
2:32 lots of strong bass
2:41 quasi upward glisses to
:47 - :57
Some spin
2:50 slightly drunken
swirling to
2:57 poussire
3:01 la longue
calmed with background bell
+MAIN
- REAR
+ABOVE
+ DIST
3:10 low fr. w reverb
- MAIN
3:16 fm complex and low freq rumble
+ SOLO
3:19 le saut, la bordure voice no reverb
+SIDE
3:29 ce que lhomme disembodied voice
3:33 fm complex swell (massed quality)
molto cresc :35 +MAIN
3:40
with swirls
3:46 at rest
3:51 static low fm complex dim
3:59 return to stasis
4:02 disembodied voice
4:06 static low fm complex & dim and disembodied voice
4:11 clear voice with other layers which die (swirl to up) and return by
4:27 clear voice, return of background layers (4:30 on)
4:35 chape sub molto crec
4:43 stasis and centering fade out by 4:58
5:00 VOILA - very present
5:07 Regard
5:12 EVERYWHERE FULL

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5:16 strong lows

5:26 highs, background murmurs, slow swirls, 5:33 some erratic faster until
5:47 relative stasis
5:53 bell, mumble voices and down gliss
6:11 lows and layers of fm, with forceful lows! grows with down gliss, dim
6:26 fmd voice and begin of languid swirls of fm and glisses
6:45 proceding to relative stasis and suddenly
6:53 swirls and stasis, moving to distant by
7:06 returning closer, quieter
7:12 voice
7:17 strong panned med slow
7:26 faster pan, female ah oui, grunts
7:31 more generalized swirls
7:39 wooden klbell : stasis
7:42 voice all around, slow swirls
7:48 long down gliss, chimes
8:07 fms down gliss
8:16 up glisses, crossing more and longer
8:32 swirls of type, losing specific direction by 8:44
8:50 dim and localization into close speakers, dim continues, stasis
9:02 added and lost distances
9:08 with sides and shifts, dim out at 9:18
9:19 FULL attack and fade to 9:24
9:26 cresc of movement (moderate) to stasis by 9:40
9:41 moving in
9:50 solos: spreading to princ
10:03 voice, 10:05 LvB returns to distant reverb
10:19 small bells and out total 10:22
10:24 other world, rear, to sides 10:33 fades out
10:38 sides to front by 10:40 (voice)
10:52 fm glisses (distant) confusion
10:55 slightly disorinetated swirling begins severe level swings, slightly drunk
11:20 more and more frunk but beginning to be patterned, but, sudden;y
11:29 boom a form of stillness, sound floods all around
11:46 begins process of thining
11:59 has settled towards front
12:05 fully about (slight lateral movement) to stasis at
12:17 voice (commentaire) clear left-right (front and side only) placement 12:21
12:23 panning and motion increasing
12:32 sudden stasis into another, much fuller field
12:36 complete addition of rear speakers, swirls on the waves
12:48 sempre molto cresc
12:59 finding stasis, moving to solos
13:09 begin to add sides, move to swirl, for fade, (:19 - :24)
13:25 to mains and touch of sides adding
13:40 cresc into rear and swirls cresc
13:47 cresc to distant (:55)
14:00 extended wavelike ecstatic swings and wild pans to calming
14:15 stasis (front / rear) move to
14:22 sides move in to solos, and far by
14:31 voice (female) stasis, support fade until 14:50
14:51 molto cresc on single swing
15:02 follow the wide and distant swings
15:16 voice in mains
15:33 fm complex swings through to 15:42
15:42 full and movement to settled but loud by 15:52
15:55 female voice center, support cresc

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16:05 help in dispersion of sounds

16:18 female in mains; out by 16:31
16:33 fm complex in long slow arc towards, away, mains
16:44 reverbed gliss
16:56 upper and distant, molto dim
17:07 distant female voice kept at low level
17:15 cresc begins
17:22 long slow swing through fields, circular, with mains always in
17:33 slightly maddened swirling, molto cresc to
17:55 virtually everything held til
18:05 some drops to
18:15 stabilizing of level and placement
18:34 prepare for rear to distant swings
18:47 panning swings and more rapid, unpatterned
19:00 continuing cresc with swings to
19:11 some stasis, some sudden movements to stasis
19:19 prepare for wide swings and incoherent movement
19:35 the sounds continue to approach and swing in from many directions
19:40 sudden stasis BUT
19:46 movement
19:49 maddened movement to
20:13 everything full move to main
20:24 out
20:30 low slow fade in
20:45 metallic echo with voices far and in slight motion fade out
21:05 silence
21:11 rush of wave (far to main)
21:18 female voice over waves main and solo
21:25 slowly add sides
21:40 slowly add rear
21:55 remove sides
22:00 to mains to full to
22:11 distant to fade
22:20 distant and low, molto cresc to
22:42 NUITS
22:51 OME
22:58 full front (PAROLE)
23:04 swirling in front and to sides
23:14 blurk front cut!
23:20 rapid fade up from rear, swirl to front
23:31 blurk front, an motion to sides/rear; out by 2:47
23:53 distant - erratic panning and levels, generally cresc until
24:09 begin to have patterned motion, still quite fast and following sounds
24:32 suddent stasis - front moving to distant and quiet
24:45 moving onto listener with some erratic panning to
24:57 drop back, erratic motion, but generally dim
25:00 gradual continuous cresc and varying rates of panning up to
25:28 stasis; interupted by sudden pans
25:40 motion in swim of pan
25:58 swimming in wash, cresc, dim, wide and bouyant
26:16 prepare for spinning from
26:19 into
26:29 voice centering; brief spin (2)
26:34 silence
26:38 main and distant obscurit
26:45 distant, quiet and solo
26:59 to main, to rear by 27:08

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27:10 main (voice)

27:14 distant, above, quiet, calmish (some spin)
27:35 fm voice (main) and return to distant; dim
27:52 main; (:53 voice) - fade to quiet
28:08 jamais; silence until
28:12 distant, very rapid into mains
28:25 add side, follow into rear (:37)
28:44 add above and distant; panning over top
29:00 suddenly add in sides
29:10 jump to main and solos; relative stasis
29:27 slowly add sides (erratic)
29:35 main, sides, rear; follow massive cresc right to cut at
29:55 SILENCE
29:58 distant, quiet, gradual cresc
30:05 slowly pulling forward
30:17 into main, over sides and rear, cresc, dim
30:25 rear to top and fade
30:33SILENCE
30:40 Mains; add; add; add; cresc
31:07 cresc stabilizes; begins slow, wide spins in time with events
31:28 becomes more drunken and wider in range
31:40 more and wider swings
31:55 stabilizes
31:59 swings, less wide
32:08 voice, stabilized, towards rear 32:18
32:20 soleil cue to rush to front and spin around stage
32:25 wild spins around stage, until
32:40 stasis in rear and side
32:49 move into above and distant
33:01 add solo and collapse into them, only to pan out by
33:10 spins of various motions, quite random, erratic
33:25 erratic, jumpy
33:35 STASIS; silence 33:41 FULL!! and dim
33:50 lumire de la nuit - MAIN
33:53 gasp - sides (lower) follow sounds away to
34:14 spin in one and two speaker groups
34:26 solo ens :31
34:35 MAIN - full to solos
34:49 MAIN - add sides (low) - add distant
35:10 remove main
35:17 remove distant - add rear - add above - add distant
35:44 remove rear - keep distant, pan and slight spins, increasing
36:00 more active spins
36:15 prepare to follow wilder pans and spins
36:28 add MAINS until
36:34 remove all but solos (low levels)
36:45 add distant and overhead
36:51 add rear (some spins)
37:06 cresc
37:17 add spins; (sped laughs)
37:26 aim for dizzying and great sweeps
37:37 stabilizing
37:44 heading for MAINs
37:59 MAINS, sides, solos; processed laughter disintegrates
38:04 no sides, fade solos (laughter fades)
38:09 MAINS only; 38:11 NUIT

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38:38 add solos; remove MAIN

39:02 add distant
39:09 remove main (dim)
39:22 move to overhead and rear
39:26 choir only
39:30 add rear
39:34 add sides, remove rear
39:43 pan from sides to main
39:52 pan from main to above and distant
This was taken, and then converted to a graphic notation that because of the size and density of
the piece was best notated top to bottom on the page.

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CALON MINUIT (PROJECTION SCORE)

CALON Minuit - p.1

rev 95 - xi

1
2
3
R Side MA

Fade up to

Birds, swing

4 5 6
So Sp1 Sp2

7
Nr

8
9
Di Ab

0:00

Stasis

:15

vielle histoire

:23

le jour s'gards

:34

tringulaire

:43

crpuscule

:51

birds into rev field

0:58

OUT; chord slow fade

1:15
:19

voices, walking &c

traffic, clickk

trafic

minor chord

toujours

(bckgnd clears) sans cesse

Stasis

:25

to

:33

slow panning

:39

to

:48

Stasis

1:57

partout l'horizon

Side MA So* S*1 S*2

Nr Di Ab

Side MA

Nr Di Ab

2:03

voice out; chord

:07
:14

vocal chord

:23
d'autres ont lev

:25

down gliss

:27
slight panning

LOTS of bass

:32

quasi-up gliss

:41
some SPIN

slight drunken

:47

poussire
la langue nue

2:57
calmed w bell

3:01

low fr reverb

:10

fm complex

:16
le saux, la bord

:19

disembod vc ce que l'homme

:29

fm

:33

point minuit
low fm

MOLTO CRES

:35

with swirls

:40

slight panning

:46

Stasis

:48

slight panning

:51

Stasis

EAMT

3:59

79

So Sp1 Sp2

Readings

1
2
3
R Side MA

CALON Minuit - p. 2
disemb. voice

4 5 6
So Sp1 Sp2

7
Nr

8
9
Di Ab

4:02

low fm

some SPIN

:06

clear voice

:11

clear voice

SUB. molto

:27

lui chappe

CRES

:35

c'est

Stasis

:43

Voila!

4:59
5:00

Regard

:07

gong

FULL!

:12

strong lows

Stasis

:16

highs, murmurs

SLOWSPIN

:26

erratic, faster

:33

Stasis

:47

bell, mumb. gliss

quick SPIN

Side MA So* S*1 S*2

Nr Di Ab

Side MA

Nr Di Ab

5:53

fm, down gliss

6:11
slight panning

voice

:26

Stasis

:45

swirls, SPIN

6:53

closer, quieter

7:06

strong panning

:12

TEXT

faster panning

:17

ah oui

slow -> fast

:26

swirls

:31

Stasis

:39

wooden kl'bell
TEXT
fm gliss down

cresc and languid

slow swirls

:42

languid

7:48

REAR ->

8:07
:16

FAR ->

:32

swirls, lose

:44

direct

8:50

MAIN

9:02

DIM

EAMT

:08

80

So Sp1 Sp2

Readings

1
2
3
R Side MA

CALON Minuit - p. 3
bells

4 5 6
So Sp1 Sp2

7
Nr

8
9
Di Ab

9:08
SUB fff

:19

quick SPIN

:24

Stasis

:26

(moving in)

:41

movement

9:50
TEXT

10:03

LvB

:05
(moving out)

:19
:24
:33

fm gli. confusion des hommes

:38
:41

distant

panning
TEXT

boom - stillness

:52

slightly dis-

10:55

oriented to drunk

11:10

quasi-patterned

:20

fem ooh
ah

Side MA So* S*1 S*2

Nr Di Ab

Side MA

Nr Di Ab

:29
thinning

:46
:49

klunk
commentaire
strike

towards front

11:59

Stasis

12:05

panning

:17

Sub Stasis

:23

addition by

:32

waves

:36

cresc

:48

Stasis

12:59

follow

13:09

WAVES

:19

calmer

:24
:25
:40

swirl-gliss

:47
13:55

to wild swings

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81

So Sp1 Sp2

Readings

1
2
3
R Side MA

CALON Minuit - p. 4
WILD SPIN
TEXT
au loins dans la

cela ce passerait
fm complexes

assist dispersion

7
Nr

8
9
Di Ab

14:00

Stasis

:15

panning

:22
:31

Stasis
molto CRESC

14:50

wide dist swings

15:02

reduced swings

:16

great slow whirls

:33

settling and

:42
:52

MOLTO CRESC
c'tait un geste

4 5 6
So Sp1 Sp2

CENTER

15:55

poco cr &dim

16:05

on aurait dit ces

:18
R

Side MA So* S*1 S*2

Nr Di Ab

Side MA

Nr Di Ab

:31
:33

molto dim
reverbed gliss

:44
16:56
il n'y a plus

sempre piano

plus de temps

poco cresc

17:07
:15
:16
:22

long swings
il ne resterait

:28
:33

molto CRESC!
held

17:55
18:05

puis, tout se divis poco quasi dim

pousire de pous
:38 crackles start

:07

stabilize

:15

swings REAR ->

:24

DISTANT

:34
18:47

CRESC sempre
choir

some stasis

:11

wild swings, cont.

:19

erratic swings

:35

sudden STASIS

EAMT

19:00

19:40

82

So Sp1 Sp2

Readings

1
2
3
R Side MA

CALON Minuit - p. 5
STASIS

19:40

SPINCRESC

19:46

sfffzmp - pp

20:13

out

4 5 6
So Sp1 Sp2

7
Nr

8
9
Di Ab

:24

:30
metallic voices

20:45
silence

21:05

rush of wave

:11
c'tait simple

:18
:25

entrain de respirer

:36
R

Side MA So* S*1 S*2

Nr Di Ab

Side MA

Nr Di Ab

:40
21:55
tout le reste suivait

22:00
:03
:11
low, MOLTO

:20

NUITS

CRESC

:42

EAU

slowly

:51
22:58

parole

23:00
swirl front/sides

:04
:14
:16

lumire

:20
:31
:47
erratic panning

23:53

some patterned

24:09

fragmented voice

:26
vipres

tombeau des lumires

EAMT

STASIS

:32
24:38

83

So Sp1 Sp2

Readings

1
2
3
R Side MA

CALON Minuit - p. 6
erratic panning

24:45

general dim

24:57

poco cresc

25:00

4 5 6
So Sp1 Sp2

7
Nr

8
9
Di Ab

25:11
ruisseau

des voiles

25:14
STASIS

25:28

swim of pans

25:38

cr, dim, wide and

25:40

bouyant

25:50

ouverture

25:58
26:16
SPIN

26:19

Stasis ; SPIN

26:29

envol des nues

R

Side MA So* S*1 S*2

Nr Di Ab

Side MA

Nr Di Ab

26:34
obscurit

26:38
26:45
26:59
27:08

fm

faisceaux des

27:10

lum

27:14
dim (pulse)

coeur du coeur
jamais

27:35
27:52

RAPID CRESC

28:06
28:12
28:25
28:37

asc fripple

pan over top

28:44

Stasis

29:00
29:10

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MOLTO

29:27

CRESC!!

29:35

SILENCE

29:55

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Readings

1
2
3
R Side MA

CALON Minuit - p. 7
SILENCE

4 5 6
So Sp1 Sp2

7
Nr

8
9
Di Ab

29:55
29:58

mirroir

30:05
:17
:25
mirroir

soleil

SILENCE

:33

ppp to

30:40

f cresc

31:07

drunken swings

:28

more and wider

:40

stasis

:53

less wide swings

31:59
32:08

rivage invers

:18
soleil
soleil des litanies

rushing and

:20

spinning

:25

chopping

:29

stasis rear/side

:40

Side MA So* S*1 S*2

Nr Di Ab

Side MA

Nr Di Ab

32:49
33:01

coeurs des cits

spins

:10

erratic, jumpy

:25

STASIS; silence

:35
:41
:50

lumire de la nuit
gasp!

33:53
34:14

fm

:26

pas trs loin

:31
:35
:39
:43

cathdrale
vertbr

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1
2
3
R Side MA

CALON Minuit - p. 8

4 5 6
So Sp1 Sp2

7
Nr

8
9
Di Ab

34:49
35:10
:17
nuit

:19
:25

echo voice

solo build

35:44
36:00

spins (bits)

:15
:28

spins around

:34
:45
36:51
37:06

laugh evolving

:17
R

Side MA So* S*1 S*2

Nr Di Ab

Side MA

Nr Di Ab

:26
follow wide swings
laugh

STABILIZE

:37
:44
37:59
38:04

nuit

MAIN ONLY

:09
:15

ha he ha ha

:29

CUT

towards

38:38

disintegration

39:02

away

:07

restart

:09
:19
pinceau

:22

choir

:26
:30
de temps en temp

:31
:34

et je n'ai jamais

:43
39:52

qui

40:01

rev 95 - xi

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READING XII
REFLECTION AND REVERBERATION
OverView
This reading examines of acoustics related to soundwaves and their reflections.
Some aspects of previous readings will now have a clearer physical basis.

VELOCITY, WAVELENGTH AND FREQUENCY

Sound travels in air with a velocity of approximately 345 meters per second (m/s), traveling 34.5
meters in 100 milliseconds (ms) and 3.45 meters in 10 ms. Wavelength equals the velocity divided
by the frequency. (Wavelength = vel / freq)
Wavelength
5 meters
2 meters
.29 meters
.1 meters
.029 meters

=
=
=
=
=

345 (m/s)
345 (m/s)
345 (m/s)
345 (m/s)
345 (m/s)

Frequency
/
69 (Hz)
/
172.5 (Hz)
/
1 000 (Hz)
/
3 450 (Hz) (10 cm)
/ 10 000 (Hz) (2.9 cm)

The higher the frequency, the shorter the wavelength.

PROPAGATION
Sound waves move away from a source in all directions diminishing in intensity as they do so,
and unless they encounter an obstacle, will continue to do so. One or more of three things will
happen when an obstacle is encountered: (i) the energy of the sound wave will be absorbed (and
turned into heat, or it may be re-transmitted); (ii) the sound wave will be reflected; (iii) the sound
wave will go around the obstacle (relatively) undisturbed.

(A) Sound waves travel away from a source in all directions. This can be shown either as
concentric circles, or for the sake of simplicity, as straight lines (with arrow heads).
(B) When a sound wave encounters an object, it may be reflected.
(C) The angle at which the sound is reflected is equal to the angle at which it hits the surface.

With objects of relatively small dimensions, (a few centimeters to a few meters), all three of these
may happen. The amount and combination of them will be a function of (a) the frequency
(components) of the sound, and (b) the physical nature of the object (size and materials).

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Wavelength (ie frequency) is important, because when the object (or surface) is small in relation to
the wavelength (less than one-quarter of a wavelength), the wave passes around it relatively
undisturbed. In a closed space, all of the sound will be eventually be absorbed, possibly after
many reflections.

ABSORPTION
The nature of absorption is that the energy of the sound is lost in the object (usually becoming
heat). All materials absorb some of the energy of the sound that reaches them. We are accustomed
to the idea that soft, fluffy and textured surfaces absorb sound. Carpets, cushions and curtains in
a room help absorb sound. The unit of measure for absorption is the sabin.
An open window, one foot square, (which in effect absorbs all of the sound that reaches it), has
an absorption of one sabin. This is sometimes converted into a sound absorption coefficient, such
that a sound absorption coefficient of 1 means that 100% of the sound that reaches it is
absorbed.
If there are four reflections from a surface with a coefficient of .5 (50%), the first reflection will
have 50% of the original energy, the second 25% (50% of 50%), the third 12.5%, the fourth 6.25%
etc.
You may wish to think of the reflective surface as a very complex filter, reflecting certain
frequencies and certain frequency ranges more than others. While an object may absorb high
frequencies very well, it may be quite reflective at low frequencies. The effect of this, like anything
that effects the relationship of high and low frequencies, will be to alter the spectrum of the
sound.
Some materials and structures absorb sound (vibrations) and then retransmit them. This is
sometimes found for example in buildings where a stereo system vibrates the floor and beams in
one place, and the sound is heard in other parts of the building. This is called structural
transmission.

