Title of the Thesis: HACCP and ISO 22000 implementation in cookies

manufacturing industry and assessment of its shelf life.

BAKING
Baking is a food cooking method that uses prolonged dry heat by convection, rather
than by thermal radiation, normally in an oven, but also in hot ashes, or on hot stones.
The most common baked item is bread but many other types of foods are baked. Heat
is gradually transferred "from the surface of cakes, cookies and breads to their centre.
As heat travels through it transforms batters and doughs into baked goods with a firm
dry crust and a softer centre. Baking can be combined with grilling to produce a
hybrid barbecue variant, by using both methods simultaneously or one before the other,
cooking twice. Baking is related to barbecuing because the concept of the masonry
oven is similar to that of a smoke pit.
Baking has been traditionally done at home by women for domestic consumption, by
men in bakeries and restaurants for local consumption and when production was
industrialized, by machines in large factories. The art and skill of baking remains a
fundamental one and important for nutrition, as baked goods, especially breads, are a
common food, economically and culturally important. A person who prepares baked
goods as a profession is called a baker.
HISTORY OF BAKING
The first evidence of baking occurred when humans took wild grass grains, soaked
them in water, and mixed everything together, mashing it into a kind of broth-like paste.
The paste was cooked by pouring it onto a flat, hot rock, resulting in a bread-like
substance. Later, this paste was roasted on hot embers, which made bread-making
easier, as it could now be made any time fire was created. The Ancient Egyptians baked
bread using yeast, which they had previously been using to brew beer. Bread baking
began in Ancient Greece around 600 BC, leading to the invention of enclosed ovens.
"Ovens and worktables have been discovered in archaeological digs from Turkey
(Hacilar) to Palestine (Jericho) and these dates from about 5600 BCE."
Baking flourished in the Roman Empire. In about 300 BC, the pastry cook became an
occupation for Romans (known as the pastillarium). This became a respected
profession because pastries were considered decadent, and Romans loved festivity and
celebration. Thus, pastries were often cooked especially for large banquets, and any
pastry cook who could invent new types of tasty treats was highly prized. Around 1 AD,
there were more than three hundred pastry chefs in Rome, and Cato wrote about how
they created all sorts of diverse foods, and flourished because of those foods. Cato
speaks of an enormous number of breads; included amongst these are the libum

(sacrificial cakes made with flour), placenta (groats and cress), spira (our modern day
flour pretzels), scibilata (tortes), savaillum (sweet cake), and globus apherica (fritters). A
great selection of these, with many different variations, different ingredients, and varied
patterns, were often found at banquets and dining halls. The Romans baked bread in an
oven with its own chimney, and had mills to grind grain into flour. A bakers' guild was
established in 168 BC in Rome.
Eventually, the Roman art of baking became known throughout Europe, and eventually
spread to the eastern parts of Asia. From the 19th century, alternative leavening agents
became more common, such as baking soda. Bakers often baked goods at home and
then sold them in the streets. This scene was so common that Rembrandt, among
others, painted a pastry chef selling pancakes in the streets of Germany, with children
clamoring for a sample. In London, pastry chefs sold their goods from handcarts. This
developed into a system of delivery of baked goods to households, and demand
increased greatly as a result. In Paris, the first open-air caf of baked goods was
developed, and baking became an established art throughout the entire world.
Commercial baking
Baking developed into an industry using machinery that enabled more goods to be
produced and which then had to be distributed more widely. In the United States the
baking industry "was built on marketing methods used during feudal times and
production techniques developed by the Romans." Some makers of snacks such
as potato chips or crisps have produced baked versions of their snack items as an
alternative to the usual cooking method of deep-frying in an attempt to reduce the
calorie or fat content of their snack products. Baking has opened up doors to
businesses such as cake making factories and private cake shops where the baking
process is done with larger amounts in bigger and open furnaces.
The aroma and texture of baked goods as they come out of the oven is strongly
appealing but it is a quality that is quickly lost. Since the flavor and appeal largely
depend on this freshness, commercial producers have had to compensate by
using food additives as well as imaginative labeling. As baked goods are more and
more purchased from commercial suppliers, producers try to capture that original
appeal by adding the label "home-baked". Such a usage seeks to make an emotional
link to the remembered freshness of baked goods and seeks also to attach any positive
associations the purchaser has with the idea of "home" to the bought product.
Freshness is such an important quality that restaurants, although they are commercial
(and not domestic) preparers of food, bake their own products for their customers. For
example, scones at The Ritz London Hotel "are not baked until early afternoon on the
day they are to be served, to make sure they are as fresh as possible."

Foods and techniques

All types of food can be baked but some require special care and protection from direct
heat. Various techniques have been developed to provide this protection. As well as
bread,
baking
is
used
to
prepare cakes, pastries, pies, tarts, quiches, cookies, scones, crackers and pretzels.
These popular items are known collectively as "baked goods," and are sold at a bakery.
Meat, including cured meats, such as ham can also be baked, but baking is usually
reserved for meatloaf, smaller cuts of whole meats, and whole meats that
contain stuffing or coating such as bread crumbs or buttermilk batter. Some foods are
surrounded with moisture during baking by placing a small amount of liquid (such
as water or broth) in the bottom of a closed pan, and letting it steam up around the food,
a method commonly known as braising or slow baking. Larger cuts prepared without
stuffing or coating are more often roasted, which is a similar process, using higher
temperatures and shorter cooking times. Roasting, however, is only suitable for the finer
cuts of meat, so other methods have been developed to make the tougher meat cuts
palatable after baking. One of these is the method known as en crote (French for "in a
crust"), which protects the food from direct heat and seals the natural juices inside.
Meat, poultry, game, fish or vegetables can be prepared by baking en crote. Wellknown examples include Beef Wellington, where the beef is encased in pastry before
baking; pt en crote, where the terrine is encased in pastry before baking; and the
Vietnamese variant, a meat-filled pastry called pt chaud. The en crote method also
allows meat to be baked by burying it in the embers of a fire a favourite method of
cooking venison. In this case, the protective case (or crust) is made from a paste of flour
and water and is discarded before eating. Salt can also be used to make a protective
crust that is not eaten. Another method of protecting food from the heat while it is
baking, is to cook it en papillote (French for "in parchment"). In this method, the food is
covered by baking paper (or aluminium foil) to protect it while it is being baked. The
cooked parcel of food can be served unopened, with an element of surprise, allowing
diners to discover the contents for themselves.
Eggs can be baked to produce savoury or sweet dishes. In combination with dairy
products and/or cheese, they are often prepared to serve as a dessert. Although a
baked custard, for example, can be made using starch (in the form of flour, corn
flour, arrowroot or potato flour), the flavour of the dish is much more delicate if eggs are
used as the thickening agent. Baked custards, such as crme caramel, are among the
items that need protection from an oven's direct heat, and the bain-marie method
serves this purpose. The cooking container is half submerged in water in another, larger
one, so that the heat in the oven is more gently applied during the baking process.
Baking a successful souffl requires that the baking process be carefully controlled
the oven temperature must be absolutely even and the oven space not shared with
another dish. These factors, along with the theatrical effect of an air-filled dessert, have

given this baked food a reputation for being a culinary achievement. Similarly, good
baking techniques (and a good oven) are also needed to create a baked
Alaska because of the difficulty of baking hot meringue and cold ice cream at the same
time.
Baking can also be used to prepare various other foods, such as for example, baked
potatoes, baked apples, baked beans, some casseroles and pasta dishes such
as lasagna.