REFLECTION
The nature of reflection is that the sound wave(s) that reach the surface are reflected to some
extent. Any portion of the sound wave that is not absorbed is reflected, and this is frequency
dependent as noted before (ie not all frequencies will be reflected with the same intensity).
Typically, hard surfaces (glass, steel, plastic, varnished wood etc) will be reflective in the high
frequency region, and, if the object is large, also in the low frequency region. Open surfaces (those
that contain many minute holes or have trapped air spacesconcrete or padding) will be poor
reflectors, but again this is often frequency dependent.
Flat surfaces tend to reflect sounds as shown in (B) and (C) above (page 1). Most room surfaces
are flat and straight and this leads to relatively simple, and quite predictable types of sound
reflection.
Control rooms in recording studios will often have walls which have only small sections of flat
surfaces, and these will be non-parallel (see below). This provides irregular but relatively
predictable patterns of reflection. Of course, once a sound has been reflected in a room, it is
subsequently reflected from other surfaces, leading to reverberation.

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In a concert hall, while regular reflection is important, scattering of the sound is also very
important in the creation of reverberation. Effective scattering helps to avoid discernable echoes
from occurring. For this reason irregular and curved surfaces are often used. (Look at the walls
and ceiling in the Oscar Peterson Concert Hall.)

The shape of the surface will determine how the sound waves will be reflected.
(D) Concave surfaces will tend to focus waves back towards a central position.
(E) Convex surfaces will tend to act as diffusers, scattering sound waves that reach them.

(F) Complex surfaces will tend to scatter sound waves whose wavelength is short in relation to
the dimensions of the complex surface.
(G) When there are two (or more) non-parallel surfaces in proximity, multiple reflections may
be created that will help scattering the sound waves.
(H) Parallel surfaces create a situation where the wave continues to bounce between two
surfaces, eg walls, or ceiling and floor, often producing flutter echo. (See room resonances,
below.)

REVERBERATION WITHIN A ROOM

Imagine a simple sound source in a room producing one short sound. The sound wave travels
away from the source and hits the closest objecta wall. Upon striking the wall, some of the
energy is absorbed and some is reflected. There are now two parts of this sound wave in the
roomthe original sound, and the first reflection. This reflected wave travels across the room,
and strikes another wall. Some energy is absorbed, some is reflected. Note that the amplitude of
the signal is decreased after every reflection.
At some point the original wave will have reached all of the surfaces, and the only waves left in
the room will be those that have been reflected one or more times, and after each reflection, the
amplitude will have diminished, and will continue to do so unless more sound is created.

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Amplitude

Time
Decreasing amplitude of multiply reflected signal.
The first reflection to reach the listener is critical, since it provides psychoacoustic clues about the
nature of the physical environment, and also about the nature of the sound source. Since sound
travels at approximately 345 meters per second (m/s), if the first reflection arrives back at the
source after 20 ms, then the nearest reflective surface is 3.45 meters. (10 ms to reach the wall, 10
ms for the return.)
In a room, the sound will go out in all directions, and therefore will strike many surfaces and be
returned to the listener. In a normal room with four walls, there will be six early reflections, one
from each wall and one from the ceiling and one from the floora total of seven waves reaching
the listener initially.
(b)
Source
(a)
(c)

Listener

(c)

This two dimensional representation shows that of all of the sound waves that reach the
listener, only one of them, (a) is direct; (b) is the first reflection; and (c) is representative of
other early reflections.
And each of the six early reflections will itself be reflected from the other five room surfaces, and
each of these (some 30) reflections will be reflected from the other five surfaces etc. These
reflected waves form the reverberation.

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REVERBERATION TIME AND REFLECTION DENSITY

Reverberation time is defined as the time required for the level of a 1 kHz signal to decrease by 60
dB. By knowing the size of the room, and the coefficients of absorption of the surfaces, it is
possible to calculate this value with a fair degree of accuracy.
It can happen that a very large, highly absorbent room to have the same reverberation time as a
small, highly reflective room, however, they would have different reflection densities. That is to say,
that in the smaller room, there would be many more reflections.
The Oscar Peterson Concert Hall has a reverberation time of around 1.5 seconds. Many
bathrooms have similar reverberation times, however a bathroom has a much higher density of
reflected signals.

Time

Time
A graphic portrayal of reflection density.

It is important to note that the definition only refers to a 1 kHz signal. It usually happens that
different frequencies decay at different rates because of differing coefficients of absorption at
these frequencies. The Oscar Peterson Concert Hall is remarkably flat in this respect, showing
almost no coloration, except for, currently, a slight increase in low frequency absorption.

FREE FIELD - REVERBERANT FIELD

Out-of-doors, with no objects present, there is (virtually) no reflected sound, and sound
amplitude diminishes, ideally, at the rate of 6 dB for every doubling of distance. This is a free
field condition.

80 dB

Twice the
distance
6 dB

74 dB

SPL
in dB
Distance from source

The same rule of diminishing sound pressure level (SPL) applies indoors, but there is a significant
change related to the reflected signals. The reflected elements of a signal become a significantly

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greater percentage of the overall sound as we move away from the sound source. This is partially
due to the fact that there are many reflected waves, but only one direct sound wave.
There usually comes a place (three dimensionally) where the combined reflected waves are only 3
dB less than the direct signal, and the sound pressure level ceases to diminish at the 6 dB per
doubling of distance rate. This is the boundary of the free-field. Beyond this line, the sound level
diminishes less quickly.
Free field

SPL
in dB
Reverberant field
Distance from source

The region where there is as much, or more, reflected signal than original sound, is called the
reverberant field. In some highly reverberant places, like the Loyola Chapel, the free field may
extend less than 2 meters.

FLUTTER ECHO AND ROOM RESONANCES

Parallel surfaces in a room, as shown in diagram H above, may lead to two types of
problemsflutter echo and room resonances. Flutter echo occurs when the reflecting surfaces are
adequately far apart that each individual reflection of the sound is audibleusually below 15
Hz, which means a distance of 12 - 15 meters or more.

Side view

Top view

There is such an echo in RF-101, and also one in the Victoria mtro station. In the mtro station,
one of the surfaces is a concave surface that focuses sounds downwards and from the circular
walls, back to the center of the circle. The Victoria Square mtro station refocuses sounds back to
the center of the circle both vertically and horizontally.
Again with reflective parallel walls there is another problem which may arise. When the distance
between the walls is equal to one-half the wavelength of a frequency (or the wavelength, or 1.5, or
2 times etc), it is very easy to set up a sympathetic resonance at these frequencies. This room
resonance is also called a room node, or sometimes incorrectly, a standing wave.

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If two dimensions of the room are the same (a square room), this problem is compounded, as it
will be if the dimensions are whole number ratios of each other, eg, 3 meters wide, by 6 meters
long.
Such problems are solved by breaking up these large flat surfaces by the addition of materials or
irregular objects. They need to be large in relation to the wavelength to be effective. The old homestudio trick of egg-cartons on the walls will only break up frequencies with wave lengths of less
than about 6 cm (above 4 kHz). The main effect of the egg-carton treatment is to change the
overall coefficient of absorption of the walls, especially at high frequencies.

ELECTRONIC REVERBERATION
Given all of these variables, it can be seen that electronic reverberation can simulate natural
reverberation if there are enough parameters controlled in an adequately precise manner. Some of
the newer reverberation units allow software control of more than 20 elements.

TOTAL ABSORPTION: ANECHOIC CHAMBERS AND OUT-OF-DOORS

At ground level out-of-doors, there is still one reflection of sound present even under ideal
conditions: that which comes from the sound being reflected from the earth. To create a totally
reflection-free environment, anechoic chambers have been developed. This means that any
reverberation that is present, is more than 60 dB below the original sound.

This is done by making an isolated room, usually inside another room, suspended on a shock
absorbing system so that no external vibration reaches it. The interior of this interior room is filled
with very large wedges of highly absorbent sound material. In this way, sounds are reflected
away from the source, and because of the highly absorbent materials used, all more than 60dB
of the sound is absorbed.
Notice that the effective surface area of the walls is multiplied many times over by the wedge
shaped surface. These wedges may be as much as 1 meter or more in depth. They will cover all of
the surfaces of the room, walls, ceiling and floor.
These rooms are sometimes used for psychoacoustic testing, and for testing sound equipment,
specifically microphones and loudspeakers, where any residual reverberation would interfere with
the measurements.

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READING XIII
SOUND, VIBRATION, SPECTRUM AND MODELS FOR SPECTRAL
DEVELOPMENT:
OverView
This speculative reading proposes a(nother) model for the description and
classification of sounds.
Imagine a vibrating point source such as the reed of a saxophone, or a specific point on a guitar
string. At any one moment in time, it is only one locationit is displaced from its point of rest.
This displacement has displaced the molecules of air adjacent to it.
Through sound transmission, this displacement of the air reaches a microphone. The diaphragm
of the microphone is also displaced (an equivalent amount). This displacement is transduced into
electricity by the microphone, and eventually this electricity reaches a loudspeaker, where it is
transduced back into displacement of the air.

WAVES AND OSCILLOSCOPES; VIBRATION AND VARIATION

When looking at an oscilloscope, we see the displacement (from the zero point or crossing) that is
current, however because of the latency of the tube in the scope (and the re-scanning), we see a
continuous line (wave). Digital sound software stored the waveshape for later examination.
Until this point, we have only worked with the (fictional) idea of a time-slice. We have dealt
with a single point-in-time. (This is the basis of sampling, see previous.) But vibration is ongoing.
Certain types of sounds produce waveshapes which are regularoscillators for example. Since
there is no change in the wave-shape, there is no change in the spectrum (or timbre) of the sound.

INTRODUCTION
Almost all natural sounds change waveshape over time. This proposed model for spectral
development will start with three basic family types: instrumental, voice, and environmental.

INSTRUMENTAL:
Instrumental families are based upon similarity, constancy of spectral type and restriction or
limitation of spectral evolution. In the traditional western model for the orchestra, for example the
string family, instruments are designed so that they each occupy a portion of the entire range of
pitches that are to be represented, while remaining spectrally relatively constantviolin, viola,
cello and double bass.
A number of factors come into play in the description and logical grouping of instruments:
method of articulation
blowing: woodwinds and brasswith the subcategories of edge tone (flute and piccolo),
double reed (oboe, english horn and bassoons), single reed (clarinet and saxophone
families) and vibrating lips (trumpet, french horn, trombone, tuba etc)

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 bowing/rubbing/scraping: strings and some percussion; the energy flows in on a continuing

basis
striking/shaking: percussionwith a number of subcategories including controlled sticks,
thrown hammers);
vocalizing: (singing, speaking, other vocal utterances)
The description of the method of articulation is important because one of the characteristics of
acoustic sounds is that the attack transient which occurs when the system is set into vibration,
produces an extremely complex, and characteristically identifiable signature. It is so
characteristic that if the attack from an instrumental source, eg cello, is removed, it may become
almost impossible to identify the instrument, and if that transient is attached to the sustained
portion of another instrument, eg french horn, the sound is frequently perceived as being a cello.
In the study of analog synthesis, we speak of families of patches and generative types. This
model is similar to that upon which much western music is based, that is constancy of spectral
type and restriction or limitation of spectral evolution.
Within the percussion family, there are several ways of grouping families, the largest division
being between pitched and unpitched. Another grouping is based upon the material of the
instrumentwood, metal, skin etc. These two methods overlap, but the objective in creating the
family is the maintaining of constancy.
It is very unusual for traditional western instruments to have a wide variety of timbres available.
This is also reflected in the notation, inasmuch as it is very difficult to specify timbral changes
with anything near the precision of indicating changes of pitch, rhythm or dynamics.
One exception could be the organ, but it is probably more accurate to describe the organ as many
instruments put together. The pipes or ranks of the organ are joined together by logical means
based upon traditional western instrumental models.

VOICE:
The human voice is a special case unto itself. Traditionally in the west, the voice is a family of
instrumentssoprano, alto, tenor, baritone and bass. The characteristic feature of the voice is its
ability to modify its spectrum with great ease and varietythe basic division being between
voiced and unvoiced sounds.
The complexity and rapidity of the spectral shifts, when transferred to almost any other sound
source, identify a vocal origin for the sounds. It is surprising how easy it is to pick out voice
sounds even within extremely complex sonic textures.

ENVIRONMENTAL:
This family type is characterized by surprise and the complexity of its variation. For the moment,
let us presume three basic sub-divisions: gestalt, layered and segmented. They will not have
strong lines of demarcation, and will rely upon each other for clarification.
Gestalt - These would include any (relatively) simple sounds which are perceived (or
treated) as a whole without extension (see the others below). Such sounds as the ocean,
a train, a door, a rolling ball etc
Layered - These would include spectral evolution where the elements are perceived (or
treated) as individual layers. Such examples as sitting in a park and listening to the

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various layers of activity. This could be simulated by a multitrack recording of the

individual events.
Segmented (or metaphorical families) - These, could be somewhat like the above, except
that the perceptual groupings are such that one makes relationships through
metaphorical connections, or connections through physical proximity. All of the sounds
of a busmotor, brakes, voices, money dropping, transfer machine, doors etc, which
while not evolving acoustically in the same way, or coming from a family of objects which
are physically related (in terms of sound generation), are metaphorically or objectoriented related.

INTERVALLIC DISTANCES
Just as it is possible to speak about the location, comparison and distance between pitches
(high/low; small/large; 4 semitones), dynamic levels (loud/soft; small/large; 12 dB), or even
cities (Montral/Toronto; great/ok; 600 km or 6 hours), it may be possible to develop a
descriptivecomparativeevaluative method which will allow for the discussion about the
intervallic distances between sounds or sound events. This idea can be applied both locally
(microstructure) and globally (macrostructure).
Sounds (events) may be related to each other and grouped into families based upon many
models, and among those introduced so far are relationship through (i) common source or generative type (white noise; analog synthesis; FM; etc); (ii) common processing/transformation; ((iii)
mode of articulation ?); (iv) spectral development; (v) metaphorical relatedness; (vi) gestural
complementarity; (vii) other.

QUESTIONS
1.

Which is closer: a piano a violin; a bus a thunder storm. Explain.

2.
Find sets of sounds which when categorized according to acoustical means are similar,
but in terms of metaphor are far apart. Similarly, find sets of sounds which when categorized
according to acoustical means are far apart, but in terms of metaphor are similar!

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READING XIV
COMPOSITIONAL STRATEGIES
OverView
Continuing to find models for description, this reading proposes a set of descriptors
for gesture, both changing and static. The terms introduced would often be multidimensional in application, and build upon physical, psychological, emotional and
perceptual structures.

Introduction

Traditional musics have developed vocabularies for describing many types and forms of
compositional thought, analysis and presentation. Electroacoustics has not developed (m)any
lexicons for this area, and this is the first of a series of articles aimed at developing some tools.
The other two articles are on short-hand text, time-line scores, and, full text and graphic scores
for sound projection in multi-speaker environments.

STRUCTURAL AND GESTURAL TYPES

Often in working in the studio or preparing an analysis it is useful to draw upon ideas, terms and
words that suggest graphic or kinetic activity. These terms may be suggestive of a particular type
of sonic activity, or could suggest a compositional strategy or studio process. The following list
may be used for both micro- and macro-structural processes.
Many of these terms identify the general nature of a continuum (either two- or multi-dimensional),
or represent shades of meaning. The definitions/descriptions given are not conceived of as
definitive and latitude needs to be allowed for this (eg compare compress and contract). Crossreferenced terms are italicized. The ARTICLEs following this reading are in progress extensions
of a number of the concepts presented.
I am grateful to Istvn Anhalt who started me on such a list some 30 years ago. You may find
Anhalts Glossary, a god-parent of this list, on pages 1447 of his book, Alternative Voices
(University of Toronto, 1984). Terms similar to his are marked (*).

TERMS
Abbreviate:

Shortening by the removal of (temporal) features (of less significance),

usually from within the structure. (also abridge, truncate)

Abridge:

The process of shortening by the removal of (non essential) elements,

and the concatenation of the remaining parts, usually leaving the
essential features of the original recognizable. (also abbreviate, truncate)

Abstract, (to):

Removal of the decorative characteristic features of an event or gesture

so that only the skeletal/key element structure remains. (also decorate)

Accretion:

The slow/gradual buildup of an event or gesture by the addition of

(many) small but similar element-particles. (also accumulation)

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Accumulation:

An increase/buildup of elements, often in a piece-meal fashion by the

addition of similar /dissimilar elements. (also accretion) (*)

Aggregate:

A complex texture, approaching a mass structure, in which individual

elements are still identifiable, but possibly with some difficulty. It may
be homogeneous or heterogeneous. (also gestalt)

Allude:

Making reference (to something else) in a somewhat indirect fashion.

This may be done by the adoption of one or more characteristic
features of its identity, eg attack/decay; spectral modulation;
rhythmic/metric nature; .

Amplify:

To increase the amount (in an absolute or relative form) of some

feature or element, so that its characteristics become more prominent.
(also expand)

Append:

To increase the length of an element, feature or gesture, by the addition

of new or similar material (at its end) with the object of extension.

Articulation:

Relatively clear joints that may function as (micro- and/or macrostructural) points of reference. (also point of articulation)

Assert control:

One or more features force other characteristics of the composition to

conform to its/their features.

Balance:

A concept implying some form of equilibrium, created or perceived.

This relationship may be found between different aspects of the
material (eg psychological / sonic / metaphorical )

Bridge:

To connect, join or link sections, often with materials which are of

lesser importance or significance to the composition. The materials
may be related to those preceding, pre-echoing those to come, or be
new. (also transition)

Chaos:

Unperceived order (Copernicus). Not to be confused with noise,

random, stochastic or deterministic.

Complementation:

The existence of two (or more) parts that act in relationship to each
other such that they are in some degree interdependent. Examples of
this equal but separate condition may include, lead/counter-melody,
figure/ground, question/answer etc. (*)

Complex or
Compound:

Two or more independent traits, elements or structures, that have been

combined or joined in such a way that they may be perceived as
interdependent individual entities or as a gestalt with identifiable
parts. (also fusion) (*)

Compress:

The process, either temporal (time compression) or not, whereby with

no actual reduction in the amount of material, features are presented
in a shortened or vertically reduced form (amplitude compression,
spectrum filtering). (also condense)

Condense:

The diminution of size or duration of an event, gesture or feature,

while retaining the critical mass of its identity. (also evaporate)

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 Condensation:

The (concrete) appearance or consolidation of elements or

characteristics. (also evaporate)

Connection:

The creation or perception of relationships.

Continuous:

Elements or a structure in which there are no specific, fixed points for

the occurrence of features. Also sometimes called continuously
variable. (also articulation, discrete, incremental, quantize)

Contract:

A diminution of size (which may be temporal), either by the

diminution of some or all features or elements. (also expand) (*)

Contrast:

The creation or perception of dissimilarity. This may take place in any

number of parameters.

Control:

The setting limits on, or determining the (possible) acceptable behavior

of a feature or element.

Convergence:

The process of elements, or their characteristics, coming together (or

becoming similar) either to a common element, or an element not
within either (or all) of them. (also scatter) (*)

Critical mass:

The minimum amount of material / information required to create an

identity.

Crystalize:

The creation of fixed and immutable qualities from within an evolving

or fluid environment. (also condense, dissolve, evaporate, identity)

Curtail:

To stop or impede the expected growth/change of an element or

feature, through the introduction of obstructions, or the reduction of
support. (also abridge, condense)

Cut:

An abrupt cessation. (also transition)

Decorate:

To add (non-essential/ornamental) elements, often as surface

characteristics, possibly with the objective of making the sound more
beautiful or appealing. (eg a global reverb added to a mix) (also
abstract)

Deterministic:

Related to a specific language, the listener is led to a certain

psychological / emotional condition/conclusion.