Equipment

Baking bread at the Roscheider Hof Open Air Museum

Baking needs an enclosed space for heating - an oven. The fuel can be supplied by
wood or coal; gas or electricity. Adding and removing items from an oven may be done
by a long handled tool called a peel.
Many commercial ovens are provided with two heating elements: one for baking,
using convection and thermal conduction to heat the food, and one for broiling or
grilling, heating mainly by radiation. Another piece of equipment still used in the 21st
century for baking is the Dutch oven. "Also called a bake kettle, bastable, bread oven,

fire pan, bake oven kail pot, tin kitchen, roasting kitchen, doufeu (French: "gentle fire")
or feu de compagne (French: "country oven") [it] originally replaced the cooking jack as
the latest fireside cooking technology," combining "the convenience of pot-oven and
hangover oven."
Process

There are eleven events that occur concurrently during baking, and some of them, such
as starch glutenization, would not occur at room temperature.
1. Fats melt;
2. Gases form and expand
3. Microorganisms die
4. Sugar dissolves
5. Egg and gluten proteins coagulate
6. Starches gelatinise
7. Gases evaporate
8. Caramelization and Maillard browning occur on crust
9. Enzymes are inactivated

10. Changes occur to nutrients

11. Pectin breaks down.[11]
The dry heat of baking changes the form of starches in the food and causes its outer
surfaces to brown, giving it an attractive appearance and taste. The browning is caused
by caramelization of sugars and the Maillard reaction. Maillard browning occurs when
"sugars break down in the presence of proteins". Because foods contain many different
types of sugars and proteins, Maillard browning contributes to the flavour of a wide
range of foods, including nuts, roast beef and baked bread." [12] The moisture is never
entirely "sealed in"; over time, an item being baked will become dry. This is often an
advantage, especially in situations where drying is the desired outcome, like
drying herbs or roasting certain types of vegetables.
The baking process does not require any fat to be used to cook in an oven. When
baking, consideration must be given to the amount of fat that is contained in the food
item. Higher levels of fat such as margarine, butter or vegetable shortening will cause
an item to spread out during the baking process.
With the passage of time breads harden; they become stale. This is not primarily due to
moisture being lost from the baked products, but more a reorganization of the way in
which the water and starch are associated over time. This process is similar
to recrystallization, and is promoted by storage at cool temperatures, such as in a
domestic refrigerator.

Prerequisite Hygiene Requirements

Before implementing HACCP, basic good hygiene conditions and practices called
prerequisites must be in place. HACCP can then be used to control steps in the
business which are critical in ensuring the preparation of safe food. The National
Standards Authority of Ireland (NSAI) has produced sector specific Irish Standards (I.S.)
to good hygienic practice. All food businesses are advised to use the appropriate
standard for their sector (e.g. catering, retail, processing).
Prerequisites include where appropriate:
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.
8.

Cleaning and Sanitation

Maintenance
Personnel Hygiene and Training
Pest Control
Plant and Equipment
Premises and Structure
Services (compressed air, ice, steam, ventilation, water etc.)
Storage, Distribution and Transport

9. Waste Management
10. Zoning (physical separation of activities to prevent potential food contamination)

HAZARD ANALYSIS AND CRITICAL CONTROL POINT (HACCP) SYSTEM AND

GUIDELINES FOR ITS APPLICATION
Annex to CAC/RCP 1-1969, Rev. 3 (1997)
PREAMBLE
The first section of this document sets out the principles of the Hazard Analysis and
Critical Control Point (HACCP) system adopted by the Codex Alimentations
Commission. The second section provides general guidance for the application of the
system while recognizing that the details of application may vary depending on the
circumstances of the food operation.
The HACCP system, which is science based and systematic, identifies specific hazards
and measures for their control to ensure the safety of food. HACCP is a tool to assess
hazards and establish control systems that focus on prevention rather than relying
mainly on end-product testing. Any HACCP system is capable of accommodating
change, such as advances in equipment design, processing procedures or
technological developments.
HACCP can be applied throughout the food chain from primary production to final
consumption and its implementation should be guided by scientific evidence of risks to
human health. As well as enhancing food safety, implementation of HACCP can provide
other significant benefits. In addition, the application of HACCP systems can aid
inspection by regulatory authorities and promote international trade by increasing
confidence in food safety.
The successful application of HACCP requires the full commitment and involvement of
management and the work force. It also requires a multidisciplinary approach; this
multidisciplinary approach should include, when appropriate, expertise in agronomy,
veterinary health, production, microbiology, medicine, public health, food technology,
environmental health, chemistry and engineering, according to the particular study. The
application of HACCP is compatible with the implementation of quality management
systems, such as the ISO 9000 series, and is the system of choice in the management
of food safety within such systems.
While the application of HACCP to food safety was considered here, the concept can be
applied to other aspects of food quality.

DEFINITIONS
Control (verb): To take all necessary actions to ensure and maintain compliance with
criteria established in the HACCP plan.
Control (noun): The state wherein correct procedures are being followed and criteria
are being met.
Control measure: Any action and activity that can be used to prevent or eliminate a
food safety hazard or reduce it to an acceptable level.
Corrective action: Any action to be taken when the results of monitoring at the CCP
indicate a loss of control.
Critical Control Point (CCP): A step at which control can be applied and is essential to
prevent or eliminate a food safety hazard or reduce it to an acceptable level.
Critical limit: A criterion which separates acceptability from unacceptability.
Deviation: Failure to meet a critical limit.
Flow diagram: A systematic representation of the sequence of steps or operations
used in the production or manufacture of a particular food item.
HACCP: A system which identifies, evaluates, and controls hazards which are
significant for food safety.
HACCP plan: A document prepared in accordance with the principles of HACCP to
ensure control of hazards which are significant for food safety in the segment of the
food chain under consideration.
Hazard: A biological, chemical or physical agent in, or condition of, food with the
potential to cause an adverse health effect.
Hazard analysis: The process of collecting and evaluating information on hazards and
conditions leading to their presence to decide which are significant for food safety and
therefore should be addressed in the HACCP plan.
Monitor: The act of conducting a planned sequence of observations or measurements
of control parameters to assess whether a CCP is under control.
Step: A point, procedure, operation or stage in the food chain including raw materials,
from primary production to final consumption.
Validation: Obtaining evidence that the elements of the HACCP plan are effective.