Die away:

The slow extinction of all characteristic elements.

Discrete:

Elements or a structure in which there are specific, fixed points for the
occurrence of features. (also continuous, incremental)

Disintegration:

The weakening, thinning or cessation of a texture, element or gesture

by (its) parts ceasing to act/react as a whole (often through the
introduction of silence into component parts). (*)

Dissolve (melt):

The disappearance of fixed or immutable qualities (or traits) into an

evolving or fluid environment. (also condense, crystallize, evaporate)

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 Disturbance:

The introduction of new, unused or contrasting element(s) or feature(s)

into an existing (relatively) stable gesture or sound (identity) without
necessarily completely replacing it. (*)

Divergence:

The process of similar elements becoming dissimilar. (also convergence,

scatter)

Dynamic:

In the state of change. This may be positive or negative in nature, and

may apply to only one, or several parameters. (also stasis)

Echo:

The delayed repetition(s), possibly transformed, of an element, idea

form or structure. The original is of greater importance than the
repetition(s). (also pre-echo)
Usually a form of variation where previous ideas are extended to
provide greater detail or another perspective on/to their identity.

Elaboration:
Elision:

A temporal term, indicating the leaving out of an expected or required

characteristic step or element. (also omission)

Erase:

The relatively sudden, and potentially violent eradication of a sound

or feature. (also die away, obliterate)

Evaporate:

The diminution of size or duration of an event, gesture or feature,

through the loss of features of the critical mass/identity. (also condense)

Expand:

The process, possibly temporal (time expansion), whereby with no

actual increase in the amount of material, features are presented in a
lengthened or vertically increased form (amplitude noise gate,
spectrum harmonic enhancement ). (also condense)
An increase in size (which may be temporal), either by the growth of
some or all of its features or elements. (*)

Extension:

The increase in length of an element, feature or gesture, by the addition

at its end, of repeated or similar material.

Extrapolate:

The creation of new material through the process of examination of

known materials and the application of similar processes or rules.
(Going from the known to the unknown.)

Family:

The concept of (inter)relatedness of sounds such that there are

elements of unique and common identity. This may come about
through transformation of a member, or through changing a different
sound so that it assumes characteristics that can be identified as
common to the family. (also identity, members, transformation)

Function:

The meaning, use or place within the structure; the syntactical

operation or structural meaning. (also role)

Fusion:

The process of creation of compound or complex elements, traits or

structures, through the merger of two or more (usually) dissimilar
characteristics. (also compound, superimpose) (*)

Generate:

To create, from materials or rules of composition.

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 Gestalt:

A mode of perception or organization in which collections of

objects/events are dealt with as wholes, rather than a collection of
individual or distinct elements. (also mass structures)

Heterogeneous:

Containing non-uniform, varied and/or dissimilar elements.

Homogeneous:

Containing uniform, and/or similar elements. (also heterogeneous)

Identity:

The creation of a unique (set of) sound(s), such that its characteristic
elements have adequate stability to be recognized after varying
degrees of transformation and processes. (also parameter)

Incremental growth A process of increasing (or decreasing) the density or prominence of

elements of a gesture in a stepped fashion (usually small ones). (also
/ decay:
continuous, discrete, quantize)
Interaction:

The process whereby elements, features or identities modify each other

(or their behavior).

Interpolate:

The inclusion and/or addition, usually in the middle, of material that

extends or modifies the existing gesture or element. While often
appearing to be decorative, it may be structural in nature.

Intersection:

The place or form in which two (or more) elements or ideas share
common characteristics. (also union)

Invariant:

Unchanged. An element or parameter that is held the same between

two families, gestures, ideas, sections, sounds etc.

Isolate:

The process of segregation of an item or element, possibly to give it

prominence.

Layering:

A process of putting sounds of some unique identity together

(simultaneous presentation) such that they remain somewhat
identifiable within a texture. Pushed to its limit, it may be perceived
as a mass structure. (also gestalt, saturation).

Masking:

A process of hiding, disguising or covering up an element or group of

elements without actually removing them from the texture. (*)

Mass structure:

A structure whose macro-properties dominate the perceptual field,

rather than its individual component elements or structure(s). It may
be homogeneous or heterogeneous. (also aggregate, layering) (*)

Matching:

The creation of the same or parallel values between two or more

elements or structures, possibly with the object of union. This may
take place in spectral, temporal, registral, range, articulation, microstructural gestural domains (among others).

Members:

Families of sounds include members. Their degree of relatedness is

often closely related to the number and strength of elements held
invariant or in common with other members of the family.

Modulation:

The change, exchange or progressive replacement of parametric values

or component elements of a sound or structure. This may be done in
discrete steps or in a continuously variable fashion.

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 Noise:

Unwanted information. It may block or obscure (parts of) the message.

Non-repeating
pattern:

An aggregate (or similar) in which the elements appear to be creating a

(repeating) pattern through repetition, while in fact there is no (exact)
repetition. (also pattern)

Obliterate:

The complete, relatively sudden, destruction and potentially violent

eradication of a sound or feature. (also erase)

Obscure:

To block, hide or make less identifiable some element or feature,

possibly through the introduction of material that makes characteristic
elements less clear.

Omission:

A failure to include a required or desired element or feature.

Parameter:

An element or descriptive type whose (range of) variations (help)

characterize an event or object. (also identity, parametric values)

Parametric values:

The limits or range which are acceptable in the characterization of an

event or type (including the continuum between the extremities). (also
identity).

Pattern:

An (orderly) sequence, the behavior of which contains elements of

predictability, and which creates an identity through its establishment
and repetition.

Point of
articulation:

Frequently multi-dimensional, a place of reference made so by (often

relatively sudden) changes in (any number of) parametric values. It may
be a feature at the microstructural, macrostructural or many levels. The
more hierarchical levels acting in synchronicity, in general, the stronger
/ more important it is.

Predictable
evolution:

A process of change which, based upon previously established rules or

criteria, follows the lines of a recognizable tendency or direction. (*)

Pre-echo:

As distinct from an echo, the pre-echo is a foreshadowing, possibly

transformed of an element, idea form or structure. The original is of
lesser importance than the subsequent occurrence. (also echo)

Prolong:

The extension of a section, idea or gesture through a process or

processes which do not generally introduce new material or ideas.
(also append, expand)

Proportion:

A statistical relationship of elements, often measured in some way.

(also balance)

Quantize:

The process of taking a continuously variable parameter and turning it

into a discrete structure through giving all of the values within a
particular range, a single value.

Random:

Not pre-determined.

Repetition:

The recurrence (possibly regular) of an object with an identity. The

repetition may be perceptual rather than real. Repetition may be exact
or varied. (also non-repeating pattern, pattern)

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 Restrict:

The limiting of some parameters or parametric values to very clearly

defined absolute limits. (also curtail)

Role:

The attribution of dramatic characteristics to a sound (or element) so

as to act as (or for) a particular concept (or nature). (compare
function)

Rule:

Guidelines, often unperceived. (also controls)

Same:

A concept by which different things are considered equal or

adequately alike so as to not warrant differentiation or separate
identities. It may apply to single elements, groups or the whole.

Saturation:

The point at which it is impossible to (significantly) continue adding

material and maintain the identity of a sound or gesture. This may be
relative or absolute, complete or partial, and may only apply to one
(or more) of the parameters. The result of this is often the evolution into
a mass-structure. (*)

Scatter:

The process of similar (or the same) elements becoming less similar, not
only to each other, but also possibly to themselves. (*)

Stasis:

At rest, by way of equilibrium or balance. (see steady-state)

Static:

Not moving or changing in balance. (see dynamic).

Steady-state /
Quasi-steady-state:

A structure, gesture or element which holds many/most of its

parametric values, invariant, so as to create a condition of stasis.

Stochastic:

Distributed (possibly in a stochastic fashion) with certain parametric

values.

Superimpose:

To add material by placing it directly on existing material. The

implication is that the elements do not fuse. (also fusion)

Supersede /
Supplant:

Displace an element or parameter with other material. This may be a

structurally significant change.

Supplement:

To add, enlarge or extend, often by the inclusion of new or relatively

similar material.

Synchronization:

A time-based relationship (precise or inexact) in which events may

happen simultaneously, alternating, in succession, phased, overlapped
etc. (*)

Tendency:

A characteristic behavior which has a high probability of being

present. (also identity).

Terminate:

Bring to an end, possibly by drastic action. (also cut, erase, obliterate)

Trait:

A characteristic feature.

Transform(ation):

The process of change or modification such that some element(s) of

the original remain(s). This may result in a feature/sound which has
its own identity (creation of a new element), or may result in the
creation of family elements or members. (also variation)

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 Transition:

Structurally, a connecting passage in which elements of the identity of

the preceding material are reduced in preparation for the appearance
of new material. (also bridge, cut)

Truncate:

To shorten or reduce a parametric value by the sudden cessation of this

activity. To cut off. (also abbreviate)

Union:

The place or form in which two (or more) elements or ideas have
become one through having all characteristics in common. This may
create a new identity. (also intersection)

Unvoiced:

Without using the vocal cords.

Variation:

A form of repetition of material that has been transformed in some way.

Elements of the identity usually remain at some level(s).

Verbal (sounds):

A sub-set of vocal which includes sounds used in a language, but not

restricted to the use of the phonemes present in any one language.
(also voiced)

Vocal:

Sounds emited by the passage of air in or through the mouth or nose,

with or without the use of the vocal cords. (also unvoiced)

Voiced:

A sub-set of verbal which includes only sound created with the

vibration of the vocal cords. /S/ is un-voiced; /Z/ is voiced. (also
verbal, vocal)

CATEGORIZATION
Below are the same terms, given (alphabetically) in seven categories.

Temporal:

Abbreviate, Abridge, Append, Compress, Contract, Cut, Echo, Elision, Expand, Extension,
Interpolate, Predictable evolution, Pre-echo, Prolong, Synchronization, Truncate

Growth/Decay (Change):

Accretion, Accumulation, Amplify, Balance, Compress, Contract, Convergence, Die away,

Disintegration, Disturbance, Divergence, Elaboration, Evaporate, Incremental, Obliterate, Scatter,
Stasis, Steady-state, Supersede, Supplement, Terminate

Character (type) (It has been ):

Abstract, Allude, Assert control, Crystalize, Curtail, Decorate, Extrapolate, Isolate, Omission,
Quantize, Restrict

Texture (type / character):

Aggregate, Complementation, Complex, Compound, Fusion, Gestalt, Heterogeneous,

Homogeneous, Intersection, Masking, Mass structure, Matching, Modulation, Pattern, Repetition,
Saturation, Superimpose, Union

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Traits (family), (it is ),:

Continuous, Discrete, Dynamic, Invariant, Role, Static

Materials:

Family, Generate, Identity, Layering, Members, Parameter, Transformation

Structural:

Articulation, Bridge, Connection, Function

Oct/89 and previous. First appeared in Contact!, a publication of the CEC in the fall of 1994.
94 - viii/ix
Slightly expanded and modified: 2001 IX

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INTRODUCTION TO MODULAR ANALOG SYNTHESIS

A GUIDE
This GUIDE follows the sequence of the EAMT 205 course in introducing the modular analog
synthesizer, therefore the modules are presented in general terms of the four basic types of modules:
PROCESSORs, SOURCEs, CONTROLs and LOGIC/TIMING units.
A characteristic of modular synthesis is that a number of parameters of signals (sounds) can be
modified, and treated independently (frequency, spectrum, amplitude). Modules are patched
together to provide ways of creating, processing and controling various aspects of synthesized
(and possibly non-synthesized) signals (sounds).

SIGNAL PATH >>

PROCESSOR

SOURCE

PROCESSOR

PROCESSOR

PROCESSOR

PROCESSOR

CONTROL

C
O
N
T
R
O
L

P
A
T
H

The BLOCK DIAGRAM (above) is laid out showing the SIGNAL PATH from left to right, and the
CONTROL (voltage) PATHs, from bottom to top. The modular aspect is clear from seeing that a
source can be processed (in series, or in parallel) by (any number of) processors. The CONTROLS
can be simple, or they themselves may be controled (as in the third processor).

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PROCESSORS
Analog PROCESSOR modules are (mostly) of three basic types: spectrum, amplitude, and
miscellaneous, being characterized by having:
signal inputs
signal outputs
control (and/or logic) inputs (often)
SPECTRUM:
filters, phase/flanger (eq, graphic, parametric, VCF, VCPh/F):
spectrum modifiers
phase/flange = phase shifter
AMPLITUDE:
amplifiers, multipliers (VCA, ring modulator):
voltage multipliers
MISCELLANEOUS:
mixers, attenuators, inverters, DC offset sources

SOURCES
SOURCE modules are of three basic types, periodic sources (oscillators), aperiodic sources
(noise), and external sources. They are characterized by having:
no signal inputs
signal outputs
oscillators have control inputs
PERIODIC (regular):
oscillator (manual and voltage controled, VCO):
as a source of wave shapes
APERIODIC (random):
noise (white and pink);
as a source of a randomly fluctuating voltage
EXTERNAL:
as a source of any arbitrary wave shape (signal)

CONTROLS
CONTROL modules produce continuous or stepped voltages which are applied to control
(voltage) inputs on processors (and VCOs): and may also be processed by control voltage
processors. They may be continuous, or transient (occuring once, when triggered), and are
characterized by having:
control (voltage) outputs
control (and/or logic / timing) inputs (often)
no signal inputs

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CONTINUOUS:
oscillator (manual and voltage controled, VCO, low frequency oscillator LFO)
random voltage source: (low-pass filtered white noise)
ribbons (or continuous control strips) were found on some early MOOG systems
TRANSIENT: (requires a gate / trigger)
ADSR
envelope shaper (transient and sustained):
transient or sustained voltage source
Analog sequencer:
a series of preset values are stepped through (forwards, backwards or randomly)
KEYBOARDs: are a kind of stepped control voltage source, and frequently have pitch bend (a
form of continuous voltage source)
The SAMPLE & HOLD is a control voltage processor.
The TRACK & HOLD is a variant of the S/H
The ENVELOPE FOLLOWER produces a control voltage output proportional to the amplitude
of an INPUT signal.

LOGIC / TIMING
LOGIC/TIMING modules produce triggers / gates which are used to activate control voltage
sources. They are characterized by being used as a:
trigger (a rising edge eg pulse wave)
gate (a rising edge with a sustained voltage eg square wave)
LOGIC/TIMING modules include:
oscillator (manual and voltage controled, VCO, low frequency oscillator LFO)
gates, switches, comparators, threshold detectors
There are a number of other types of modules / controls, mostly unique to one designer, which are
most commonly a configuration of more fundamental modules. An example is the Buchla QuadPanner which would pan an input signal around four output channels. It contained 4 VCAs and
associated control circuitry.

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VOLTAGE CONTROLED FILTER (VCF)

(MULTIMODE FILTER)

a spectrum processor

The voltage controled multi-mode filter with low pass, high pass, band pass, band reject (notch)
and peak signal outputs.
Fc: the center frequency of the filters

MULTIMODE
FILTER

Q: the amount of resonance (feedback) within the

filter

Fc

FREQUENCY

RESONANCE

Level
AUDIO

Control
CONTROL 1

NOTCH

A
U
D
I
O

LEVEL: the input level of the (AUDIO) SIGNAL

PEAK

F
R
E
Q
C
O
N
T
R
O
L

N/P

HIGH

CONTROL: the input level of the FREQ CONTROL

voltage
NOTCH/PEAK: selects either the notch or peak filter
function at the N/P OUTPUT
AUDIO (INPUT): the SIGNAL input jacks; the
LEVEL knob adjusts the input volume of the top jack
FREQuency CONTROL (INPUT): the control input
jacks; the CONTROL 1 knob adjusts the control level
from jack 1
RESONANCE CONTROL: the control input jacks
for external voltage control of the RESONANCE
FILTER OUTPUTS: the signal outputs of the
NOTCH/PEAK, HIGH PASS, BAND PASS and
LOW PASS filters
Q

BAND
AUDIO
(IN)

RESONANCE

VCF

OUTPUTS
N/P
HIGH
BAND
LOW

LOW
OUTPUTS
Control

Low pass

High pass

Band pass

Band reject

See addended pages for a more complete description.

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VOLTAGE CONTROLED PHASE / FLANGE

a spectrum processor
The voltage controled phase / flange (voltage controled phase-shifter) module
Fc: the center frequencies of the filters

PHASE/
FLANGE

Q: the amount of resonance (feedback) within the

filter

Fc

FREQUENCY

RESONANCE

LEVEL: the input level of the all the audio SIGNALs

plugged into the AUDIO jacks
CONTROL: the input level of the (exponential - EXP)
CONTROL voltage

Control

Level
AUDIO

CONTROL 1
B
Y
P
A
S
S

E
V
E
N

O
D
D

A
U
D
I
O

M
I
X

BYPASS/MIX: determines whether the OUTPUT (at

the MAIN) is the original signal (BYPASS), or the
processed signal (MIX)
AUDIO (INPUT): the signal input jacks; the LEVEL
knob adjusts the volume of all signals plugged into the
AUDIO jacks

EXP

MAIN

FL

AUX

LIN

ODD / EVEN: changes the number of peaks in the

filter, from 5 to 4

PHASE

EXP(ONENTIAL CONTROL INPUT): the control

input jacks; a voltage control of the Fc (center
frequencies) function; the CONTROL 1 knob adjusts
the control level (range)
LIN(EAR CONTROL INPUT): the control input jack;
its response is linear
MAIN (OUTPUT): the signal output jacks

CONTROLS

OUTPUTS

AUX (OUTPUT): the delayed signal alone

FLANGE (control INPUT)
AUDIO
(IN)

MAIN
(OUT)
PH/FL

Control

The phase/flange tends to add pitch-like elements to complex and noise-like signals.

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VOLTAGE CONTROLED AMPLIFIER

(VCA)

an amplitude processor
The voltage controled amplitude processor

VCA
AUDIO LEVELS 1 / 2: adjusts the levels for signals
plugged into AUDIO (signal) input jacks 1 & 2
1

AUDIO LEVELS

INITIAL GAIN: this sets the amount of signal that

is passed through the VCA, independent of
processing: this is frequently left at 0 for full effect
INITIAL GAIN

CONTROL 1

LIN

EXP

CONTROL MODE: determines whether the control

input is treated as linear (eg an ADSR), or
exponential (an oscillator): try both positions

CONTROL MODE

CONTROL 1: an attenuator on the amount of gain

produced by a control voltage introduced into the
CONTROL 1 input jack

AUDIO C O N T R O L O U T P U T S

AUDIO: there are four AUDIO (signal) inputs;

inputs 1 & 2 have independent level controls (see
above)
CONTROL: four CONTROL input jacks; jack 1
passes through the CONTROL 1 level control (see
above)
OUTPUTS: four identical signal outputs are
available

This module is most frequently used for creating

amplitude envelopes, but may also be used for
AMPLITUDE MODULATION, which can
resemble RING MODULATION.

AUDIO IN

AUDIO OUT

CONTROL IN

In many synths, the VCA was hardwired to an ADSR control voltage source, and called an
envelope generator.

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RING MODULATOR (BALANCED MODULATOR)

& PRE-AMPLIFIER

a frequency multiplier, &, an amplitude processor

BALANCED
MODULATOR

ATTENUATOR 1: the level control (attenuator) associated

with the two jacks immediately below: (IN / OUT)

PRE-AMP 1

PRE-AMP 2

ATTENUATOR 2: the level control (attenuator) associated

with the two jacks immediately below: (IN / OUT)

ATT
1

ATT
2

ATTENUATOR
ONE

ATTENUATOR
TWO

X: the level control for PRE-AMP 1

Y: the level control for PRE-AMP 2
PRE-AMP IN: the INPUT jacks for PRE-AMPs 1 & 2

IN

OUT

IN

OUT

PRE-AMP
IN

OUT
X

OUT

M
U
L
T
I
P
L
E

PRE-AMP OUT: the OUTPUT jacks for PRE-AMPs 1 & 2:

they are NORMALIZED into the X and Y INPUTs of the
RING MODULATOR
X (INPUT): the X input the RING MODULATOR
Y (INPUT): the Y input the RING MODULATOR
OUT: the OUTPUT of the RING MODULATOR (the two
outputs are the same)
MULTIPLE: a four jack multiple: a signal plugged into one
of the jacks is available at the other three; (do not use this
to mix signals)

The Ring Modulator multiplies the frequencies

of the X and Y signals. The OUTput contains
these frequencies, while the original signals are
not present. ((X x Y) X Y).
When the X and Y signals are complex, the
OUTPUT is very complex.

X
PREAMP

RM

OUT

On some synths a form of ring modulation was called cross-modulation.

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ADSR
(ENVELOPE GENERATOR)

a control voltage source

ENVELOPE
GENERATOR

ATTACK (time): sets the rise time (attack) time

DECAY (time): sets the initial decay time

ATTACK

SUSTAIN (level): sets the level of the sustained

voltage

DECAY

RELEASE (time): sets the release time

SUSTAIN

x7 norm x10: this three position switch

multiplies the duration of the ADSR knobs, and
provides times of up to 1 minute

RELEASE

x7
MANUAL GATE

x10

MANUAL GATE: this push button initiates the

ATTACK and DECAY phases of the ADSR; when
released, the RELEASE phase is initiated

GATE: a square wave at this input will initiate the

ADSR cycle

MULTIPLE
1

GATE

OUTPUTS: four identical outputs of the ADSR

control voltage are available

TRIGGER: when a GATE is present, a rapidly rising

voltage at the trigger input (a TRIGGER), will initiate
an ADSR cycle

TRIGGER O U T P U T S

MULTIPLE: a four jack multiple: a signal plugged

into one of the jacks is available at the other three;
(do not use this to mix signals)

The diagram below shows the effect of changing each of the parameters of the ADSR

MODIFICATION of
ATTACK (t)

EAMT

DECAY (t)

SUSTAIN (l)

113

RELEASE (t)

Readings

Explore the following four patches (and their four variants). Describe what is happening in each,
the function of each module in each patch, and the similarities / differences between them. Use
both white and pink noise; try all of the outputs from the VCF; use the VCO in both the x1 and
x.002 ranges; use a wide range of ADSR settings.
(1)
S&H/CLOCK
NOISE GENERATOR

MULTIMODE
FILTER
Fc

CLOCK FREQ

S&H OUTPUT
LEV

EXT.

RESONANCE

(1a)

(1b)

CLOCK

TRIGGER
SOURCE

Level

Control

AUDIO

CONTROL 1

NOTCH

MANUAL
TRIGGER

GATE

FREQUENCY

SYNC

TRIG

PEAK

A
U
D
I
O

W
IN

P
OUT

F
R
E
Q

N/P

C
O
N
T
R
O
L

BAND

HIGH

NOISE

VCF

VCF

NOISE

TRIG

FM

S&H

CLOCK

LOW

RESONANCE
NOISE

OUTPUTS

VCO

ENVELOPE
GENERATOR

ATTACK

COARSE

DECAY

FINE

FM
CONTROL

PULSE
WIDTH

LOW

FM
SUSTAIN

AUDIO

RANGE

ADSR

VCO

RELEASE

SYNC
x7

MANUAL GATE

PWM

x10

1
LIN

CONTROLS

OUT

MULTIPLE
1

4
GATE

TRIGGER O U T P U T S

(2a)

Noise (source) is filtered. The

cutoff frequency of the filter
is being controled by an
oscillator.

(3a)

NOISE

PH/F

Noise (source) is filtered. The

cutoff frequency of the filter
is being controled by an
ADSR (control voltage).

(4a)

NOISE

VCA

NOISE
RM
VCO

VCO

VCO

(2b)

(3c)

NOISE

(4d)

PH/F
NOISE

VCA

NOISE
RM
ADSR

ADSR

EAMT

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114

Readings

VCO

COARSE

FINE

FM
CONTROL

PULSE
WIDTH

VCO

AUDIO

LOW

RANGE

OUTPUT

FM

SYNC

OUTPUT

PWM

CONTROL

CONTROL

LIN

CONTROLS

OUT

ENVELOPE
GENERATOR

ATTACK

DECAY

SUSTAIN

RELEASE

OUT
GATE

x7

MANUAL GATE

x10

2
MULTIPLE

x .002

4
GATE

TRIGGER O U T P U T S

VCO

COARSE

FINE

FM
CONTROL

10~90%

PULSE
WIDTH
AUDIO

LOW

RANGE

FM

SYNC

PWM

LIN

CONTROLS

OUT

With ADSR

Briefly describe how this patch works.

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TRIGGERS AND GATES

A TRIGGER is a rising edge of a wave (eg a pulse or square wave), and is used to initiate (start),
or re-start an event, if (and only if) a GATE is present.
A GATE is a sustained high level (such as a square wave), and is used to sustain an event,
initiated by a TRIGGER. Frequently, a squarewave will be used simultaneously as TRIGGER and
GATE. When the GATE falls, the RELEASE time will be initiated.
TRIGGER

TRIGGER

GATE

In the examples given, the trigger / gate could be provided by an LFO, or a VCO in the LOW
(x.002) range.
As applied to an ADSR
The ADSR needs both a TRIGGER and a GATE. The MANUAL GATE button on the front
provides both a TRIGGER (when it is pressed), and a GATE (while it remains depressed). The are
also jacks for GATE and TRIGGER inputs. (GATE 1 is normalized into TRIGGER 1).
ADSR
Output
TRIGGER
input
1.

2.

3.

4.

5.

6.

7.

8.

9.

GATE
input
Event
1
2
3
4
5
6, 7, 8
9

TRIGGER
yes
yes

GATE
no
yes
falls
yes
yes
present
falls

no
yes
yes

RESULT
none (*)
ADSR initiated
RELEASE initiated
none (*)
ADSR initiated
ADSR re-initiated ()
RELEASE initiated

(*) requires a trigger and a gate

() notice that the ATTACK time begins at the level of the SUSTAIN, in this condition producing
only a mini-ATTACK.

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VOLTAGE CONTROLED OSCILLATOR (VCO)

a multiple waveshape signal source, with two frequency ranges

(sub-audio and audio)
COARSE FREQUENCY: sets the coarse frequency
of the oscillator, over a range of some 12 octaves; it
is interactive with the FINE frequency control, and
the FM control voltage input(s); its register is set by
the RANGE switch

VCO

FINE FREQUENCY: for fine tuning of the oscillator,

within the range of (~) one octave
COARSE

FINE

FM
CONTROL

PULSE
WIDTH
AUDIO

LOW

RANGE

LOW (x.002) / AUDIO (x1): this two position

switch selects the base range (register) of the VCO: it
may be extended by several octaves, by control
voltages, from less than one cycle per minute (.01
Hz) to more than 30 kHz.
FM control: a potentiometer to attenuate the control
voltage in the FM 1 input
FM: the control voltage input(s) for the frequency of
the oscillator (logarithmic); (INPUT 1 may be
attenuated see above)

FM
1.
SYNC

LIN: the control voltage input for the frequency of

the oscillator (linear)

2.
PWM

PULSE WIDTH: sets the duty cycle of the pulse /

square wave, from <<1% to >>99% (see below)

LIN
CONTROLS

PWM: a control voltage applied to this input will

control (modulate) the PULSE WIDTH (in
conjunction with the setting of the PULSE WIDTH)
OUT

SYNC: a trigger (rising edge) at this input resets

the wave shape (phase) to the start of its cycle (0)
[see following]
SAWTOOTH, PULSE/SQUARE, TRIANGLE, SINE: are the four waveshapes available; some
oscillators have more, some fewer. Other waveshapes are possible by self-modulation, ie,
plugging the OUTPUT signal into an FM (or LIN) control INPUT.

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BASIC WAVESHAPES AND SPECTRUMS (FROM OSCILLATORS)

SINE WAVE
TIME >
1

amplitude

.75
.5

90 o

0o

180

270

360

.25

1 cycle
0
1f

2f

3f

4f

5f 6f 7f 8f

TRIANGLE WAVE
.75

2
amp = 1/n (partial number)

90 o

0o

180 o

270 o

360

.5
-

.25
0

etc.
1f

2f

3f

4f

5f 6f 7f 8f

SAWTOOTH WAVE
1

0o

.75

90 o

180 o

360

amp = 1/n (partial number)

0

.5
-

.25
0

etc.
1f

2f

3f

4f

SQUARE WAVE

5f 6f 7f 8f

(50% duty cycle pulse wave)

o

90 o

180 o

270

360 o

Duty Cycle

.75

amp = 1/n (partial number)

0

.5
-

.25
0

etc.
1f

2f

3f

4f

5f 6f 7f 8f

The spectra on the left show the frequency and amplitude

relationships of the waveshapes given on the right.

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THE GENERIC VOLTAGE CONTROLED OSCILLATOR (VCO)

Aries oscillators (whether voltage controled or not) have many elements in common. They are all
sources, and therefore have outputs (from 2 to 5 outputs, some of which are variable), but do not
have signal inputs. The only inputs are various kinds of control inputs. A simplified block
diagram appears below.
The frequency of the oscillator is set, in most
cases, by two knobs: the FINE frequency control
having the range of about one octave, and the
COARSE frequency control having a range of
about 12 octaves.
A front panel switch selects between AUDIO
(x1) and LOW (x.002) ranges. The base frequency
response being: AUDIO 10 Hz to 20 kHz, LOW
.05 Hz (1 cycle every 20 seconds) to 200 Hz.
(Control voltages can extend these ranges by
several octaves.)

Sync, PWM

OUTPUTS

Frequency Control

The available wave shapes include: sawtooth,

pulse (variable pulse width), triangle, and sine.
A control voltage applied to a CONTROL (or FM) INPUT can change the frequency of the VCO.
When this is done with a LOW FREQUENCY control voltage, the frequency of the VCO audibly
follows the shape of the control voltage. When the control voltage is a AUDIO RANGE control,
the output of the VCO is a much more complex, FM spectrum. This is called frequency
modulation.
On most of the oscillators, the PULSE WAVE, has a variable width. When the width of the
wave is 50% of the cycle, the wave is called a SQUARE WAVE.
10%

50%

30%

90%

The width of the pulse is variable, both by a knob on the face plate, and by a control voltage.
This is PULSE WIDTH MODULATION (PWM). [This can be set to 0% (no voltage), to 100%
(only a high voltage). In the 100% position, it can be used as the source of a DC offset.]
Some oscillators have a SYNC input. This input allows the creation of (significantly) more
complex waveshapes by resetting the wave to its 0 phase.
MODIFIED SINE WAVE

SYNC TRIGGER

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SAMPLE & HOLD; CLOCK (VCLFO); NOISEGENERATOR; RANDOM

VOLTAGE

a control, processor, voltage controled low frequency oscillator, &

signal source (noise)
S&H/CLOCK
NOISE GENERATOR

S&H OUTPUT LEVEL: an attenuator that sets the

range of the control voltage from the OUT jack
CLOCK FREQUENCY: the rate of the clock, low
frequency oscillator

S&H OUTPUT
LEV

EXT.

CLOCK FREQ

CLOCK

MANUAL TRIGGER: a push button that provides

a trigger and/or gate the S&H

TRIGGER
SOURCE

S&H GATE: a control inputwhen the input signal

is above a certain threshold, the S&H INPUT signal
is passed directly to the OUTput jack. (This is
frequently refered to as TRACK & HOLD [T&H].)

MANUAL
TRIGGER

GATE

SYNC

TRIG
W

IN

P
OUT

R
TRIG

FM

S&H

CLOCK

TRIGGER SOURCE: this switch sets the source for

the trigger of the sample & hold as being the internal
VCLFO (clock), or an external trigger (gate), plugged
into the TRIG or GATE jacks.

S&H TRIG: an control inputwhen the input signal

is above a certain threshold, the S&H INPUT signal
is SAMPLEd, and the voltage at that moment is
HELD and appears at the OUTput jack, until
another TRIGGER appears at this input. (This works
in conjunction with the TRIGGER SOURCE switch,
above.)
SAWTOOTH and SQUARE wave: these are
outputs from the clock (voltage controled low
frequency oscillator)
FM: the control voltage input for the clock

NOISE

SYNC and TRIG: these control inputs for the clock

force the output wave to 're-start' in sync with this
external control.
W(HITE): output of a white noise source; noise with equal energy per unit frequency
P(INK) output for pink noise; noise with equal energy per octave
R(ANDOM): output of a low-frequency random (control) voltage source

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VCO

COARSE

FINE

FM
CONTROL

PULSE
WIDTH
AUDIO

LOW

VCO

RANGE

FM

SYNC

With S/H

PWM

LIN
CONTROLS

S&H/CLOCK
NOISE GENERATOR

VCO

COARSE

FINE

CLOCK

TRIGGER
SOURCE

PULSE
WIDTH

AUDIO

LOW

CLOCK FREQ

S&H OUTPUT
LEV

EXT.

FM
CONTROL

OUT

IN

MANUAL
TRIGGER

SYNC

GATE

SYNC

S/H

VCO

RANGE

FM

OUT

TRIG

W
IN

PWM
P

Trigger

OUT

R
LIN
CONTROLS

OUT

TRIG

FM

S&H

CLOCK

NOISE

VCO

COARSE

FINE

FM
CONTROL

PULSE
WIDTH

AUDIO

LOW

VCO

RANGE

FM

SYNC

PWM

LIN
CONTROLS

OUT

Briefly describe how this patch works.

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SAMPLE/HOLD
The SAMPLE & HOLD module is a dual mode (SAMPLE & HOLD and TRACK & HOLD)
CONTROL VOLTAGE processor (not a SIGNAL PROCESSOR): its output is used as a
CONTROL VOLTAGE. The SAMPLE & HOLD is not closely related to the (now) more common
(digital) sampler, as it processes control voltages, not signals.
This module has an INPUT and an OUTPUT, and two (logic) controls: a GATE input and a
TRIGGER input.
When a TRIGGER is applied, the module functions as a SAMPLE & HOLD module, in that it
samples the instantaneous voltage at the INput, and HOLDs that voltage, making it available at
the OUTput. Notice that the OUTput shape may not closely resemble the INput voltage.
INPUT

triggers

OUTPUT

TRACK & HOLD

When a GATE is applied, the module functions as a TRACK & HOLD module in which two
things happen: while the GATE is present (is high), the INput signal is passed through to the
OUTput (the input is TRACKed), and when the GATE stops (is low), the last instantaneous
voltage is HELD, as with the SAMPLE & HOLD.
INPUT

gates

OUTPUT
Both the SAMPLE & HOLD and the TRACK & HOLD functions may be used at the same time

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Draw the block diagram for this patch. Explain the function
(source / processor / control) of each module, and its
relationship(s) to the whole.
S&H/CLOCK
NOISE GENERATOR

S&H OUTPUT
LEV

EXT.

CLOCK FREQ

PHASE/
FLANGE

VCA

Fc

Fc

FREQUENCY

RESONANCE

FREQUENCY

RESONANCE

AUDIO LEVELS

CLOCK

TRIGGER
SOURCE

SYNC

Level

Control

Level

AUDIO

CONTROL 1

AUDIO

TRIG
W

IN

P
OUT

B
Y
P
A
S
S

E
V
E
N

O
D
D

MANUAL
TRIGGER

GATE

MULTIMODE
FILTER

A
U
D
I
O

EXP

M
I
X

MAIN

FL

AUX

LIN

PHASE

Control
CONTROL 1

NOTCH

INITIAL GAIN

CONTROL 1

LIN

PEAK

EXP

CONTROL MODE

F
R
E
Q

A
U
D
I
O

N/P

C
O
N
T
R
O
L

HIGH

BAND

R
TRIG

FM

S&H

CLOCK

LOW

RESONANCE
NOISE

OUTPUTS

ENVELOPE
GENERATOR

AUDIO C O N T R O L O U T P U T S

ENVELOPE
GENERATOR

ATTACK

DECAY

ATTACK

DECAY

SUSTAIN

RELEASE

SUSTAIN

RELEASE

x7
MANUAL GATE

x7

x10

MANUAL GATE

MULTIPLE
1

MULTIPLE
1

TRIGGER O U T P U T S

ADSR (1)

4
GATE

x10

4
GATE

TRIGGER O U T P U T S

ADSR (2)

S/H
Ph / F
VCF
VCA
ADSR (1)
ADSR (2)

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Put together each of the following patches. Explain the

function of each module, and its relationship(s) to the
whole. Also discuss 2the predictability of the sound.
(1)
PH / F

NOISE

VCA

VCO

VCO

(2)
PH / F

NOISE

VCF

RAND

VCO

(3)

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NOISE
RM

PH / F

VCA

VCO

VCO

VCO

(4)
HIGH PASS

NOISE

PH / F

VCA

VCF

x .002
x .002
VCO
VCO

RAND

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ARTICLE A
PARAMETRIC CONTROLS

There are any number of approaches to the creation/maintenance of identities, families or

structures which include the following methods. It should be noted that all of these basic
descriptions are of static conditions; it is possible to set them into a dynamic context, where they
are evolving into or through these conditions.
These terms may be understood as the end-points on two and three dimensional continuums.
They may beamong other typesuniform, discretely mixed or heterogeneous.
Control of register and registral distribution or registral density. Depending upon the way in
which this is done, it is possible to channelize (streaming) the texture through the creation of
perceptual lines, where in fact, none may exist.
Control of range. The events may be evenly or unevenly distributed throughout the range in
which they occur.
Control of spectrum. The spectra present may be homogeneous, similar, family related, multiple
family types, contrasting or heterogeneous in nature.
Control of mode of articulation/duration of individual events/sounds.
Control of rate of attack. This moves from the domain of simple metric structures (and
traditional western musical rhythms) through to rhythmic complexes that may only be perceived
as gestalts or mass structures.
Control of proximity. This includes, but is not limited to, the use of reverberation as an overall
coloristic element. The tonal balance of the spectrum, especially with concrete sounds, will often
lead to the creation of acoustical perspective, distant sounds having less high frequency content
than close sounds. The relationship of (and to) other sounds may also be an indicator.
Control of spatial location. The use of left and right (or even three dimensional sound
projection) can be considered as an important part in electroacoustics. Whereas in most musics
spatial location is a tertiary feature, even one that the composer has no control over, or has no
particular interest in controling, in electroacoustics, this parameter may be very important, and
could be controled at the time of the mixing, or of the performance sound projection.
Control of relationship(s) between layers/parts. In the largest scale, textures themselves may
be static (and simple), or exist on a continuum that moves through many types of textures, being
transformed into mass structures. Mass structures themselves may also exist in textural
relationships. Two or more parts may (co-)exist equally, in a foreground-background (principal
role-accompaniment) balance, alternating etc relationships.
Control of degree of stasis. The use of a simple word, eg stasis, will often be inadequate to
describe the subtlety and flux condition that exists. Stasis may be completely unchanging, or it
could be a subtle balance of slight variations within certain parametric norms.
Control of rate of change. The rate of change may be uniform (linear to exponential) or may
itself be undergoing a dynamic change, eg suddenly changing rate while maintaining the general
direction of the overall change.

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 Control of mode of articulation. A higher (macro-) level of control that addresses the generally
perceived mode, tone or mood. There are many terms available for this, and will probably be
related to the listeners extent and depth of exposure to the medium. As with other forms, these
may also be in a dynamic condition.
Uniqueness or identity of the element, sound or gesture. As the listener develops greater
perceptual awareness and listening skills, elements that were at one time grouped together (left
un-segregated), may be heard in (some of) their constituent parts.