Verification: The application of methods, procedures, tests and other evaluations, in

addition to monitoring to determine compliance with the HACCP plan.

PRINCIPLES OF THE HACCP SYSTEM

The HACCP system consists of the following seven principles:
PRINCIPLE 1
Conduct a hazard analysis.
PRINCIPLE 2
Determine the Critical Control Points (CCPs).
PRINCIPLE 3
Establish critical limit(s).
PRINCIPLE 4
Establish a system to monitor control of the CCP.
PRINCIPLE 5
Establish the corrective action to be taken when monitoring indicates that a particular
CCP is not under control.
PRINCIPLE 6
Establish procedures for verification to confirm that the HACCP system is working
effectively.
PRINCIPLE 7
Establish documentation concerning all procedures and records appropriate to these
principles and their application.
GUIDELINES FOR THE APPLICATION OF THE HACCP SYSTEM
Prior to application of HACCP to any sector of the food chain, that sector should be
operating according to the Codex General Principles of Food Hygiene, the appropriate
Codex Codes of Practice, and appropriate food safety legislation. Management
commitment is necessary for implementation of an effective HACCP system. During

hazard identification, evaluation, and subsequent operations in designing and applying

HACCP systems, consideration must be given to the impact of raw materials,
ingredients, food manufacturing practices, role of manufacturing processes to control
hazards, likely end-use of the product, categories of consumers of concern, and
epidemiological evidence relative to food safety.
The intent of the HACCP system is to focus control at CCPs. Redesign of the operation
should be considered if a hazard which must be controlled is identified but no CCPs are
found.
HACCP should be applied to each specific operation separately. CCPs identified in any
given example in any Codex Code of Hygienic Practice might not be the only ones
identified for a specific application or might be of a different nature.
The HACCP application should be reviewed and necessary changes made when any
modification is made in the product, process, or any step.
It is important when applying HACCP to be flexible where appropriate, given the context
of the application taking into account the nature and the size of the operation.
APPLICATION
The application of HACCP principles consists of the following tasks as identified in the
Logic Sequence for Application of HACCP (Diagram 1).
1. Assemble HACCP team
The food operation should assure that the appropriate product specific knowledge and
expertise is available for the development of an effective HACCP plan. Optimally, this
may be accomplished by assembling a multidisciplinary team. Where such expertise is
not available on site, expert advice should be obtained from other sources. The scope
of the HACCP plan should be identified. The scope should describe which segment of
the food chain is involved and the general classes of hazards to be addressed (e.g.
does it cover all classes of hazards or only selected classes).
2. Describe product
A full description of the product should be drawn up, including relevant safety
information such as: composition, physical/chemical structure (including Aw, pH, etc.),
microbial/static treatments (heat-treatment, freezing, brining, smoking, etc.), packaging,
durability and storage conditions and method of distribution.
3. Identify intended use

The intended use should be based on the expected uses of the product by the end user
or consumer. In specific cases, vulnerable groups of the population, e.g. institutional
feeding, may have to be considered.
4. Construct flow diagram
The flow diagram should be constructed by the HACCP team. The flow diagram should
cover all steps in the operation. When applying HACCP to a given operation,
consideration should be given to steps preceding and following the specified operation.
5. On-site confirmation of flow diagram
The HACCP team should confirm the processing operation against the flow diagram
during all stages and hours of operation and amend the flow diagram where
appropriate.
6. List all potential hazards associated with each step, conduct a hazard analysis,
and consider any measures to control identified hazards
(SEE PRINCIPLE 1)
The HACCP team should list all of the hazards that may be reasonably expected to
occur at each step from primary production, processing, manufacture, and distribution
until the point of consumption.
The HACCP team should next conduct a hazard analysis to identify for the HACCP plan
which hazards are of such a nature that their elimination or reduction to acceptable
levels is essential to the production of a safe food.
In conducting the hazard analysis, wherever possible the following should be included:

the likely occurrence of hazards and severity of their adverse health effects;

the qualitative and/or quantitative evaluation of the presence of hazards;

survival or multiplication of microorganisms of concern;

production or persistence in foods of toxins, chemicals or physical agents; and,

Conditions leading to the above.

The HACCP team must then consider what control measures, if any, exist which can be
applied for each hazard.
More than one control measure may be required to control a specific hazard(s) and
more than one hazard may be controlled by a specified control measure.

7. Determine Critical Control Points

(SEE PRINCIPLE 2)
There may be more than one CCP at which control is applied to address the same
hazard. The determination of a CCP in the HACCP system can be facilitated by the
application of a decision tree (e.g. Diagram 2), which indicates a logic reasoning
approach. Application of a decision tree should be flexible, given whether the operation
is for production, slaughter, processing, storage, distribution or other. It should be used
for guidance when determining CCPs. This example of a decision tree may not be
applicable to all situations. Other approaches may be used. Training in the application of
the decision tree is recommended.
If a hazard has been identified at a step where control is necessary for safety, and no
control measure exists at that step, or any other, then the product or process should be
modified at that step, or at any earlier or later stage, to include a control measure.
8. Establish critical limits for each CCP
(SEE PRINCIPLE 3)
Critical limits must be specified and validated if possible for each Critical Control Point.
In some cases more than one critical limit will be elaborated at a particular step. Criteria
often used include measurements of temperature, time, moisture level, pH, Aw, available
chlorine, and sensory parameters such as visual appearance and texture.
9. Establish a monitoring system for each CCP
(SEE PRINCIPLE 4)
Monitoring is the scheduled measurement or observation of a CCP relative to its critical
limits. The monitoring procedures must be able to detect loss of control at the CCP.
Further, monitoring should ideally provide this information in time to make adjustments
to ensure control of the process to prevent violating the critical limits. Where possible,
process adjustments should be made when monitoring results indicate a trend towards
loss of control at a CCP. The adjustments should be taken before a deviation occurs.
Data derived from monitoring must be evaluated by a designated person with
knowledge and authority to carry out corrective actions when indicated. If monitoring is
not continuous, then the amount or frequency of monitoring must be sufficient to
guarantee the CCP is in control. Most monitoring procedures for CCPs will need to be
done rapidly because they relate to on-line processes and there will not be time for
lengthy analytical testing. Physical and chemical measurements are often preferred to
microbiological testing because they may be done rapidly and can often indicate the
microbiological control of the product. All records and documents associated with
monitoring CCPs must be signed by the person(s) doing the monitoring and by a
responsible reviewing official(s) of the company.
10. Establish corrective actions

(SEE PRINCIPLE 5)
Specific corrective actions must be developed for each CCP in the HACCP system in
order to deal with deviations when they occur.
The actions must ensure that the CCP has been brought under control. Actions taken
must also include proper disposition of the affected product. Deviation and product
disposition procedures must be documented in the HACCP record keeping.
11. Establish verification procedures
(SEE PRINCIPLE 6)
Establish procedures for verification. Verification and auditing methods, procedures and
tests, including random sampling and analysis, can be used to determine if the HACCP
system is working correctly. The frequency of verification should be sufficient to confirm
that the HACCP system is working effectively. Examples of verification activities include:

Review of the HACCP system and its records;

Review of deviations and product dispositions;

Confirmation that CCPs are kept under control.