ARTICLE B
CONCRETE TRANSFORMATIONS
These sonic processes for the generation of sound materials:
Play / dont play sound
Repeat (once / many times) = copy / loops
Play backwards
The following processes may be static (unchanging in time), or dynamic (changing in time). These
changes may be unidirectional or multi-directional. They may be constant and/or regularlinear
or otherwise; irregular but predictable, or unpredictable.
Change speed
- faster = pitch shift up (shorten)
- slower = pitch shift down (lengthen)
Edit material (shorten) == new material
Edit material (lengthen by addition or interpolation) == new material
Use of (external electronic) processing:
Modification of spectrum through
- filtering (low pass, high pass, band pass/reject)
Modification of time/frequency relationships
time stretching
granulation
vocoding
Changes of amplitude
- re-enveloping
- AM
- compression/expansion/gating
Changes through frequency modulation
- ring modulation
- FM
- vibrato
Changes of perspective
- see also filtering
- reverberation
- time delay
Changes of position
- panning
- imaging (combination of panning, spectral shift, time delay)
- creation of imaginary locations

ARTICLE C
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FAMILIES OF SOUNDS AND FAMILY RELATIONS

Through the use of similarity, difference, various kinds of transformation(s) or modes of
production, it may be possible to group and classify sounds into families.
A grouping that may be applicable in one circumstance may not be the same within another
framework. (An example is the piano - as a string instrument, and as a struck metallic instrument.
In the first instance it is in the family of string instruments, on another in the family of gongs and
metalophones.)
What are the parameters (possibly through the use of classification by opposition) that are
being used to define the family. [What is a family?]
What transformational characteristics, and to what extent keep a sound as a member of a
family? [How close is related?]
Does a family have a center, or is it defined by a set of parameters, in which all members share
characteristics? [Is there a center to the universe?]
Which transformations produce members that would be considered distant members of a
family? [Are there hierarchies of transformational processes that establish the degree of distance
(interval of dis-similarity) from the center of the family?]
When does a family member cease to be a member of one family, and in effect develop its own
family? [What is difference?]
Is it possible for a sound to be a member of two (or more) families? [At what distance does
same/similar, become different?]
What are the modes of (parametric) transformation that will allow a sound to migrate from one
family to another? [Are families produced by similarities of process/transformation?]
Is the use of family-related material a way of structuring a piece?
Is it possible to evoke the spirit/essence/sense of one section by using: the same material;
similar material; the same processes/processing; the same gestural/structural form.

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ARTICLE D
GENERALIZED SONIC TRANSFORMATIONAL PROCESSES
We often break sound down into a number of convenient categories for reasons of discussion and
analysis. Among these areas are: spectrum, frequency/register (where applicable) / range,
amplitude / envelope etc. In terms of processing sounds, four of the regions of transformation are
spectrum, time, register/frequency, and amplitude.

SPECTRUM
Spectrum is modified in several ways:
through the reduction or removal of frequencies or frequency ranges (filters*: high pass, low
pass, band pass, band reject, and combinations of these);
* filters may be understood as
frequency dependent amplifiers)

through the shifting of frequencies (pitch shifter, frequency shifter, tape speed change);
through the addition of frequencies to the spectrum (audio range amplitude modulation,
frequency modulation, ring modulation, distortion units);

TIME
Duration is modified by
(a) non-additive forms :
editing (tape or digital);
slowing down/speeding up (on tape or with digital means);
This requires that the signal is somehow stored in a complete form, on tape or in memory,
and therefore is not a realtime process. (See below)
(b) additive forms
recombination with itself, delayed (single reiteration - echo, multiple reiterations reverberation)
interpolation/removal of time slices (pitch-shifting, granulation )

AMPLITUDE
Amplitude is modified by amplifiers.
manually this is done with potentiometers
compression / expansion / gating techniques

THE COMPRESSOR - LIMITER / EXPANDER

Basically, this processing unit is a voltage controled amplifier with a control input:
Signal

VCA

Control

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The important part in this device, is the nature of the control, and the way in which it is derived.
(See also On Amplitude following.)
There are three positions for determining the nature of the control signal using switch 1 (DET):
INT - uses the input signal for both SIGNAL and CONTROL paths
DS-FM is like the INT position, except that an equalizer appears in the CONTROL path,
and increases the high frequency content above 2 kHz. (This is particularly useful for certain voice
sounds, since the voiced part of the voice sound will normally be of considerably higher amplitude than the
unvoiced (often sibilant) portion of the sound.)

EXT - uses the input signal for the SIGNAL path, and accepts an external signal for the
CONTROL path
The MODE switch has three positions to determine the
Which parameters? To what extent (latitude / range)? At what point does a transformed sound
become a unique entity?
Types include: continuous/discontinuous (stepped)
Possibly a multi-dimensional model, with (white noise) at one end and silence at the other

in progress

June 1990

ARTICLE E
ON AMPLITUDE
This reading examines amplitude and amplitude variations. Sound (a sound event) is created
through the mechanical vibration of an object within a transmission medium (air, water, metal
etc). These vibrations (between 20 and 20kHz) are micro-variations in air pressure, and can be
seen using an oscilloscope or some equivalent device, eg, the trace of the (sampled) sound in a
software package such as SoundEdit 16.

GRAPHIC REPRESENTATION OF WAVE

These microvariations are refered to as the wave, and the graphic form shows time on the leftto-right axis, and pressure variation on the vertical axis. (The examples below are drawn from
Pierre Henry: Variations pour une porte et un soupir.)

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The trace on the left, shows the variations in air

pressure of a sound with a duration of about
8/100ths (80/1000ths) of a second (80
milliseconds). When the wave is above the center
line, there is a compression, below represents a
rarefaction.

The trace on the left shows about 1/3 of a second

(370 ms). The arrow above the first 1/4 represents
the previous graphic (above).

1.4 sec

5.7 sec

1,400 ms

46 sec

2:45 min

The wavelength (repetition of a cycle) represents the frequency of the signal: the number of
vibrations per second. The vertical variation represents the amplitude (in dB).
Wave: frequency is represented
by the oscillations in time

Twice the frequency

Half the amplitude of

twice the frequency

ENVELOPE FOLLOWER
Variations in waveshape (micro-structural amplitude, below about 50 ms, which equals 20Hz)
represent changes in tone color (spectrum). When there are changes in amplitude over longer
periods (above 50 ms), they are perceived as amplitude envelopes.

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Readings

Original signal

Top half of wave, with the derived

amplitude envelope.

This is how an envelope follower works: the amplitude envelope of the signal has been extracted
(as a CONTROL see below).
2

The amplitude envelope alone

6
1

Simple envelopes have three basic components: attack, sustain and decay. The envelope above
has six parts (or stages): 1 & 4 are very rapid attacks (short duration); 3 is an attack of longer
duration; 2, 5 & 6 are decay elements An instrument such as a piano or guitar will have two main
stages, an attack and a decay. As in the example above, the decay stage may have two or more
parts to it.

PROCESSING OF ENVELOPES
An amplifier is a voltage multiplier. Amplifiers are frequently thought of as making a signal
larger (positive gain), but can also be used to reduce the level of a signal (negative gain), which is
how a voltage controled amplifier VCA (on an analog synthesizer) works.
amplifier x2
INPUT LEVEL
amplifier x .5

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0
0
0

2
1
.5

4
2
1

132

6
3
1.5

10
5
2.5

20
10
5

40
20
10

100
50
25

Readings

Expansion of envelope
(envelope x 2) (= expander)

The envelope before processing

Compression of the envelope

(envelope 2) (= compressor)
(envelope x .5)

This is how a compressor / expander functions: the dynamic level of the INPUT is doubled
(expander) or halved (compressor). The complete block diagram of this is:
INPUT

OUTPUT

CONTROL

The external envelope (control), is controling the gain

of the amplifier. In this way, the envelope of an
external device can be applied to a signal. This is
sometimes called re-enveloping.

Noise Reduction Systems

Most noise reduction systems work on some form of compression and expansion (also
called compansion (compression / expansion), where the signal is compressed into a
smaller dynamic range before recording, and then expanded upon playback.
Any noise added during the recording process (after compression) will be expanded
downwards, and thus reduced in level upon playback.

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GATING
Sometimes it is desirable to remove noise from a source. One way is to use filters (modification of
spectrum). If the noise is low level, it is possible to use a GATE to do this. A noise gate is a device
that only passes signals with levels above a pre-set threshhold.
Original signal. (It is assumed that the noise is
low level, and therefore near the lower limits of
the amplitude envelope.
With a low threshold level, most of the signal
(that part above the threshhold) is passed by
the amplifier.
With a higher threshhold, less of the signal is
passed.
Another application of this process, is to control the level of a source, by an external control, as
for example to have an electric bass and bass drum sound exactly together.

OUTPUT

INPUT

CONTROL

The INPUT signal, is re-enveloped by the CONTROL, and appears at the OUTPUT with the
dynamic envelope of the CONTROL.
99-i

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A SOMEWHAT INCOMPLETE, SELECTIVE HISTORICAL

TIMELINE OF SOUND TECHNOLOGY
Timelines can never be complete something is always left out, sources disagree on dates, the
information is a patchwork collection that attempts to provide raw data but is not capable of
providing a real sense of context, beyond that provided by a calendar.
This timeline tries to divide the passage of time into four layers: a very slow moving Philosophy; a
Theory that frequently follows application, sometimes appears at the same time, or rarely predates it; a Technology that reports the what and where of a development; and an Application /
Event / Pieces layer that tries to pinpoint specifics of how the previous three functioned together.
As with any history, there are many sources and many paths. Sometimes they cross, sometimes
they merge, sometimes they run parallel. Some streams continue and develop, some are just preechoes of later developments that occur independently. The history of Sound and Technology
contains all of these, both in theory and in practice. This started as a brief survey, aimed at an
overview of electroacoustic / computer music, with the major emphasis being the period from
1948 to 1980. It is continuing to evolve into something else.
The first drafts of this document contained the following somewhat arbitrary sections. To provide
some context for a reading / reference to this text, the following section headings are being given
as general guideposts:
Music Technologies Before 1948
Electronic Music (Electroacoustics)
France and musique concrte (19481966)
Germany and elektronische musik (19481967)
USA and Tape Music (1950
Modular synthesizer (19641980)
Keyboard synthesizer (1978
Computer Music (1955
MIDI and commercial equipment (1982)
Desktop Computing / Computer Music (1985)
Live electronics (1950)
Multi-media applications

MUSIC TECHNOLOGIES BEFORE 1948

The history of philosophical, theoretical and practical musical problems in cultures from China to
the west yields to the effects of the Enlightenment and the Industrial Revolution. The nineteenth
and twentieth centuries reflect the impact of technological developments, and the integration of
these in music through the invention of new instruments, sometimes paralleled by new aesthetic
forces.
While the physical manifestations of ideas are most easily identified, the intellectual position that
it is possible to model reality with numbers, and therefore create machines that could emulate
intelligent behavior turns out from this vantage point to have been an equal, if not more important
achievement of the human mind. The history of computing, with its slightest tendrils back into the
late Renaissance explodes in the mid 1940s as the most potent force by the end of the twentieth
century.

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MUSIQUE CONCRTE; ELEKTRONISCHE MUSIK; TAPE MUSIC

One of the major sources for the development of electronic music / electroacoustics was the
invention of musique concrte in France by Pierre Schaeffer in 1948.
A second school was that developed in Germany shortly thereafter (elektronische musik). The
french school was based upon the objet sonore, and involved the manipulation and
transformation of recorded sounds: the german school was based on creating electronic sounds
from oscillators and white noise sources. The distinction disappeared in 1956 with Stockhausens
Gesang der Jnglinge.
There were parallel developments on the east coast of the USA tape music , however these
have been somewhat overshadowed by the developments in computer music applications for
which the USA has become much better known.

ELECTRONIC MUSIC 1948 1970

A second (original) distinction in the early history of ea was whether the composition existed only
on the support medium (disc or tape), or whether the piece was worked out on paper before
hand (in a formalistic way), and then stored on the new medium.
The original approach in Germany (the North-West German Radio Studio the Kln studio) was
to build up sound complexes using sine tones or modulation procedures, the components having
been worked out on paper beforehand a formalist approach.

SYNTHESIZERS
New instrumental resources have always been sought by composers and performers: the
development of synthesizers is part of this historical tradition. Various instruments are listed in
the Before 1948 section, with the first synthesizers appearing in the late 40s and early 50s.
However, it required commercialization starting in the mid 60s to change the analog synthesizer
from being a unique, individual research tool, into a widely available compositional instrument.

COMPUTERS
The theoretical basis for computing dates back several hundred years, but it is only with the
technological developments from the middle 19th c that there are functioning computing
machines. The development of the vacuum tube in 1907, the transistor in 1948, and the IC in the
early 70s accelerated this line of development.
The computer increased in power and decreased in size, reaching the point that by the mid-1990s,
desktop computing had become the standard for much ea/cm production. Programs that had
run on main frame computers were being ported to faster micro (sic) computers (although it is
hard to conceive of a computer with 512meg of RAM, a 17ig HD and a clock of 1.4gHz as being
micro).

LIVE ELECTRONICS
And the other side to the creation of the fixed work of sonic art, was the use of electronics for
performance, mixed media and installation arts. Starting in the early part of the 20th c, new
sound explorations have been part of the new arts. Visual and performance artists employed
sound: turntables, radios, oscillators, processors, keyboard synths all readily produce new, live
sounds.
The headwater of this river is the human capacity and desire to develop and use tools to
improve, modify and explore their environment. Theorists propose mechanical models to explain
physical events; philosophers propose mind models to explain cosmic events: both are important

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to the history of sound, as are the inventor, artisan and craftsman. This history briefly mentions
some historical antecedents in the development of the field.
Abbreviations:
c = century, or circa; BCE = Before Common Era (BC of the western calendar); CE=Common Era
(AD of the western calendar).
Some of the forces at play in the history of music technology and ea/cm include: Philosophy,
Theory, Technological Developments, and Application. As will be seen on the following pages,
the fourlayer division has been maintained.

TIMELINE
Pre-history
While the voice is the original instrument, tools/instruments were developed to make
sounds (for ritual, spiritual, ceremonial, entertainment purposes?). There is little indication that sound
was used without a functional / movement / ceremonial / theatrical / voice component.
Ancient times Mechanical sound-making instruments are created where the energy source is no longer
directly that of the lungs or hands: bagpipes, where the energy is stored in a bag; water organs where
flowing water pumps the air (cf hydraulos, 3rd c BCE); aeolian harps, where the wind was used to vibrate
long strings.
2,000
Tuned stone chimes from China (2nd millennium BCE) suggest knowledge of music theory and the
circle of fifths.
1,600
Babylonian music theory indicates how to create scales and intervals. The same system is
articulated by Greek theorists (eg Pythagoras 6th c BCE) in speculations on harmonic motion, and
how intervals relate to the division of a string. It was based on ascending perfect 5ths (the 2:3
ratio of the harmonic series).
600
Greece Pythagoras is credited with being the first to examine the nature of consonance (meaning
the union of sounds). [An extension of this is found in the concepts of stream segregation and
capturing in Auditory Scene Analysis [ASA] in the 1980-90s.] Music is viewed as one of the four
mathematical sciences arithmetic, geometry, astronomy, and music. (This is later described as
Music of the Spheres.)
500
Greece The monochord (kann) is developed: a one-string instrument used to explore the
relationships of intervals. Greek music theory is (partly) based upon the perfect fourth (4:3 ratio)
and tetrachords.
400
China Music theory writings emphasize philosophical, cosmological and educational values of
music.
300
Greece Ctesibius of Alexandria, an engineer, invents the hydraulos (water organ), one of the first
applications of a regulated system of energy for the production of sound.
100

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When numbers assume form, they realize themselves in musical sound. (Shih-chi; China)
Greek and Roman architects explore acoustical properties for theaters (eg amphitheaters).
Answers are still qualitative rather than quantitative.
100
Greece Claudius Ptolemy writes Harmonika, a treatise on harmonics, acoustics, interval theory,
tetrachords, modes, the monochord, and the relationships between notes, parts of the body, and
heavenly bodies (cf Music of the Spheres).
400
China First attempts by Ho Cheng-tien to create a 12 tone equal-temperament to solve the
Pythagorean comma problem, since the circle of fifths doesnt return to the octave (It is 23/
100ths of a semitone too large, that is, B# is almost a 1/4 of a semitone above C).
1000
Theoretician, teacher Guido of Arrezo provides a system for naming notes. He works with
hexachords, and only provides six names (do, r, mi, fa, sol, la).
1400s
Medieval / Renaissance Europe
Instruments like the organ, virginal, spinet, harpsichord and
hurdy-gurdy use levers to play or activate sounds at a distance.
Western european theorists speculate on problems of intonation when tuning is based solely upon
the harmonic series. A number of solutions are proposed (eg Francisco de Salinas developed a
mean-tone temperament; Arp Schnitger develops equal-temperament [1688]). A variety of
keyboards are designed to deal with these intonational incongruities.
1500s
China Chu sai-y creates an equal-tempered 12 note scale.
1555
In europe, Don Nicola Vincentino designs and constructs a multi-keyboard instrument (six banks
of keyboards), the Archicembalo which is capable of dividing the octave into thirty-one steps. This
is used to overcome tuning problems associated with the meantone and Pythagorean tuning
systems.
1618
Colonna improves upon Vincetinos work with his La sambuca lincea.
1619
Johannes Keplers Harmony of the World. [Chaos is but unperceived order.]
1627
Francis Bacons New Atlantis proposes ...
We also have sound houses, where we practice and demonstrate all sounds, and their generation. We have
harmonies which you have not, of quarter-sounds, and lesser slides of sounds. Divers instruments of music
likewise unknown to you, some sweeter than any you have, together will bells and rings that are dainty
and sweet. We re-present small sounds as great and deep; likewise great sounds extenuate and sharp
We have also divers strange and artificial echoes, reflecting the voice many times, and as it were tossing it:
and some that give back the voice louder than it came; some shriller, and some deeper We also have
means to convey sounds in trunks and pipes, in strange lines and distance.
1624

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First (european) calculating machine developed by Wilhelm Schickard.

1630s
Marin Marsenne, a French mathematician, philosopher, music theorist and priest, laid the
foundation for the modern mathematical understanding of vibrating bodies, acoustics, and
numerous aspects of music theory. He was brought with him a new awareness of the
psychological factors related to musical comprehension.
1642
Early gear-train calculator developed by the french mathematician Blaise Pascal.
1646
First projection lantern developed by the german mathematician Athanasius Kircher.
1654
Blaise Pascal and Pierre de Fermat state the theory of probability a forerunner to quantum
mechanics and information theory.
1657
Dutch astronomer, Christiaan Huygens, designs the first pendulums for clocks, and develops
theories regarding wave propagation a basis of acoustics.
1666 Gottfried Wilhelm Leibnitz (1646-1716) suggested that the process of reasoning could be broken
down into smaller and smaller elements until it was reduced to a few basic one, much like factoring a
number into its primes. He proposed that there is a set of elemental concepts, first terms, by means of
which all other concepts are defined. Leibnitz envisaged that logical operations could be performed on the
basic elemental concepts of thought much like the mathematical manipulation of numbers. An even bolder
part of Leibnizs vision was that, given an unambiguous representation of the structure of the world and
the rules of logic, the reasoning process could be executed automatically, whether by pen and paper or by a
machine.
1685
Leibnitz develops a mechanical calculator that uses a variable-toothed gear wheel to achieve
multiplication in a single operation, rather than through multiple additions as was necessary in
earlier designs. These calculating machines provided him concrete evidence that, given symbolic
representation of thoughts and strict reasoning rules, it should be possible to build mechanical reasoning
machines.
1685 ..
Christiaan Huygens proposes a 31 tone/octave organ. One is demonstrated in 1950.
The european debate around equal-temperament heats up. ET is largely established by the mid18th c, but some British cathedrals maintain other intonation systems into the last half of the 19th
c.
1701 Joseph Sauveur, drawing upon acoustical and mathematical research of the 17th c,
formulates a theory about the overtone series. Sauveur also defines limits of human aural pitch
perception at being between 16 and 32,718 Hz. (more like 25 to 18kHz), experiments with microtonal tunings, and designs the Echometer to measure micro-intervals within the octave.
1729
Steven Gray in England discovers that some materials conduct electricity and other dont.
1745
The Leyden jar invented, an early capacitor.

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1750
The french Encyclopedistes produce a 28 volume encyclopedia on the sciences, the liberal arts,
and the mechanical arts. Diderot, its chief architect, writes the 60 page volume on Musique. It
deals extensively with intervals, scales, harmony, theory, composition and figured bass.
1759
Jean-Baptiste de la Borde, a Jesuit priest in Paris develops a clavecin lectrique in which bells are
struck by clappers holding a static electric charge. A curiosity that made sparks fly.
1760
Jean Phillipe Rameau includes theories of overtone series in his theoretical treatises on music
including code de musique pratique.
1761
J-B de la Borde invents the electric harpsichord, really a kind of carillon, in which static electricity is
used to assist the action or mechanism between the keyboard and the strings or bells.
1760s
A mechanical curiosity, a talking machine was invented in France. It demonstrated a knowledge
of the role of voiced / unvoiced sounds, and vowel formants.
1766
Benjamin Franklin invents the glass harmonica. A series of glass discs which could be set in motion
by a foot pedal, they were kept wet by passing through a trough of water. The discs were of
increasing thickness so that when the performer touched one of the edges, a specific pitch was
produced. Mozart and Beethoven both wrote works for the instrument.
Late 1700s
The development of a punched-card system to control the weaving of mechanical looms
brings together the industrial revolution and the ideas of a calculating machine, and for the first time, the
operations that the machine is to undertake can be stored on an external medium. Up until this time, the
calculating machines had been dedicated devices, capable of only one type of action.
1800
Volta invents the wet cell battery providing a more stable way of storing electrical energy.
1830s
Charles Babbage conceives of the Analytical Engine where the results of a given operation could
be fed back into the machine and used for subsequent operation. It utilized a central processor
and a system of storage. Most innovative was its facility to have a predetermined series of
operations programed to automatically execute in sequence. Babbage also proposed that the
execution of the sequence of operations might change depending on the results generated by earlier
operations (conditional execution).
1837
Galvanic music by Dr CG Page (Massachusetts) during experiments with a battery, coil and
magnets (electro-magnetic induction).
1854
The mathematician George Boole proposes a binary system in which 1 represented true and 0
represented false as well as a set of logical operations (and, or, not) that could be performed on
these 1s and 0s.
1863

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Hermann Helmholtz publishes On the Sensations of Tone as a Physiological Basis for the Theory of
Music, a pioneering work in the field of acoustics. It contains the first systematic explanations of
timbre.
1867
Hipps electromechanical piano.
1870s
Moscow Conservatory acquires a quarter-tone piano.
1874
Eisha Grays singing telegraph.
1876
Koenig invents the tonametric which could divide four octaves into 670 equal parts, or about 167
steps per octave (8 cent intervals).
Alexander Bell succeeds in transmiting the voice by means of electricity.
Grays electroharmonic piano
1877
Emile Berliner perfects both a telephone and a disc recorder.
1883
Edgar(d) Varse is born.
1885
Ernst Lorenz invents the elektrische musikinstrument which uses electrical vibrations to drive an
electromagnet that was connected to resonating boards, thus transducing electrical vibrations into
sound.
1888
Thomas Edison invents the phonograph. Sound is stored as an analog to the soundwave : the
movement of the stylus is a miniature version of the vibrations in the air. The original cylinder
discs were a hill and dale method of recording, where the stylus went up and down rather than
side-to-side as became standard in the 20th C.
1897
Thaddeus Cahill constructs the sounding staves which could regulate the number of upper partials
/ harmonic content in a timbre. Sounds did not necessarily any more resemble a traditional
instrument.
1898
Danish scientist Vlademar Poulsen invents his telegraphone, the first electronic recording machine,
which was sometimes refered to as the wire recorder. Sound could now be stored in a medium
that does not hold a mechanical, analog version of the soundwave.
1899
William Duddell (England) invents the Singing Arc which used carbon arc lamps whose discharge
paths were interrupted by controled electrical vibrations to create sound.
The historical threads of the Sound and Technology start to separate in this period as aspects of research,
aesthetics, communications, composition begin to move and start to involve more countries than just those
in europe, most notably the impact of the USA as a major industrial and economic force.

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The field deals with the questions of:

New Instruments (both extensions of traditional ones and new directions) which are the
focus of the first 70 years;
Storage (moving from cylinders to 78 rpm, optical sound tracks, magnetic tape / film, 33
rpm discs, cassette, CDs, DAT and hard disc);
Distribution (by wires, radio broadcast, film sound, television, magnetic tape, video and the
internet);
Languages of Sonic Arts (which require tools before developments);
Cognition and Research (requiring a greater understanding of acoustics and
psychoacoustics);
Access (at first very limited, followed by access through radio stations and universities, to
the use of computers by the end of the century)
1901
First trans-Atlantic radio transmission one letter in morse code.
The 78rpm disc begins to replace the cylinder as the medium for recorded sound.
1904
Enrico Caruso makes his first recording.
1906
Thaddeus Cahill creates his Dynamophone or Telharmonium (weighing 200,000 kg) capable of
generating sounds by means of a series of electro-mechanical dynamos (electrical generators).
Music is distributed through telephone lines around New York City. Concerts in the home! A form
of narrowcasting to subscribers. The sounds created are electric rather than electronic. The
process for the creation of timbre is similar to that later used in the Hammond B3 organ (tone
wheels), and is a forerunner of additive synthesis.
1907
Lee de Forest invents the vacuum tube which provides an electronic way to amplify an electrical
signal.
March 05, Lee de Forest broadcasts a performance of Rossinis William Tell Overture from
Telharmonic Hall.
Ferruccio Busoni in Sketch of a New Aesthetic of Music proposes giving up the semitone as
the smallest interval.
1909
Italian Futurist movement presents its Foundation and Manifesto of Futurism. Notably written
by Luigi Russolo, it glorifies machines, speed, strength, etc.
April 09, a private broadcast from the stage of the Metropolitan Opera House to the home of Lee
de Forest.
1910
First radio broadcast from the stage of the Met: Caruso sings selections from Cav & Pag.
1911
Francesco Pratella issues The Technical Manifesto of Futurist Music advocating microtones,
experimentation with found objects, everyday sounds.

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Sketch of a New Esthetic of Music by Ferruccio Busoni. A call for new experiments in music.
Greatly influences Edgard Varse who envisions music by machines that frees composers from the
limitations of traditional instruments.
1913
Futurist Manifesto and The Art of Noise (March 11), by Luigi Russolo and Francesco Pratella
advocating using the more interesting and unlimited resources of noise. Russolo invents a
family of Intonarumori, mechanical instruments that produce hisses, grunts, pops, etc.
The Futurist movement foreshadowed many experimental approaches to sound and music such
as: musique concrte; the amplification of inaudible sounds (later used by John Cage and others):
amplification of vibrations from living beings (later used by Alvin Lucier and others); use of
noise and environmental sounds in theatrical and operatic works, etc. Many experimental
approaches to textual delivery: sound poetry in performance and in recordings originated here.
In Milan, April 21, the first concert of the Intonarumori in Milan under the title of Art of
Noises was presented by Luigi Russolo. A riot ensued: 11 people were injured.
Darius Milhaud, Paul Hindemith, Ernst Toch begin to use variable speed phonographs to alter the
characteristics of preexisting sounds.
1915
Lee De Forest invents the electronic oscillator, a device that produces electronicaly generated
tones; he contemplates the invention of electronic instruments.
19001915
Wallace Sabine (Harvard University) becomes the father of modern architectural acoustics
when he is able to quantify (and therefore reproduce and predict) the behavior of sound, notably
regarding reverberation.
1916
Dada movement born at the Cabaret Voltaire in Zrich. Tristan Tzara, Hans Arp, etc.
Movement would include Kandinsky, Hugo Ball, Paul Klee, Kurt Schwitters in Europe, and
Marcel Duchamp, Man Ray, Max Ernst in USA It has far-reaching influences on poetry, soundtext composition, applications of chance (the music of John Cage).
1918
In France, Coupleux and Givelet create the Radio-Organ, a 61 note 10 timbre polyphonic keyboard
instrument using over 700 hundred vacuum tubes.
Aerial Theatre by Fedele Azari. Opera using the sonorous possibilities of airplane engines.
Russolo was involved in modifying timbral and resonant characteristics of engines.
1919
Leon Theremin (Moscow) invents the Theremin, an extensions of the oscillator which functions by
relative distance of the performers hand(s) from two antennas on the instrument.
Bauhaus founded by Walter Gropius. Work in sound and textual transformations for the theater.
1922
The Clavilux, a color organ invented by Thomas Wilfred is demonstrated in New York.
Aug 3: The first radio sound effect was produced at WGY in Schenectady NY.
1923
Invented by Hugo Gernsback, the Staccatophone, an 88 key electronic piano, is demonstrated.

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August 3rd, the first radio sound effects were produced at WGY in Schenectady NY.
The first use of the term robots in the Czech Karel Capeks play Rossums Universal Robots.
1926
Russolo invents his Psofarmoni, keyboard instruments that imitate animal and nature sounds.
A female robot appears in Fritz Langs Metropolis.
Wire recorders begin to be used for commercial (office) applications. They become the Dictaphone.
1927
Oskar Schlemmer uses phonograph recordings in theater works emerging at the Bauhaus.
1928
Maurice Martenot introduces various methods for controling timbre (by additive synthesis) in
France with his Ondes Martenot.
Friedrich Trautwein introduces the Trautonium (subtractive synthesis) and establishes a studio for
musical experiments in Berlin with Paul Hindemith.
First work in sound for film in Germany by Walter Ruttmann. This work carried on by members
of the Bauhaus (Arma, Oskar Fischinger, Moholy-Nagy, Trautwein).
Hindemith experimented with varying turntable speeds.
1929
Laurens Hammond introduces the Hammond Organ, which generates tones using tone wheels
and a method of additive synthesis.
Givelet and Coupleux devise a machine in France that consists of four oscillators controled by a
punched paper roll thereby incorporating De Forests oscillators with the principles of the player
(piano). While there is a history of mechanical instruments of several hundred years, this is a
degree of automation which foreshadows later computer-control of aspects of sound production
and composition.
Emicon musical instrument.
A radiophonic work (Hrspiel), Lindberghflug by Weill, Hindemith and Brecht is presented in
concert: July 28.
Joseph Schillingers First Airphonic Suite is performed with Leon Theremin playing the
Thereminovox part.
Hindemith & Toch produce phonograph studies.
1931
Hellertion musical instrument
1932
Piano-harp musical instrument
Vivatone musical instrument

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Oskar Fischinger creates ornamental sound drawings on film, to be read as optical soundtracks.
1933
MarconiStille magnetic (steel) tape recorder.
Electrode musical instrument.
1930s
First experiments with stereo recording. Leopold Stokowski and RCA Victor are central in this.
193337 Honegger (et al) manipulated film sound tracks.
1934
Croix Sonore (1923) demonstrated in Paris.
1935
Magnetic tape recorder (based on the principles of the earlier wire recorder) is invented in
Germany (AEG Magnetophone).
Partiturophon musical instrument.
Yeugeny Sholpo, at the Leningrad Conservatory and the Moscow experimental studio builds his
Variohones, instruments using preprinted optical tracks to make sound.
Norman McLaren produces his first animated film with a hand-drawn optical soundtrack, Book
Bargain, for the National Film Board of Canada, based upon a system described by Rudolph
Phenninger.
1936 Konrad Zuse applies for a patent on an electromechanical automatic calculator. With the advent of
electricity, complicated mechanical linkages could be replaced with wires and switches. Zuses calculator
included a memory for storing numbers and results, a central arithmetic processing unit, and the ability to
define a sequence of operations to be given to the machine on paper tape.
1936
Electrochord musical instrument.
1937
Claude Shannon demonstrates that Boolean logic can be represented by electrical switches and
the Boolean operation could be performed with the appropriate connections of electrical switches.
Ftes des belles eaux by Olivier Messiaen is written for six Ondes Martinot, for the 1937 Paris
Exhibition.
1938
Maurice Martenot patents a microtonal keyboard capable of producing 1/12 semitone intervals (c
9 cents).
Melodium musical instrument.
Pianotron musical instrument.
Novachord musical instrument. There was one in the McGill EMS from 1962 [?] 1980. It was
given by Hugh LeCaine.
Deux Monodies en quarts de ton by Messiaen, for Ondes Martinot.
1939

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Imaginary Landscapes No 1 by John Cage a radio piece whose sound sources are two RCA Victor
test records played on variable speed phonographs along with a cymbal and the interior of a
piano.
Norman McLaren works with drawn sound in experimental film.
1940
John and James Whitney develop optical soundtrack for film.
First US TV broadcast of an operatic work.
Walt Disneys Fantasia employs a multi-channel soundtrack.
1941
Ondioline musical instrument.
1942
Pierre Schaeffer, working as an engineer for Radio-France (RTF), establishes first sound research
facility, Studio dessai, at Radio France (RF) (while under German occupation).
1943
First electronic digital computers.
John and James Whitney produce Five Film Exercises using a photographic image of a pendulum on
the optical soundtrack.
Imaginary Landscape No 2 & 3 by John Cage. A coil of amplified wire used with various noise
makers, and variable speed phonographs. (Harkens back to the Futurists.)
1944
The first electronic calculating machine, IBMs Mark I, could multiply two 23-digit numbers in
approximately four and a half seconds.
1945
Granger and Cross build an 8-oscillator synthesizer with synchronization capabilities.
The Allies get tape recorders from the defeated German military machine.
1945-48

Hugh Le Caine builds the Electronic Sackbut, the first voltage controled synthesizer.

1946
The ENIAC (Electronic Number Integrator and Calculator) was built containing 18,000 vacuum
tubes, occupying 300 cubic meters of space, and consuming 140,000 watts of electricity. Todays
pocket calculators dwarf the capabilities of the original ENIAC.
Club dessai for experimentation for radio-drama and music.
1947
Clavioline musical instrument
Solovox musical instrument
(adapted from Laurie Radford)
A BRIEF HISTORY OF FORMALISM IN MUSIC FROM 1900 TO 1955.

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Early in the century, composers who were writing more and more complex music struggled with ways to
organize the pitch elements of their pieces as tonality passed beyond the limits of organizing complex
chromatic musical ideas. A number of solutions developed, among them atonality espoused by Arnold
Schoenberg, and subsequently adopted by a large number of Austrian and German composers. (This is the
so-called Second Viennese School.)
A number of composers were working upon techniques of control and development, and Schoenberg
invented a serial technique, in which the twelve chromatic notes are placed in a row, and used in such a
way, that 12 notes had to be played before the any could be used again. (This is similar to the renaissance
technique of iso-melos.) Later composers began to serialize other musical parameters, including dynamics,
rhythm, articulation, register, tempo, tone color etc.
After the war, French composers were strongly split in their acceptance / rejection of serial composition. For
some it was a way into the futurea break with the past: for others it was seen as sterile and academic. Its
influence on the thinking of composers however cannot be denied.
This technical practice was a cornerstone of the German electronic music school centered in Kln (cf).
1948
Claude Shannon publishes a book explaining Information Theory
Schaeffer started the first formalized, systematic studies of what was to become musique concrte.
May 15, Schaffer names this musique concrte, to indicate that this use of sound objects makes a
break from the formalism and dependency of preconceived sound (or musical) abstractions.
The transistor invented at Bell Telephone Laboratories
First 33 rpm (microgroove) LP. One side can hold 22 27 (+) minutes of music compared to 3 5
minutes with 78 rpm discs. The last 78 rpm discs are made in the late 50s.
On May 3, Schaeffer takes a RF sound truck to a train station to record railway sounds which
were to become the tude aux chemins de fer. He started systematic studies exploring the potential
of different concrete sonic sources: tude aux tourniquets, tude aux casseroles, tude violette, tudes
au Piano I et II.
Schaeffers principle tools for his experiments are turntables, a few microphones, a mixer and some
potentiometers. His experiments demonstrate that concrete material can be manipulated at will. (For a
long time there has been an anecdote that Schaeffer discovered looping by accident from a locked sound
effects record.)
He recorded locomotives, wrote a score, transformed and sequenced the sounds. Train whistles are
transposed through a change in the turntable speed, thus allowing for the use of melodies. However,
notation remains a poor tool when compared to the act of listening to the materials.
Through the looping of recorded speech, words lose their recognizable meanings, new associations are
made possible. Through numerous chance experiments, using pre-recorded materials (songs,
advertisements, symphonic concerts, etc), Schaeffer combines noises with musical fragments and discovers
that these meetings rarely result in musical statements. The difficulty lies in selecting materials that are
not singularly anecdotal, that can be isolated and easily placed out of their familiar context to yield new
meanings. Schaeffer decides to begin a morphology of sounds (study of the form and structure of
sounds).
1948

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The same year as the first experiments in musique concrte by Pierre Schaeffer in Paris, Homer
Dudley of Bell Telephone Laboratories introduces the vocoder to Werner Meyer-Eppler, a physicist
and director of the institute of Phonetics at Bonn University, Germany. The vocoder is a device
capable of both analyzing sound and simulating speech.
The first (mono) open reel tape recorders appear in the USA.
Oct 5, 5 tudes broadcast on Radio France.
1948-49 Symphonie pour un homme seul by Pierre Schaeffer and Pierre Henry. First extended work
using the techniques of musique concrte (loops, editing, speed variation / transposition,
direction reversal, filtering, collage with the use of turntables).
Messiaens Turangalla Symphony features an Ondes Martinot prominently.
1949
German engineer Harald Bode develops the Melochord employing electronic oscillators for the
production of musical tones.
1950
The mathematician Alan Turing creates a theoretical foundation for the feasibility of designing a
truly intelligent machine.
Univac delivers the first commercial digital computer.
Werner Meyer-Eppler gives a lecture entitled Developmental Possibilities of Sound at the
Darmstadt summer course for new music. Robert Beyer also lectures on Elektronische Musik.
Elektronium musical instrument.
First musique concrte concert, March 18th, 1950, at the cole Normale de Musique (Paris). Two
speakers and no musicians/performers! First large musique concrte work Symphonie pour un
homme seul, by Schaeffer and Pierre Henry, composed entirely with 78 rpm discs. Pierre Boulez,
Karlheinz Stockhausen, Luciano Berio, Bruno Maderna and Edgar Varse, etc are among the first
of a growing list of composers to visit the studios and experiment with this new art.
Louis and Bebe Barron work out of their own private studio since at least 1948.
1951
MeyerEppler succeeds in synthesizing sounds electronicaly by using the Melochord.
Founding of the Groupe de Recherches de Musique Concrte at the RTF, Paris. It attracted many
composers such as Pierre Boulez, Darius Milhaud, Karlheinz Stockhausen, Luciano Berio, Bruno
Maderna, etc.
USA John Cage establishes the Project of Music for Magnetic Tape. Other composers active
were Earle Brown, David Tudor, Morton Feldman, and Louis and Bebe Barron. Cage composes
Williams Mix based on chance operations derived from the I-Ching, with most of the materials
recorded by the Barrons. It is an assemblage of eight mono tapes, mixed down to stereo.
Herbert Eimert viewed that electronic music was the final chapter, or even postlude to
contemporary music (die Reihe, Vol 1, 1955), within a certain inevitability of human progress
. He subsequently recognized the postlude as prelude.