Where possible, validation activities should include actions to confirm the efficacy of all
elements of the HACCP plan.
12. Establish Documentation and Record Keeping
(SEE PRINCIPLE 7)
Efficient and accurate record keeping is essential to the application of a HACCP system.
HACCP procedures should be documented. Documentation and record keeping should
be appropriate to the nature and size of the operation.
Documentation examples are:

Hazard analysis;

CCP determination;

Critical limit determination.

Record examples are:

CCP monitoring activities;

Deviations and associated corrective actions;

Modifications to the HACCP system.

An example of a HACCP worksheet is attached as Diagram 3.

TRAINING
Training of personnel in industry, government and academia in HACCP principles and
applications, and increasing awareness of consumers are essential elements for the
effective implementation of HACCP. As an aid in developing specific training to support
a HACCP plan, working instructions and procedures should be developed which define
the tasks of the operating personnel to be stationed at each Critical Control Point.
Cooperation between primary producer, industry, trade groups, consumer organizations,
and responsible authorities is of vital importance. Opportunities should be provided for
the joint training of industry and control authorities to encourage and maintain a
continuous dialogue and create a climate of understanding in the practical application of
HACCP.

Benefits of HACCP
HACCP provides businesses with a cost effective system for control of food safety, from
ingredients right through to production, storage and distribution to sale and service of
the final consumer. The preventive approach of HACCP not only improves food safety
management but also complements other quality management systems. The main
benefits of HACCP are:

Saves your business money in the long run

Avoids you poisoning your customers

Food safety standards increase

Ensures you are compliant with the law

Food quality standards increase

Organizes your process to produce safe food

Organizes your staff promoting teamwork and efficiency

Due diligence defense in court.

DIAGRAM 1. LOGIC SEQUENCE FOR THE APPLICATION OF HACCP

DIAGRAM 2. EXAMPLE OF DECISION TREE TO IDENTIFY CCPS (answer

questions in sequence)

DIAGRAM 3. EXAMPLE OF A HACCP WORKSHEET

INTRODUCTION
These Principles are intended to give guidance on the establishment and application of
microbiological criteria for foods at any point in the food chain from primary production
to final consumption.

The safety of foods is principally assured by control at the source, product design and
process control, and the application of Good Hygienic Practices during production,
processing (including labeling), handling, distribution, storage, sale, preparation and
use, in conjunction with the application of the HACCP system. This preventive approach
offers more control than microbiological testing because the effectiveness of
microbiological examination to assess the safety of foods is limited. Guidance for the
establishment of HACCP based systems is detailed in Hazard Analysis and Critical
Control Point System and Guidelines for its Application (Annex to CAC/RCP 1-1969,
Rev. 3-1997, Amd. 1999).
Microbiological criteria should be established according to these principles and be
based on scientific analysis and advice, and, where sufficient data are available, a risk
analysis appropriate to the foodstuff and its use. Microbiological criteria should be
developed in a transparent fashion and meet the requirements of fair trade. They should
be reviewed periodically for relevance with respect to emerging pathogens, changing
technologies, and new understandings of science.
1. DEFINITION OF MICROBIOLOGICAL CRITERION
A microbiological criterion for food defines the acceptability of a product or a food lot,
based on the absence or presence, or number of microorganisms including parasites,
and/or quantity of their toxins/metabolites, per unit(s) of mass, volume, area or lot.
2. COMPONENTS OF MICROBIOLOGICAL CRITERIA FOR FOODS
A microbiological criterion consists of:

a statement of the microorganisms of concern and/or their toxins/metabolites and

the reason for that concern (see 5.1);

the analytical methods for their detection and/or quantification (see 5.2);

a plan defining the number of field samples to be taken and the size of the
analytical unit (see 6);

microbiological limits considered appropriate to the food at the specified point(s)

of the food chain (see 5.3);

The number of analytical units that should conform to these limits.

A microbiological criterion should also state:

the food to which the criterion applies;

the point(s) in the food chain where the criterion applies; and

Any actions to be taken when the criterion is not met.

When applying a microbiological criterion for assessing products, it is essential, in order

to make the best use of money and manpower, that only appropriate tests be applied
(see 5) to those foods and at those points in the food chain that offer maximum benefit
in providing the consumer with a food that is safe and suitable for consumption.
3. PURPOSES AND APPLICATION OF MICROBIOLOGICAL CRITERIA FOR FOODS
3.1 Application by regulatory authorities
3.2 Application by a food business operator
Microbiological criteria may be used to formulate design requirements and to indicate
the required microbiological status of raw materials, ingredients and end-products at
any stage of the food chain as appropriate. They may be relevant to the examination of
foods, including raw materials and ingredients, of unknown or uncertain origin or when
other means of verifying the efficacy of HACCP-based systems and Good Hygienic
Practices are not available. Generally, microbiological criteria may be applied to define
the distinction between acceptable and unacceptable raw materials, ingredients,
products, lots, by regulatory authorities and/or food business operators. Microbiological
criteria may also be used to determine that processes are consistent with the General
Principles of Food Hygiene.
3.1 Application by regulatory authorities
Microbiological criteria can be used to define and check compliance with the
microbiological requirements.
Mandatory microbiological criteria shall apply to those products and/or points of the food
chain where no other more effective tools are available, and where they are expected to
improve the degree of protection offered to the consumer. Where these are appropriate
they shall be product-type specific and only applied at the point of the food chain as
specified in the regulation.
In situations of non-compliance with microbiological criteria, depending on the
assessment of the risk to the consumer, the point in the food chain and the product-type
specified, the regulatory control actions may be sorting, reprocessing, rejection or
destruction of product, and/or further investigation to determine appropriate actions to
be taken.