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Oct 18 First electronic studio established at the NWDR Cologne (Nordwestdeutsche Rundfunk)
by Herbert Eimert, Werner Meyer-Eppler and Robert Beyer.
Fundamental to electronic music is the realization of the timbral significance of the overtone series as both
a means of composing and of fabricating new sounds. In addition to mixing sine tones and other electronic
signals together in the manner of an orchestra, it is discovered that new timbres can be generated by the
modulatory processes involved in the combination of two or more electronic signals (i.e. frequency
modulation, amplitude modulation, etc.). The sine tone, the simplest musical sound lacking any harmonic
spectrum, is seen as a new musical element and resource.
1952
Vladimir Ussachevsky (USA) coins the term tape music.
Vocalise by Pierre Henry, first concrte work derived solely from the voice.
Timbres-dures by Olivier Messiaen, aided by Pierre Henry.
Netherlands Electroacoustic studio established in the Netherlands by Henk Badings at the
Nederlandsche Radio Unie (NRU) at Hilversum.
Norman McLaren creates Neighbours, one of his most famous animated films with hand-drawn
sound track.
USA First tape music concert in the United States at Columbia University with music by Otto
Luening and Vladimir Ussachevsky. Their music employed almost exclusively traditional instrumental
sounds and the human voice transformed using the newly available magnetic tape recorder and techniques
of speed variation, overdubbing, and electronic echo and reverberation. Works: Sonic Contours, Low
Speed, Incantation, etc
1950s 45 rpm 7 record appears.
1950s First stereo LPs.
1953
Voile dOrphe a dramatic work by Pierre Henry shows the clear advantages of tape over disc.
First electronic compositions by Robert Beyer and the composer Herbert Eimert. First electronic
concert at the Westdeutsche Rundfunk in Cologne.
First electronic compositions, under the influence of acoustic, phonetic and information theory
research, uses vocal timbres as a model for synthetic timbral construction and manipulation (i.e.
transposition, vowel formant filtering, etc.). Also prominent is the influence of serial music
procedures which are applied to the different compositional parameters employed.
After working at the RTF studios in Paris where he was occupied with the acoustical analysis of
sounds, Karlheinz Stockhausen is invited to work in the WDR studios where he undertakes a
series of electronic studies investigating the use of the harmonic series as a compositional
resource.
1954
Stockhausens Studie II employs an electronic realization of the harmonic series. Families of
related timbres are created through additive synthesis techniques forming a continuum from a
single sine tone to mixed groups and finally white noise.
Multi-channel tape recorders (up to 5 channels).

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1955
Dripsody by Hugh Le Caine produced at the Elmus Lab, National Research Council of Canada
using his Variable Speed Recorder.
Italy Studio di Fonologia Musicale of the RAI. (Radio Audizioni Italiane) in Milan, Italy
founded by Luciano Berio and Bruno Maderna.
Japan Electronic studio of the Nippon Hoso Kyokai (NHK) founded in Tokyo. (Takemitsu,
Mayuzumi, Moro, Ichiyanagi, Ishii, etc.)
Harry Olsen and Herbert Belar produce in the USA the first modular synthesizer, the RCA Mark I
.
Lejaren Hiller and Leonard Isaacson begin experiments in composition with the ILLIAC highspeed digital computer at the University of Illinois.
Serge Garant composes Nuclogame, the first Canadian mixed (tape and live performer) piece.
1956
Dartmouth Summer Research Project on Artificial Intelligence with John McCarthy, Marvin
Minsky, Herbert Simon and Allen Newell (the science of making machines do things that would
require intelligence if done by men).
Combination of musique concrte and electronic music sound sources and techniques in Karlheinz
Stockhausens Gesang der Jnglinge. (Germany)
Vladimir Ussachevskys A Piece for Tape Recorder employs electronic and concrete sources.
Otto Luenings Theatre Piece No. 2 for electronic sounds, soprano, narrator and instruments.
(USA)
Diamorphoses by Iannis Xenakis produced at the RTF studios. Continued use of tape transposition
and reversal, filtering, and other musique concrte techniques.
Hiller and Isaacson use the Illiac computer to create the first work employing the computer to control
compositional choices and stylistic parameters: the Illiac Suite for String Quartet (1957). The work was
composed by the computer based on tables of conditional limits (i.e. involving pitch, rhythm, range,
dynamics, etc.) and was then transcribed into musical notation by the researchers for live nonelectronic
performance.
1957
Netherlands studio moved to Eindhoven, sponsored by Philips and directed by Henk Badings.
Scambi by Henri Pousseur produced at the Studio di Fonologia Musicale using only filtered white
noise as a sound source and depending on processes of indeterminacy for its structure.
Louis and Bebe Barron compose the electronic music score for Forbidden Planet.
PolandExperimental Studio of the Polish Radio established electroacoustic studio in Warsaw.
1957-58 Founding of the Groupe de Recherches Musicales by Pierre Schaeffer (also Luc Ferrari,
Franois-Bernard Mche, etc.) A period followed in which an emphasis was placed on the
systematic study of the characteristics of lobjet sonore.

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USA Tape works produced at Bell Telephone Laboratories in New Jersey under the direction of
Max Mathews.
First computer-generated sounds produced at the Bell Telephone Laboratories in Murray Hill, New Jersey.
Under the direction of Max Mathews of the Behavioral Research Laboratory, composers such as John
Pierce, James Tenney, Jean-Claude Risset and Frederick Moore work on employing the computer in
research for new methods of sound production and control and compositional applications.
1958
Thema (Omaggio Joyce) by Luciano Berio produced at the Studio di Fonologia Musicale, using
readings from the opening of Chapter 11 of Joyces Ulysses.
Pome lectronique by Edgard Varse (produced at the Eindhoven studios). Edgard Varse uses
electronically generated sounds in combination with concrte and instrumental sources in his
Pome lectronique.
Concret P-H II by Iannis Xenakis (produced at the RTF from a single source: the sound of burning
charcoal) created for the Philips Pavilion at the World Fair in Brussels, Belgium. They were
played over a 425 speaker sound projection system.
Fontana Mix by John Cage produced at Studio di Fonologia Musicale. Tape collage consisting of
environmental sounds, singing, speaking etc. and transformed through splicing and tape
transposition and reversal. Overall structure controlled by chance operations.
Artikulation by Gyrgy Ligeti produced at WDR studios. Based on phonetic research, direct
correlations are established between speech and musical sounds through the creation of a
hierarchy of 42 electronic sounds (including sine tones, harmonic, subharmonic and noise spectra)
subdivided into words and texts through conventional tape manipulations and additional
electronic modifications such as reverberation, ring modulation and envelope shaping.
Belgium
Pousseur.

Studio de musique lectronique established in Brussels under the direction of Henri

USA Cooperative Studio for Electronic Music (CSEM) founded by Gordon Mumma and Robert
Ashley in Ann Arbor, Michigan.
Electronic Studio at the University of Illinois established by Lejaren Hiller.
1959
Columbia-Princeton Electronic Music Center established by Luening and Ussachevsky.
San Francisco Tape Music Center founded by Morton Subotnick and Pauline Oliveros.
Canada
Electroacoustic Studio founded at the University of Toronto, directed by Arnold
Walter and Myron Schaeffer, assisted by Hugh Le Caine.
Iannis Xenakis OrientOccident III, with sounds derived from instrumental sources.
Pierre Schaeffer: tude aux objets, revised in 6667, is based upon instrumental sounds.
Brazil Grupo Musica Nova founded by Gilberto Mendes in Sao Paulo, Brazil. Concentration
primarily on musique concrte experiments.
Otto Joachim founds personal studio in Montral.

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Stockhausen produces Kontakte over 1959-60. Two versions: 1) solo tape, 2) piano, percussion
and tape. The tape comprises extensive work with electronically generated and modified sounds.
The sources are more elaborate than Stockhausens earlier Studies including impulse generators,
sine and square wave generators, filters, a ring modulator, etc. A close interaction between the
tape materials and the instrumentalists creates a terse, dynamic work.
Work at the Bell Laboratories by Max Mathews and James Tenney begins and leads to the first
MUSIC series of computer music programs (MUSIC IVB) in collaboration with JK Randall and
Hubert Howe of Princeton University.
Harry Olson and Herbert Belar introduce their improved RCA Mark II Synthesizer with a
typewriter-like keyboard to record binary control codes to operate the modules. The Mark II is
capable of controling the frequency, envelope, harmonic spectrum, amplitude, duration and
temporal progression of sonic events. The Columbia-Princeton Electronic Music Center is
established to house the Mark II and make it available to a wide variety of composers.
By the end of the 1950s, electroacoustic studios had been established in almost all European countries
including France, Germany, Austria, Italy, Sweden, Switzerland, England, Netherlands, Belgium, Spain,
Poland, as well as in Japan, USA and Canada.
By the early 1960s, most universities in North America had established experimental electroacoustic
studios and courses in either engineering, computer, or music departments.
1960
Pierre Barbaud (film music composer) and Roger Blanchard (choral conductor) work at the
Centre de Calcul lectronique de la Compagnie des Machines Bull in Paris (a computer
manufacturing plant) use the computer as a type of composing machine similar to the manner
employed by Hiller and Isaacson in Illiac Suite.
John Kelly and Carol Lochbaum create Bicycle Built for two at Bell Labs. It appears on the
Music from Mathematics LP, produced by Max Mathews. (The version used in 2001: A Space
Odyssey is sung by a person.)
Music III is introduced by Max Mathews.
Vocalism Ai by Toru Takemitsu using only the word Ai (love) as source material. Water Music by
Takemitsu uses many different kinds of water drops / running water.
Richard Maxfields Night Music produced in New York using supersonic frequencies modulate by
subaudio pulses (reminiscent of similar procedures previously used by Stockhausen in Kontakte
and Ligeti in Artikulation).
1961
Harold Bode, the german engineer who had built equipment for the Cologne studio writes an
article in which he describes a new concept in equipment design: modular systems.
Visage by Luciano Berio produced at the RAI studio in Milan, uses sound sources including the
voice, filtered noise bands, and oscillators frequently subjected to amplitude, frequency and ring
modulation.
Vision and Prayer by Milton Babbitt, based on a poem by Dylan Thomas, uses the voice with
electronically generated sounds produced on the RCA synthesizer. Also Babbitts Composition for
Synthesizer which attempts to produce instrumental-like sounds existing in complex pitch and
rhythmic contexts not available form conventional musical instruments.

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Trois visages de Lige by Henri Pousseur. Use of heavily modulated electronic signals, filtered noise
bands and electronic glissandi. Ring modulation used to create bell and gong sounds.
1962
Bohor I by Xenakis is an example of a mass structure continuum piece, employing continuous
repetition. Use of limited sound resources (Laotian mouth organ and dropping jewelry) and tape
transformations.
Iannis Xenakis produces works such as ST/10-1, 080262; ST/48-1, 240162 (for large orchestra);
Atres (for ten soloists); Morsima-Amorsima (for violin, cello, bass, and piano) using the
FORTRAN IV programming language on an IBM-7090 computer to aid in high-speed
computations of stochastic processes (probability theory) which determine pitch, gradient of
glissandos, the duration and dynamic of the emission of sound.
1963
Electroacoustic Studio founded at McGill University by Istvn Anhalt under the guidance of Hugh
Le Caine.
Etude aux objets by Pierre Schaeffer.
Variations on a Door and a Sigh by Pierre Henry. Strict limitation of sound sources - a sigh, a
musical saw, and a creaking door - and extended tape transformations. It is theatrical piece that
requires stereo listening for full impact.
LOiseau-chanteur by Franois Bayle, with sounds derived from instrumental sources.
Milton Babbitt produces Ensembles for Synthesizer. The possibility of precise control of all musical
parameters with electronic instruments lends itself to highly organized and structured
compositions in which complex rhythmic textures are realized.
Lejaren Hiller and Robert Baker produce their Computer Cantata wherein the computer is used to
produce the musical elements of pitch, duration, amplitude and the additional parameter of timbre (the
actual sound sources themselves). The choice of a multitude of timbral sources (sine, square, and sawtooth
waves, white and filtered noise, and computer-generated sounds as well as the sounds of the Theremin and
Ondes Martenot) reflects a fundamental concept of information theory prevalent in computer applications
to music composition at this time: as structural ordering increases the amount of information decreases.
mid-1960s

Four-channel tape recorders appear (Ampex, Scully)

1964
Institute of Sonology founded at Utrecht, Netherlands by Gottfried Michael Koenig
Gottfried Michael Kenig develops computer-controlled compositional programs at Utrecht State
University in the Netherlands and produces his work Project I.
Milton Babbitt produces Philomel using the voice and electronic sounds.
Bowery Bum, by Ilhan Mimaroglu uses a rubber band as source material.
Les changes by Rolf Liebermann is presented, scored for 52 machines under computer control.
The engineering student Robert Moog builds a voltage controled oscillator (VCO), a voltage
controled amplifier (VCA), followed in 1965 by a voltage controled filter (VCF). It is a number of
years before composers appreciate and take advantage of these new modular electronic music
resources.

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Donald Buchla works in a similar direction as Moog eventualy creating the Buchla Electronic
Music System which was employed in Morton Subotnicks early electronic music pieces.
Cassette format is licensed by Philips.
1965
Its Gonna Rain by Steve Reich. Phasing techniques using de-synchronization of multiple tape
loops.
Kenneth Gaburos Lemon Drops produced at the Experimental Music Studio of the University of
Illinois.
Czechoslovakia
Bratislava.

Experimental studio attached to the Czechoslovakian Radio founded in

The first computer composition is realized at Princeton University in conjunction with the
Columbia-Princeton Center: J. K. Randalls Mudgett: Monologues by a Mass Murderer. The computer
is used to produce traditional accompanying materials to a solo vocal part using MUSIC IV (by
Godfrey Winham and Hubert S. Howe).
University of British Columbia Studio founded by Cortland Hultberg
Royal Conservatory of Music Studio founded by Samuel Dolin.
Gustav Ciamaga becomes director of the University of Toronto EMS (UTEMS).
1966
Pierre Schaeffers research appears in his Trait des Objets Sonore.
Electroacoustic studio established in Prague.
Steve Reich Come Out based on phasing tape loops.
Mario Davidovsky produces Study No. II using only electronically generated sine and square
waves.
Stockhausens Telemusik created at the NHK radio studio in Tokyo. Intermodulation of a wide
variety of folk musics and electronically generated materials and modifications.
1967
Expo 67, Montral: electronic works by Joachim, RM Schafer
Stockhausens Hymnen, an epic work realized at the WDR studio using a wealth of national
anthems and many electronic sources as material.
Using a Buchla modular system, Morton Subotnick produces Silver Apples of the Moon using
contrasts in texture and timbre as organizational principles. This is the first piece of electronic
music to be commissioned by a record company (Nonesuch). It is followed by The Wild Bull,
Sidewinder, Four Butterflies ...
Wendy (Walter) Carlos Switched On Bach.
Charles Dodge begins composing using the computer facilities of Columbia University.

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1968
A light pen that eliminates much of the tedious work of punching data on IBM cards is developed
at Bell Labs. Any of the musical elements such as pitch and amplitude can be shown by drawing
a graphic representation of their contour, which is then relayed to the computer for calculation
and storage.
Orient-Occident III by Xenakis utilizes a wide variety of sound sources: cello bow being drawn
across cardboard boxes, metal rods, gongs, electric signals from the ionosphere recorded and
transposed to produce low roars, high cries, and glissandi.
Founding of Le Groupe de Musique Exprimentale de Marseilles. (Georges Boeuf, Michel Redolfi,
Jacques Diennet, etc.)
Vladimir Ussachevsky produces his Computer Piece No. 1 in which concrte sources, an electronic
organ and voice are used in combination with computer-generated sounds.
late 1960s

First 8-channel tape recorders appear (Ampex, Scully, MCI)

1969
Charles Wuorinens Times Encomium realized on the RCA Mark II Synthesizer at the ColumbiaPrinceton Electronic Music Center.
Charles Dodges Changes involving very accurate simulation of musical instruments which result
from changes in filtering, envelope contour and basic waveshape.
Lejaren Hiller and John Cage bring their two year collaboration to fruition to produce HPSCHD,
and through the use of computer printout sheets of highly sophisticated random numbers,
create the first available recording of which each performance (the listener performing on his
record player knobs), and each copy of the recording, is different and indeterminate. Each sheet
contains a different set of numbers for loudness and treble/bass control on each speaker.
J. K. Randall produces his Quartersines with a computer controling all aspects of the composition.
A sine wave is transformed to create complex glissando patterns using a FORTRAN-language
version of MUSIC IVB (written by Godfrey Winham).
Barry Vercoe produces his Synthesism at the Experimental Music Studio of MIT (Massachusetts
Institute of Technology) employing the computer to create a division of the octave into 16 equal
parts as well as creating unique timbral relationships by mixing bands of filtered noise with
specific pitches. (Written in MUSIC 360 for the IBM/360 computer.)
Jean-Claude Risset, after a period of research at Bell Labs, publishes a catalog of computersynthesized sounds and produces his computer-generated work Mutations I.
Morton Subotnick installation piece: Music for Twelve Elevators.
Max Mathews and Frederick Moore create their GROOVE program which uses the computer to
control analog synthesizers.
Laval University Studio founded by Nil Parent.
late 1960s

16 and 24 channel tape recorders appear; portable open reel video recorders (b/w)

A number of manufacturers began to make analog synthesizer modules, notably MOOG, ARP, EMS,
Buchla, Korg, Roland The modules were interconnected with patch cords, so every sound was
somewhat unique (and extremely difficult to accurately reproduce!). The modules included the sources of

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oscillation (VCOs) and noise (white and pink), with basic processing by filters (VCFs), amplifiers (VCAs),
ring modulation and cheap spring reverbs. In time, more sophisticated modules became available, but
they were mostly combinations of existing basic modules.
Controls were in the form of low frequency oscillators (LFOs), transient voltage (envelope) generators, and
control voltage processors such as inverters, sample and hold (S/H), track and hold (T/H), analog
sequencers, and logic functions such as switches, comparators etc.
By the end of the 1960s, most institutional studios possessed one of the growing number of voltage
controlled modular synthesizers. As well, the low cost of these instruments led to their increasing use by
composers and performers in pop music and film.
1990s Analog returns with a vengeance!
1970
Semiconductors (integrated circuits ICs) begin to appear, reducing the size and cost of
equipment, while increasing power, speed, flexibility and memory.
Presque Rien No. 1 by Luc Ferrari. An environmental piece that utilizes voices, children playing,
birds, motors, footsteps, waves, bells, insects etc, with an absence of any electronic or tape
modifications, except for selection, eq, editing and mixing.
Founding of Le Groupe de Musique Exprimentale de Bourges by Franoise Barrire and
Christian Clozier. Many composers from all over the world have worked at the studios in
Bourges and been performed and honored during the Festival International de Musique
lectroacoustique de Bourges for the past three decades.
Alvin Lucier creates I Am Sitting in a Room, which is included in Source magazine. A revised
version, lacking the cutting intensity of the original, is available on CD.
University of Calgary Studio founded by Warren Rowley
Sir George Williams University (later Concordia University) studio created.
1971
The Allan Company Computer Organ is demonstrated using wave-table lookup.
Jean-Claude Risset establishes a computer music installation in Orsay, France.
Barry Vercoe establishes an electronic music facility at the Massachusetts Institute of Technology.
Ussachevsky employs Max Mathews and F. Moores GROOVE program in Two Sketches for a
Computer Piece which involved computer control (by means of a PDP 224 computer) of an analog
synthesizer by means of a keyboard. Random production of pitches, amplitudes and rhythms
was controlled by computer. A large part of the piece is produced in real time.
Dalhousie University Studio started by Steve Tittle.
alcides lanza becomes director of the McGill EMS
Canadian Electronics Ensemble founded in Toronto (live electronics performer / composer
group).
MetaMusic created in Montral (live electronic music improvisation ensemble).