3.2 Application by a food business operator

In addition to checking compliance with regulatory provisions (see 3.1.1)
microbiological criteria may be applied by food business operators to formulate design
requirements and to examine end-products as one of the measures to verify and/or
validate the efficacy of the HACCP plan.
Such criteria will be specific for the product and the stage in the food chain at which
they will apply. They may be stricter than the criteria used for regulatory purposes and
should, as such, not be used for legal action.
Microbiological criteria are not normally suitable for monitoring Critical Limits as defined
in Hazard Analysis and Critical Control Point System and Guidelines for its
Application (Annex to CAC/RCP 1-1969, Rev. 3-1997). Monitoring procedures must be
able to detect loss of control at a Critical Control Point (CCP). Monitoring should provide
this information in time for corrective actions to be taken to regain control before there is
a need to reject the product. Consequently, on-line measurements of physical and
chemical parameters are often preferred to microbiological testing because results are
often available more rapidly and at the production site. Moreover, the establishment of
Critical Limits may need other considerations than those described in this document.
4. GENERAL CONSIDERATIONS CONCERNING PRINCIPLES FOR ESTABLISHING
AND APPLYING MICROBIOLOGICAL CRITERIA
A microbiological criterion should be established and applied only where there is a
definite need and where its application is practical. Such need is demonstrated, for
example, by epidemiological evidence that the food under consideration may represent
a public health risk and that a criterion is meaningful for consumer protection, or as the
result of a risk assessment. The criterion should be technically attainable by applying
Good Manufacturing Practices (Codes of Practice).
To fulfill the purposes of a microbiological criterion, consideration should be given to:

the evidence of actual or potential hazards to health;

the microbiological status of the raw material(s);

the effect of processing on the microbiological status of the food;

the likelihood and consequences of microbial contamination and/or growth during

subsequent handling, storage and use;

the category(s) of consumers concerned;

the cost/benefit ratio associated with the application of the criterion; and

the intended use of the food.

The number and size of analytical units per lot tested should be as stated in the
sampling plan and should not be modified. However, a lot should not be subjected to
repeat testing in order to bring the lot into compliance.

5. MICROBIOLOGICAL ASPECTS OF CRITERIA

5.1 Microorganisms, parasites and their toxins/metabolites of importance in a particular
food
5.2 Microbiological methods
5.3 Microbiological limits
5.1 Microorganisms, parasites and their toxins/metabolites of importance in a particular
food
For the purpose of this document these include:

bacteria, viruses, yeasts, moulds, and algae;

parasitic protozoa and helminthes;

Their toxins/metabolites.

The microorganisms included in a criterion should be widely accepted as relevant - as

pathogens, as indicator organisms or as spoilage organisms - to the particular food and
technology. Organisms whose significance in the specified food is doubtful should not
be included in a criterion.
The mere finding, with a presence-absence test, of certain organisms known to cause
food borne illness (e.g. Clostridium perfringens, Staphylococcus aureus andVibrio
parahaemolyticus) does not necessarily indicate a threat to public health.
Where pathogens can be detected directly and reliably, consideration should be given to
testing for them in preference to testing for indicator organisms. If a test for an indicator

organism is applied, there should be a clear statement whether the test is used to
indicate unsatisfactory hygienic practices or a health hazard.
5.2 Microbiological methods
Whenever possible, only methods for which the reliability (accuracy, reproducibility,
inter- and intra-laboratory variation) has been statistically established in comparative or
collaborative studies in several laboratories should be used. Moreover, preference
should be given to methods which have been validated for the commodity concerned
preferably in relation to reference methods elaborated by international organizations.
While methods should be the most sensitive and reproducible for the purpose, methods
to be used for in-plant testing might often sacrifice to some degree sensitivity and
reproducibility in the interest of speed and simplicity. They should, however, have been
proved to give a sufficiently reliable estimate of the information needed.
Methods used to determine the suitability for consumption of highly perishable foods, or
foods with a short shelf-life, should be chosen wherever possible so that the results of
microbiological examinations are available before the foods are consumed or exceed
their shelf-life.
The microbiological methods specified should be reasonable with regard to complexity,
availability of media, equipment etc., ease of interpretation, time required and costs.

5.3 Microbiological limits

Limits used in criteria should be based on microbiological data appropriate to the food
and should be applicable to a variety of similar products. They should therefore be
based on data gathered at various production establishments operating under Good
Hygienic Practices and applying the HACCP system.
In the establishment of microbiological limits, any changes in the micro flora likely to
occur during storage and distribution (e.g. decrease or increase in numbers) should be
taken into account.
Microbiological limits should take into consideration the risk associated with the
microorganisms, and the conditions under which the food is expected to be handled and
consumed. Microbiological limits should also take account of the likelihood of uneven
distribution of microorganisms in the food and the inherent variability of the analytical
procedure.

If a criterion requires the absence of a particular microorganism, the size and number of
the analytical unit (as well as the number of analytical sample units) should be
indicated.
6. SAMPLING PLANS, METHODS AND HANDLING
A sampling plan includes the sampling procedure and the decision criteria to be applied
to a lot, based on examination of a prescribed number of sample units and subsequent
analytical units of a stated size by defined methods. A well-designed sampling plan
defines the probability of detecting microorganisms in a lot, but it should be borne in
mind that no sampling plan can ensure the absence of a particular organism. Sampling
plans should be administratively and economically feasible.
In particular, the choice of sampling plans should take into account:

risks to public health associated with the hazard;

the susceptibility of the target group of consumers;

the heterogeneity of distribution of microorganisms where variables sampling

plans are employed; and

The Acceptable Quality Level[3] and the desired statistical probability of

accepting a non-conforming lot.

For many applications, 2-or 3-class attribute plans may prove useful.
The statistical performance characteristics or operating characteristics curve should be
provided in the sampling plan. Performance characteristics provide specific information
to estimate the probability of accepting a non-conforming lot. The sampling method
should be defined in the sampling plan. The time between taking the field samples and
analysis should be as short as reasonably possible, and during transport to the
laboratory the conditions (e.g. temperature) should not allow increase or decrease of
the numbers of the target organism, so that the results reflect - within the limitations
given by the sampling plan - the microbiological conditions of the lot.
7. REPORTING
The test report shall give the information needed for complete identification of the
sample, the sampling plan, the test method, the results and, if appropriate, their
interpretation.