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Studio Exaustud (Experimentum Auditorium Studium) founded in Budapest.

University of Western Ontario Studio started by Peter Clements.
1973
John Chowning of Stanford University publishes an article entitled The Synthesis of Complex
Audio Spectra by Means of Frequency Modulation which articulates the digital control of FM to
create complex timbres.
Dartmouth Digital Synthesizer built by Sydney Alonso.
1974
First attempts of synthesis using the computer at the GRM (Groupe de recherches musicale,
Paris).
The first International Computer Music Conference is held.
Carleton University (Ottawa, Ontario) Studio started by David Piper.
Queens University (Kingston, Ontario) Studio started by David Keane.
1975
It is in the early to mid 70s that the word electroacoustic reappears to describe the general field of
electronic music.
John-Claude Risset produces his Dialogues for instruments and computer-generated tape.
Music Gallery started in Toronto, 0ntario.
1976
The IRCAM aesthetic was (is?) one of effects processing of traditional instrumental performers.
IRCAM (Institute pour la creation et recherch en acoustique et mathmatiques) is established
under the direction of Pierre Boulez at the Centre GeorgesPompidou in Paris. Giuseppe di
Giugno begins designing and installing the 4A computer at IRCAM. The 4X (1980) contains 1024
digital oscillators for sound synthesis, analysis and resynthesis.
Synclavier I (8 bit sound) is introduced by New England Digital (based on the Dartmouth Digital
Synthesizer.
After 3 years of development, the Samson Box is delivered to CCRMA (Stanford).
Jean-Claude Risset produces Inharmonique.
Sonde, live electronics ensemble formed in Montral. Ceased in 1988.
1978
University of Victoria Studio started by Martin Bartlett.
Conservatoire de musique a Qubec Studios started by Yves Daoust.
ACREQ formed in Montral.
1979
First powerful computer music workstation, the Fairlight CMI is marketed.

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Synclavier II is introduced.
DMX1000 (DSP) introduced.
1970s First digital recorders appear; Home video formats (VHS/ Beta)
1980
First commercial sampler, the Ensoniq Mirage, is marketed.
Conservatoire de musique a Montral Studios started by Yves Daoust.
Universit de Montral Studios started by Marcelle Deschnes.
1982
MIDI Specification 1.0 adopted by major music / sound manufacturers.
1983
Yamaha markets the first DX-7 polyphonic synthesizer with 64 progamable FM timbres: a
dedicated music computer.
McGill U ensemble, GEMS, founded.
1984
Barry Vercoe improves on his compositional software MUSI 11 by using the more portable C
programming language, and creates CSound.
Apple Macintosh
1986
Creation of the CEC.
1980s Multi-channel digital recording; CDs; Home digital recording (PCM); DAT; Computer based
sound (Apple)
1990s Computer-based digital recording; Minidisc
IV. The Present (and future....!)
and ..... personal computers and studios, thousands of dedicated computers in the forms of synthesizers ,
digital signal processing modules and sequencers, MIDI, DAT, samplers, live and interactive computer
music systems, DAWs (digital audio workstations), ADATS, surround-sound, virtual audio (?!?)
...etc....etc......etc. IN PROGRESS

(Expanded from notes by Laurie Radford)

Sources include:
Anthology of Canadian Music: Franois Gurin
Computer Music Journal
Groves Dictionary of Music
Jon Appleton, Ronald Perera: The Development and Practice of Electronic Music
Joel Chadabe: Electric Sound
Michel Chion, Guy Reibel: Les musiques lectroacoustiques
David H. Cope: New Directions in Music.

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David Ernst: The Evolution of Electronic Music

Bernard Grun: The Timetables of History
Jean Laurendeau: Maurice Martenot, luthier de llectronique
Curtis Roads: The Computer Music Tutorial
Barry Schrader: Introduction to Electro-Acoustic Music
Elliott Schwartz: Electronic Music
K Marie Stolba: The Development of Western Music
Gayle Young: Sackbut Blues
die Reihe: 1 Electronic Music (1955)
BMI Electronic Music Special Issue. 1970.
Liner notes from recordings etc
Personal communications etc

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INDEX (INCOMPLETE)

abstracted hearing, 10
accent, 8, 9
acceptable order, 6
acceptable semantic, 7
Acousmatic, 4, 23, 32
acoustic environment, 3
acoustic flow, 19, 20
acoustical mixing, 30
acoustics, 2, 19, 31, 48, 138, 139,
141, 142, 143
ADC, 27
aesthetic, 4, 135, 158
AI, 11
algorithmic, 32
alphabets, 9, 14
Alveolar, 13
ambient, 29, 69
amplitude, 8, 19, 23, 34, 35, 37,
38, 40, 41, 48, 50, 53, 56, 57,
58, 67, 89, 90, 91, 98, 100,
127, 129, 130, 131, 132, 134,
149, 152, 153, 154
analog, 27, 56, 57, 59, 95, 96,
132, 136, 156, 157
analog to digital converter, 27
analysis, 2, 6, 16, 19, 20, 22, 34,
37, 45, 48, 97, 129, 150
animation, 3
aperiodic, 19, 34
applause, 17
Applications, 5
Aristotelian logic, 22, 24
Artistic practice, 5
ASA, 10, 16, 17, 18, 19, 137
associative, 20, 35
attack, 11, 35, 46, 50, 95, 98,
126, 132
attack transients, 11
Auditory Scene, 16, 19, 20, 23,
137
Auditory Scene Analysis, 16, 20,
137
automated, 10

Calon, 32
capsules, 28
case, 6, 7, 22, 23, 25, 28, 37, 50,
95
categories, 9, 15, 16, 32, 42, 43,
44, 47, 104, 129
categorization, 15, 16, 23
central, 3, 13, 37, 48, 53, 89, 140,
145
channelization, 20
channels, 17, 71, 150
characterizing, 22
clarifying, 22
classification of a sound, 23
cocktail party effect, 17
collective, 16, 22
coloration, 29, 30, 91
commonalities, 23
communications, 2, 3, 142, 159
communications studies, 2
complex, 9, 10, 19, 20, 22, 34,
35, 42, 46, 47, 48, 50, 58, 88,
89, 95, 98, 100, 147, 153, 154,
156, 157
complexes, 17, 34, 35, 126, 136
components, 6, 18, 25, 28, 38, 39,
40, 87, 132, 136
composite event, 17, 34
composition, 6, 7, 16, 22, 23, 32,
34, 35, 37, 48, 97, 98, 100,
136, 140, 142, 143, 147, 150,
151, 154, 156
compression, 37, 38, 56, 98,
127, 129, 131, 133
computer-based, 10, 32
concepts, 6, 37, 137, 139
concerts, 3, 37, 65, 69, 148
condenser, 27
consonant, 9
consonants, 6, 10
Context, 16
continuous, 10, 11, 19, 20, 34, 56,
94, 99, 130, 153
continuum, 3, 9, 17, 19, 22, 23,
34, 97, 102, 126, 153
controls, 25
converted, 25, 26, 37, 57, 63, 88
converters, 27
criteria for unity, 23
Cyrillic, 14

B
back, 13, 25, 26, 37, 53, 89, 90,
92, 94, 135, 136, 139, 140,
146
bass response, 29
beats, 11
bi-directional, 28
Bilabial, 13
black box, 25

EAMT

deafness, 37, 65
decay, 35, 91, 98, 101, 132
decibel, 37, 67
Degazio, 32
delay, 23, 127
delimiting, 22
Dental, 13
describing sound, 16, 22
Dhomont, 32
dialect, 9, 10
digital, 3, 27, 57, 58, 59, 129,
150, 157, 159
digital to analog converter, 27
diphthong, 9, 10, 50
Diphthongs, 12
directional, 27, 28, 127
discrete sources, 17
dualistic, 22
dynamic, 22, 27, 96, 103, 126,
127, 133, 134, 152, 153

E
echo, 29, 38, 89, 92, 102, 104,
129, 149
electret condenser, 27
Electro Acoustic, 2
electro-acoustic, 2
electroacoustic studies, 3
electronic music, 2, 136, 147, 149,
150, 151, 155, 157, 158
electronic sound art, 3
emotional, 20, 32, 35
envelope, 10, 19, 35, 49, 129,
132, 133, 134, 152, 156
envelopes, 20, 35, 131
experimental, 3, 143, 146, 152
exploration of the object, 23

F
families of sounds, 22, 23
family, 23, 35, 42, 43, 94, 95, 96,
100, 101, 103, 105, 126, 128,
143
feedback, 27, 29, 30
feeling, 32, 33
figure-of-eight, 28
film, 3, 20, 142, 144, 145, 146,
156
filter, 10
filtered, 23, 42, 47, 151, 153, 154,
156
formant glissando, 10
framework, 3, 6, 16, 22, 37, 128
free-field condition, 38

DAC, 27

160

Readings

frequency, 18, 22, 27, 28, 29, 30,

37, 38, 39, 40, 41, 45, 46, 48,
50, 51, 64, 65, 66, 67, 68, 69,
87, 88, 91, 92, 126, 127, 129,
130, 131, 149, 152, 153, 156
frequency response, 27, 28, 29, 30,
64, 69
Fricatives, 13
front, 13, 19, 37, 53, 73
Function, 16, 100, 105

linguists, 7, 9
liquids, 13
live performers, 3, 4, 23
live processing, 3
loudness, 8, 19, 65, 66, 67, 68,
156
loudspeaker, 17, 27, 28, 29, 37,
38, 45, 56, 71, 73, 94
loudspeakers, 2, 4, 25, 28, 29, 30,
93
lungs, 9, 137

G
gaming, 3
gender issues, 2
gestural, 7, 96, 101, 128
glides, 13
glottal, 10, 13
grouping, 11, 23, 34, 47, 94, 95,
128

H
Harmonic Series, 37, 39, 51, 52
Harrison, 32
headphones, 28, 29, 30, 64, 65, 66
hearing loss, 29, 37, 64, 65, 67,
68, 69
Hertz, 37, 66
hierarchies, 23, 128
history, 2, 3, 4, 135, 136, 137
homonyms, 9
Hz, 37, 39, 40, 46, 48, 49, 51, 55,
56, 66, 67, 68, 69, 87, 92, 140

I
Idea, 25
identity, 10, 23, 35, 48, 98, 99,
100, 101, 102, 103, 104, 127
indistinguishable sources, 17
input, 25, 71, 129, 130
International Phonetic Alphabet, 9
internet, 3, 142
intonation, 8, 40, 138, 139
Intuition, 32
intuitive, 19, 34
IPA, 9, 12, 48, 49
irrational, 32

J
journalism, 2
Jung, 32, 33

L
Labial, 13
Labiodental, 13
language, 6, 7, 8, 9, 10, 14, 15,
17, 22, 23, 104, 153, 156
Lateral, 13
layers, 20, 95, 126, 135
learned, 19
letters, 9
linguistics, 2, 22

EAMT

M
macro, 6, 8, 97, 98, 101, 127
mass structure, 16, 17, 98, 153
meaning, 6, 7, 8, 15, 32, 97, 100,
137
measurable, 19, 34
mental image, 16
metric rhythm, 23
micro, 6, 8, 10, 97, 98, 101, 130,
131, 136, 140
microphones, 2, 25, 27, 28, 93,
148
MIDI, 3, 55, 135, 159
models of production, 23
modifying, 22, 144
modulation, 23, 40, 98, 127, 129,
136, 149, 152, 153, 156
mouth, 9, 13, 34, 42, 45, 48, 49,
50, 104, 153
multi-layered, 20
musical, 3, 7, 11, 17, 35, 48, 49,
126, 135, 138, 139, 147, 148,
149, 151, 153, 154, 156
musique concrete, 2

N
narrative, 20
nasal, 9, 12, 13
negative space, 23
network, 23
noise, 10, 16, 17, 19, 20, 22, 29,
34, 39, 42, 45, 46, 47, 64, 65,
69, 96, 98, 100, 102, 130, 133,
134, 136, 143, 146, 151, 152,
153, 154, 156
Normandeau, 32
notes, 6, 11, 20, 46, 48, 49, 51,
138, 147, 159
not-noise, 16

O
objets sonores, 35
omnidirectional, 27
openness, 13
opposite, 8, 22, 24
opposition, 16, 23, 128
oppositions, 22, 23
oral, 9
order of words, 7
output, 25, 29

161

P
Palatal, 13
parameter, 34, 41, 101, 102, 103,
126, 154
parameters, 19, 22, 23, 34, 35, 37,
93, 99, 100, 103, 128, 130,
147, 150, 151, 154
Paris, 3, 8, 146, 149, 150, 157
partials, 38, 39, 40, 41, 42, 45,
46, 48, 141
pattern matching, 10
perceived, 17, 20, 34, 35, 37, 64,
66, 67, 68, 95, 98, 126, 127,
131
perception, 2, 16, 24, 32, 34, 45,
64, 66, 99, 101, 140
perceptual, 16, 66, 96, 101, 102,
126
periodic, 19, 34
personality, 32
Pharyngeal, 13
phoneme, 6
phonemes, 9, 104
phonetic, 9, 150, 151
Phonetic Reference Guide, 12
phrasing, 11
pictograms, 14
pitch, 3, 23, 34, 46, 47, 66, 95,
127, 129, 140, 147, 151, 153,
154
pitched, 19, 22, 42, 47, 95
places of articulation, 13
plosives, 13
poetry, 7, 143
point of articulation, 11
possessive, 6
predictive, 19
pre-echo, 100, 102
processes, 7, 16, 23, 32, 47, 67,
97, 100, 102, 127, 128, 149,
151, 153
processing, 3, 4, 23, 49, 96, 127,
128, 129, 133, 145, 156, 158,
159
processor, 25, 140
profile, 23
programatic, 20
programmatic, 35
psychoacoustic, 19, 20, 66, 90, 93
psychoacoustics, 2, 18, 19, 66,
142
psycholinguistics, 7
psychological, 16, 17, 19, 20, 23,
36, 65, 98, 139
psychology, 2
psychometric, 18, 19
public address, 27, 28
punctuations, 20

Q
quantifiable, 19

Readings

R
radio, 3, 4, 29, 65, 142, 143, 144,
146, 147, 155
rarefaction, 37, 38, 56, 131
rate of delivery, 8
rational, 32
ratios, 39, 40, 51, 93
recording, 3, 17, 27, 28, 65, 88,
96, 133, 142, 145, 156, 159
re-enveloped, 23, 134
reflections, 30, 88, 89, 90, 91
reiterative, 19, 34
relationships, 16, 19, 96, 99, 126,
138, 156
repeatable, 19
repetition, 23, 68, 102, 104, 131,
153
Research, 5, 142, 150, 151
reverbed, 23
reverberation, 11, 38, 48, 88, 89,
90, 91, 93, 126, 127, 129, 143,
149, 152
rhythmic, 3, 19, 98, 126, 153, 154
ribbon, 27

S
sampling, 27, 58, 59, 94
Science, 5, 53
segment, 10
Segmentation, 10, 11
segregation, 17, 20, 101, 137
selective hearing, 17
Semantic, 6, 7, 8, 10, 15, 16, 66
semantic dimension, 8, 10
semantics, 6, 8, 22
semi-consonants, 9
semi-vowels, 9
S e n s a t i o n , 32
sentence, 6, 7, 8
sequence, 6, 7, 15, 19, 102, 140,
145
signal, 25, 26, 27, 28, 29, 57, 59,
67, 68, 73, 89, 90, 91, 92, 129,
130, 131, 132, 133, 134, 159
signal path, 25, 130
simple, 10, 16, 19, 22, 23, 25, 34,
35, 44, 48, 88, 89, 95, 126
singularity, 16
slowed down, 23
sonic, 2, 3, 4, 9, 23, 31, 37, 66,
95, 97, 98, 136, 148, 152
sonic arts, 2, 3, 4
sound documentation, 3
sound objects, 35, 147
sound pressure levels, 29, 30, 64,
65, 68

sound projection, 4, 71, 97, 126,

151
soundscaping, 3
soundtrack, 20, 145, 146
source, 7, 9, 10, 17, 19, 25, 30,
32, 35, 38, 44, 45, 47, 71, 87,
89, 90, 92, 93, 94, 95, 96, 134,
137, 151, 153, 154
spectral change, 23
spectrally modified, 10
spectro-morphology, 19
spectrum, 19, 20, 22, 34, 35, 37,
38, 39, 40, 42, 45, 46, 49, 50,
66, 88, 94, 95, 98, 100, 126,
127, 129, 131, 134, 149, 152
speech recognition, 10
speed change, 23, 129
static, 15, 19, 22, 34, 126, 127
statistical, 19, 34, 66, 102
steady state, 34
stereo microphones, 28
stochastic, 16, 98, 153
Stockhausen, 32, 136, 149, 150,
152, 153, 155
stops, 10, 13
story, 20
streaming, 17, 20
streams, 17, 135
stress, 8, 9, 11
structural, 6, 8, 10, 32, 88, 97,
98, 100, 101, 128, 131, 154
structures, 3, 6, 17, 35, 88, 98,
100, 101, 126
Sub-woofer, 28
surface features, 20, 23
sustained, 10, 15, 46, 50, 95
syllables, 8, 9
symbols for sounds, 9
syntax, 6, 7, 15

T
tape music, 2, 149
teeth, 13, 42
telephone, 10, 27, 28, 65
television, 3
terminology, 6, 16, 22, 37
text, 3, 10, 50, 97, 135, 143
texture, 20, 98, 99, 101, 126, 155
theater, 3, 144
Thesaurus, 20
Thought, 32
three-way system, 28
timber, 19
timbre, 34, 35, 38, 39, 94, 141,
142, 143, 144, 154, 155
time, 2, 4, 8, 16, 17, 19, 23, 34,
35, 47, 50, 64, 65, 68, 69, 91,
94, 97, 98, 100, 103, 126, 127,

129, 130, 131, 135, 140, 148,

154, 156, 157
tone color, 19, 37, 38, 42, 131,
147
tongue, 13, 42, 49, 50
transduce, 37
transduced, 25, 27, 94
Transducers, 25, 27
transformation, 23, 35, 47, 96,
100, 101, 128, 129, 136
transformations, 25, 128, 144,
153
transforms, 19
transient, 10, 15, 46, 50, 95, 156
transmission medium, 19, 130
trees, 19, 23
trithongs, 9
Truax, 32
two-way speaker, 28

U
unidirectional, 28, 127
unmediated responses, 20
unvoiced, 9, 10, 12, 13, 42, 45,
50, 95, 130
un-voiced sounds, 10
Uvular, 13

V
Velar, 13
velocity, 37, 87
verbal, 6, 7, 8, 9, 14, 23, 104
video, 3, 17, 20, 142
vocabulary, 6, 7, 15
vocal cords, 9, 10, 42, 45, 49, 104
vocal folds, 9
voice, 6, 9, 10, 27, 34, 35, 38, 42,
45, 49, 94, 95, 130, 137, 139,
149, 153, 154, 155
voice recognition, 10
Voiced sounds, 10
volume, 37. See amplitude
vowel, 9, 10, 46, 48, 49, 50, 150
vowels, 6, 9, 10, 12, 13, 48, 49,
50, 53, 54, 55

W
wall, 17, 29, 89, 90
wall-of-sound, 17
Wishart, 32
word, 6, 7, 8, 10, 22, 24, 50, 126,
153, 158

X
Xenakis, 32, 151, 152, 153, 155

2005 IX 04
ka

EAMT

162

Readings