INTRODUCTION
Risks from microbiological hazards are of immediate and serious concern to human
health. Microbiological risk analysis is a process consisting of three components: Risk
assessment, risk management, and risk communication, which has the overall objective
to ensure public health protection. This document deals with risk assessment which is a
key element in assuring that sound science is used to establish standards, guidelines
and other recommendations for food safety to enhance consumer protection and
facilitate international trade. The microbiological risk assessment process should
include quantitative information to the greatest extent possible in the estimation of risk.
A microbiological risk assessment should be conducted using a structured approach
such as that described in this document. This document will be of primary interest to
governments although other organizations, companies, and other interested parties who
need to prepare a microbiological risk assessment will find it valuable. Since
microbiological risk assessment is a developing science, implementation of these
guidelines may require a period of time and may also require specialized training in the
countries that consider it necessary. This may be particularly the case for developing
countries. Although microbiological risk assessment is the primary focus of this
document, the method can also be applied to certain other classes of biological
hazards.
1. SCOPE
The scope of this document applies to risk assessment of microbiological hazards in
food.
2. DEFINITIONS
The definitions cited here are to facilitate the understanding of certain words or phrases
used in this document.
Where available the definitions are those adopted for microbiological, chemical, or
physical agents, risk management and risk communication on an interim basis at the
22nd Session of the Codex Alimentarius Commission. The CAC adopted these
definitions on an interim basis because they are subject to modification in the light of
developments in the science of risk analysis and as a result of efforts to harmonize
similar definitions across various disciplines.
Dose-Response Assessment - The determination of the relationship between the
magnitude of exposure (dose) to a chemical, biological or physical agent and the
severity and/or frequency of associated adverse health effects (response).

Exposure Assessment - The qualitative and/or quantitative evaluation of the likely

intake of biological, chemical, and physical agents via food as well as exposures from
other sources if relevant.
Hazard - A biological, chemical or physical agent in, or condition of, food with the
potential to cause an adverse health effect.
Hazard Characterization - The qualitative and/or quantitative evaluation of the nature
of the adverse health effects associated with the hazard. For the purpose of
microbiological risk assessment the concerns relate to microorganisms and/or their
toxins.
Hazard Identification - The identification of biological, chemical, and physical agents
capable of causing adverse health effects and which may be present in a particular food
or group of foods.
Quantitative Risk Assessment - A risk assessment that provides numerical
expressions of risk and indication of the attendant uncertainties (stated in the 1995
Expert Consultation definition on Risk Analysis).
Qualitative Risk Assessment - A risk assessment based on data which, while forming
an inadequate basis for numerical risk estimations, nonetheless, when conditioned by
prior expert knowledge and identification of attendant uncertainties permits risk ranking
or separation into descriptive categories of risk.
Risk - A function of the probability of an adverse health effect and the severity of that
effect, consequential to a hazard(s) in food.
Risk Analysis - A process consisting of three components: Risk assessment, risk
management and risk communication.
Risk Assessment - A scientifically based process consisting of the following steps: (i)
hazard identification, (ii) hazard characterization, (iii) exposure assessment, and (iv) risk
characterization.
Risk Characterization - The process of determining the qualitative and/or quantitative
estimation, including attendant uncertainties, of the probability of occurrence and
severity of known or potential adverse health effects in a given population based on
hazard identification, hazard characterization and exposure assessment.

Risk Communication - The interactive exchange of information and opinions

concerning risk and risk management among risk assessors, risk managers, consumers
and other interested parties.
Risk Estimate - Output of risk characterization.
Risk Management - The process of weighing policy alternatives in the light of the
results of risk assessment and, if required, selecting and implementing appropriate
control[5] options, including regulatory measures.
Sensitivity analysis - A method used to examine the behavior of a model by measuring
the variation in its outputs resulting from changes to its inputs.
Transparent - Characteristics of a process where the rationale, the logic of
development, constraints, assumptions, value judgements, decisions, limitations and
uncertainties of the expressed determination are fully and systematically stated,
documented, and accessible for review.
Uncertainty analysis - A method used to estimate the uncertainty associated with
model inputs, assumptions and structure/form.
3. GENERAL PRINCIPLES OF MICROBIOLOGICAL RISK ASSESSMENT
1. Microbiological risk assessment should be soundly based upon science.
2. There should be a functional separation between risk assessment and risk
management.
3. Microbiological risk assessment should be conducted according to a structured
approach that includes hazard identification, hazard characterization, exposure
assessment, and risk characterization.
4. A microbiological risk assessment should clearly state the purpose of the exercise,
including the form of risk estimate that will be the output.
5. The conduct of a microbiological risk assessment should be transparent.
6. Any constraints that impact on the risk assessment such as cost, resources or time,
should be identified and their possible consequences described.
7. The risk estimate should contain a description of uncertainty and where the
uncertainty arose during the risk assessment process.

8. Data should be such that uncertainty in the risk estimate can be determined; data and
data collection systems should, as far as possible, be of sufficient quality and precision
that uncertainty in the risk estimate is minimized.
9. A microbiological risk assessment should explicitly consider the dynamics of
microbiological growth, survival, and death in foods and the complexity of the interaction
(including sequelae) between human and agent following consumption as well as the
potential for further spread.
10. Wherever possible, risk estimates should be reassessed over time by comparison
with independent human illness data.
11. A microbiological risk assessment may need reevaluation, as new relevant
information becomes available.
4. GUIDELINES FOR APPLICATION
4.1 GENERAL CONSIDERATIONS
4.2 STATEMENT OF PURPOSE OF RISK ASSESSMENT
4.3 HAZARD IDENTIFICATION
4.4 EXPOSURE ASSESSMENT
4.5 HAZARD CHARACTERIZATION
4.6 RISK CHARACTERIZATION
4.7 DOCUMENTATION
4.8 REASSESSMENT
These Guidelines provide an outline of the elements of a Microbiological Risk
Assessment indicating the types of decisions that need to be considered at each step.

4.1 GENERAL CONSIDERATIONS

The elements of risk analysis are: Risk assessment, risk management, and risk
communication. The functional separation of risk assessment from risk management
helps assure that the risk assessment process is unbiased. However, certain
interactions are needed for a comprehensive and systematic risk assessment process.
These may include ranking of hazards and risk assessment policy decisions. Where risk
management issues are taken into account in risk assessment, the decision-making

process should be transparent. It is the transparent unbiased nature of the process that
is important, not who is the assessor or who is the manager.
Whenever practical, efforts should be made to provide a risk assessment process that
allows contributions by interested parties. Contributions by interested parties in the risk
assessment process can improve the transparency of the risk assessment, increase the
quality of risk assessments through additional expertise and information, and facilitate
risk communication by increasing the credibility and acceptance of the results of the risk
assessment.
Scientific evidence may be limited, incomplete or conflicting. In such cases, transparent
informed decisions will have to be made on how to complete the risk assessment
process. The importance of using high quality information when conducting a risk
assessment is to reduce uncertainty and to increase the reliability of the risk estimate.
The use of quantitative information is encouraged to the extent possible, but the value
and utility of qualitative information should not be discounted.
It should be recognized that sufficient resources will not always be available and
constraints are likely to be imposed on the risk assessment that will influence the quality
of the risk estimate. Where such resource constraints apply, it is important for
transparency purposes that these constraints be described in the formal record. Where
appropriate, the record should include an evaluation of the impact of the resource
constraints on the risk assessment.
4.2 STATEMENT OF PURPOSE OF RISK ASSESSMENT
At the beginning of the work the specific purpose of the particular risk assessment being
carried out should be clearly stated. The output form and possible output alternatives of
the risk assessment should be defined. Output might, for example, take the form of an
estimate of the prevalence of illness, or an estimate of annual rate (incidence of human
illness per 100,000) or an estimate of the rate of human illness and severity per eating
occurrence.
The microbiological risk assessment may require a preliminary investigation phase. In
this phase, evidence to support farm-to-table modelling of risk might be structured or
mapped into the framework of risk assessment.

4.3 HAZARD IDENTIFICATION

For microbial agents, the purpose of hazard identification is to identify the

microorganisms or the microbial toxins of concern with food. Hazard identification will
predominately be a qualitative process. Hazards can be identified from relevant data
sources. Information on hazards can be obtained from scientific literature, from
databases such as those in the food industry, government agencies, and relevant
international organizations and through solicitation of opinions of experts. Relevant
information includes data in areas such as: clinical studies, epidemiological studies and
surveillance, laboratory animal studies, investigations of the characteristics of
microorganisms, the interaction between microorganisms and their environment through
the food chain from primary production up to and including consumption, and studies on
analogous microorganisms and situations.
4.4 EXPOSURE ASSESSMENT
Exposure assessment includes an assessment of the extent of actual or anticipated
human exposure. For microbiological agents, exposure assessments might be based on
the potential extent of food contamination by a particular agent or its toxins, and on
dietary information. Exposure assessment should specify the unit of food that is of
interest, i.e., the portion size in most/all cases of acute illness.
Factors that must be considered for exposure assessment include the frequency of
contamination of foods by the pathogenic agent and its level in those foods over time.
For example, these factors are influenced by the characteristics of the pathogenic
agent, the microbiological ecology of the food, the initial contamination of the raw
material including considerations of regional differences and seasonality of production,
the level of sanitation and process controls, the methods of processing, packaging,
distribution and storage of the foods, as well as any preparation steps such as cooking
and holding. Another factor that must be considered in the assessment is patterns of
consumption. This relates to socio-economic and cultural backgrounds, ethnicity,
seasonality, age differences (population demographics), regional differences, and
consumer preferences and behavior. Other factors to be considered include: the role of
the food handler as a source of contamination, the amount of hand contact with the
product, and the potential impact of abusive environmental time/temperature
relationships.
Microbial pathogen levels can be dynamic and while they may be kept low, for example,
by proper time/temperature controls during food processing, they can substantially
increase with abuse conditions (for example, improper food storage temperatures or
cross contamination from other foods). Therefore, the exposure assessment should
describe the pathway from production to consumption. Scenarios can be constructed to
predict the range of possible exposures. The scenarios might reflect effects of

processing, such as hygienic design, cleaning and disinfection, as well as the

time/temperature and other conditions of the food history, food handling and
consumption patterns, regulatory controls, and surveillance systems.
Exposure assessment estimates the level, within various levels of uncertainty, of
microbiological pathogens or microbiological toxins, and the likelihood of their
occurrence in foods at the time of consumption. Qualitatively foods can be categorized
according to the likelihood that the foodstuff will or will not be contaminated at its
source; whether or not the food can support the growth of the pathogen of concern;
whether there is substantial potential for abusive handling of the food; or whether the
food will be subjected to a heat process. The presence, growth, survival, or death of
microorganisms, including pathogens in foods, are influenced by processing and
packaging, the storage environment, including the temperature of storage, the relative
humidity of the environment, and the gaseous composition of the atmosphere. Other
relevant factors include pH, moisture content or water activity (a w), nutrient content, the
presence of antimicrobial substances, and competing microflora. Predictive
microbiology can be a useful tool in an exposure assessment.
4.5 HAZARD CHARACTERIZATION
This step provides a qualitative or quantitative description of the severity and duration of
adverse effects that may result from the ingestion of a microorganism or its toxin in
food. A dose-response assessment should be performed if the data are obtainable.
There are several important factors that need to be considered in hazard
characterization. These are related to both the microorganism, and the human host. In
relation to the microorganism the following are important: microorganisms are capable
of replicating; the virulence and infectivity of microorganisms can change depending on
their interaction with the host and the environment; genetic material can be transferred
between microorganisms leading to the transfer of characteristics such as antibiotic
resistance and virulence factors; microorganisms can be spread through secondary and
tertiary transmission; the onset of clinical symptoms can be substantially delayed
following exposure; microorganisms can persist in certain individuals leading to
continued excretion of the microorganism and continued risk of spread of infection; low
doses of some microorganisms can in some cases cause a severe effect; and the
attributes of a food that may alter the microbial pathogenicity, e.g., High fat content of a
food vehicle.
In relation to the host the following may be important: genetic factors such as human
leucocyte antigen (HLA) type; increased susceptibility due to breakdowns of
physiological barriers; individual host susceptibility characteristics such as age,

pregnancy, nutrition, health and medication status, concurrent infections, immune status
and previous exposure history; population characteristics such as population immunity,
access to and use of medical care, and persistence of the organism in the population.
A desirable feature of hazard characterization is ideally establishing a dose-response
relationship. When establishing a dose-response relationship, the different end points,
such as infection or illness, should be taken into consideration. In the absence of a
known dose-response relationship, risk assessment tools such as expert elicitations
could be used to consider various factors, such as infectivity, necessary to describe
hazard characterizations. Additionally, experts may be able to devise ranking systems
so that they can be used to characterize severity and/or duration of disease.
4.6 RISK CHARACTERIZATION
Risk characterization represents the integration of the hazard identification, hazard
characterization, and exposure assessment determinations to obtain a risk estimate;
providing a qualitative or quantitative estimate of the likelihood and severity of the
adverse effects which could occur in a given population, including a description of the
uncertainties associated with these estimates. These estimates can be assessed by
comparison with independent epidemiological data that relate hazards to disease
prevalence.
Risk characterization brings together all of the qualitative or quantitative information of
the previous steps to provide a soundly based estimate of risk for a given population.
Risk characterization depends on available data and expert judgements. The weight of
evidence integrating quantitative and qualitative data may permit only a qualitative
estimate of risk.
The degree of confidence in the final estimation of risk will depend on the variability,
uncertainty, and assumptions identified in all previous steps. Differentiation of
uncertainty and variability is important in subsequent selections of risk management
options. Uncertainty is associated with the data themselves, and with the choice of
model. Data uncertainties include those that might arise in the evaluation and
extrapolation of information obtained from epidemiological, microbiological, and
laboratory animal studies. Uncertainties arise whenever attempts are made to use data
concerning the occurrence of certain phenomena obtained under one set of conditions
to make estimations or predictions about phenomena likely to occur under other sets of
conditions for which data are not available. Biological variation includes the differences
in virulence that exist in microbiological populations and variability in susceptibility within
the human population and particular subpopulations.

It is important to demonstrate the influence of the estimates and assumptions used in

risk assessment; for quantitative risk assessment this can be done using sensitivity and
uncertainty analyses.
4.7 DOCUMENTATION
The risk assessment should be fully and systematically documented and communicated
to the risk manager. Understanding any limitations that influenced a risk assessment is
essential for transparency of the process that is important in decision making. For
example, expert judgments should be identified and their rationale explained. To ensure
a transparent risk assessment a formal record, including a summary, should be
prepared and made available to interested independent parties so that other risk
assessors can repeat and critique the work. The formal record and summary should
indicate any constraints, uncertainties, and assumptions and their impact on the risk
assessment.

4.8 REASSESSMENT
Surveillance programs can provide an ongoing opportunity to reassess the public health
risks associated with pathogens in foods as new relevant information and data become
available. Microbiological risk assessors may have the opportunity to compare the
predicted risk estimate from microbiological risk assessment models with reported
human illness data for the purpose of gauging the reliability of the predicted estimate.
This comparison emphasizes the iterative nature of modelling. When new data become
available, a microbiological risk assessment may need to be revisited.

PUBLICATION HISTORY
This booklet is an extract of Volume 1B - General Requirements (Food Hygiene) of
the Codex Alimentarius. The following table indicates previous versions of these texts
and the reference to the draft texts prepared by the Codex Committee on Food
Hygiene.
DOCUMENT

REFERENCES

Recommended International Code of

Practice - General Principles of Food
Hygiene:

CAC/RCP-1 (1969)

Revision 1

1979

Revision 2

1985

Revision 3 (Current)

1997

Draft adopted by the 22nd Session of the

Commission

ALINORM 97/13,
Appendix II

Amendments regarding rinsing adopted

by the 23rd Session of the Commission

ALINORM 99/13A,
Appendix III

Hazard Analysis and Critical Control

CAC/GL 18-1993
Point (HACCP) System and Guidelines
for its Application
Revision 1 (Current)

Annex to CAC/RCP-1 (1969), Rev.3 (1997)

Prior draft

ALINORM 93/13A,
Appendix II

Draft adopted by the 22nd Session of the

Commission

ALINORM 97/13A,
Appendix II

Principles for the Establishment and

Published in the Procedural Manual of the
Application of Microbiological Criteria Codex Alimentarius Commission, Sixth to
for Foods
Ninth Editions (1986-1995)
Revision 1 (Current)

CAC/GL-21 (1997)

Draft adopted by the 22nd Session of the

Commission

ALINORM 97/13A,
Appendix III

Principles and Guidelines for the

Conduct of Microbiological Risk
Assessment

CAC/GL 30-1999

Draft adopted by the 23rd Session of the

Commission

ALINORM 99/13A,
Appendix II

FOOD SAFETY
Food safety is a scientific discipline describing handling, preparation, and storage of
food in ways that prevent food borne illness. This includes a number of routines that
should be followed to avoid potentially severe health hazards. The tracks within this line
of thought are safety between industry and the market and then between the market
and the consumer. In considering industry to market practices, food safety
considerations include the origins of food including the practices relating to food
labeling, food hygiene, food additives and pesticide residues, as well as policies on
biotechnology and
food
and
guidelines
for
the
management
of
governmental import and export inspection and certification systems for foods. In
considering market to consumer practices, the usual thought is that food ought to be
safe in the market and the concern is safe delivery and preparation of the food for the
consumer.
Food can transmit disease from person to person as well as serve as a growth medium
for bacteria that can cause food poisoning. In developed countries there are intricate
standards for food preparation, whereas in lesser developed countries the main issue is
simply the availability of adequate safe water, which is usually a critical item. In theory,
food poisoning is 100% preventable. The five key principles of food hygiene, according
to WHO, are:
1. Prevent contaminating food with pathogens spreading from people, pets, and
pests.
2. Separate raw and cooked foods to prevent contaminating the cooked foods.
3. Cook foods for the appropriate length of time and at the appropriate temperature
to kill pathogens.
4. Store food at the proper temperature.
5. Do use safe water and cooked materials.

ISO 22000 - Food safety management

The ISO 22000 family of International Standards addresses food safety management.
The consequences of unsafe food can be serious and ISOs food safety management
standards help organizations identify and control food safety hazards. As many of
today's food products repeatedly cross national boundaries, International Standards are
needed to ensure the safety of the global food supply chain.

The ISO 22000 family contains a number of standards each focusing on different
aspects of food safety management.

ISO 22000:2005 contains the overall guidelines for food safety management.

ISO 22000:2005 specifies requirements for a food safety management system where an
organization in the food chain needs to demonstrate its ability to control food safety
hazards in order to ensure that food is safe at the time of human consumption.
It is applicable to all organizations, regardless of size, which are involved in any aspect
of the food chain and want to implement systems that consistently provide safe
products. The means of meeting any requirements of ISO 22000:2005 can be
accomplished through the use of internal and/or external resources.
ISO 22000:2005 specifies requirements to enable an organization
-- To plan, implement, operate, maintain and update a food safety management system
aimed at providing products that, according to their intended use, are safe for the
consumer,
-- To demonstrate compliance with applicable statutory and regulatory food safety
requirements,
-- To evaluate and assess customer requirements and demonstrate conformity with
those mutually agreed customer requirements that relate to food safety, in order to
enhance customer satisfaction,
-- To effectively communicate food safety issues to their suppliers, customers and
relevant interested parties in the food chain,
-- To ensure that the organization conforms to its stated food safety policy,
-- To demonstrate such conformity to relevant interested parties, and
-- To seek certification or registration of its food safety management system by an
external organization, or make a self-assessment or self-declaration of conformity to
ISO 22000:2005.

WHAT IS ISO 22000:2005?

ISO 22000 is the International Food Safety Management Standard.
It combines and supplements the core elements of ISO 9001 and HACCP to provide an
effective framework for the development, implementation and continual improvement of
a Food Safety Management System (FSMS).
ISO 22000 aligns with other management systems, such as ISO 9001 and ISO 14001,
to enable effective systems integration.
Benefits of achieving certification to ISO 22000 include:
o Customer satisfaction - through delivery of products that consistently meet
customer requirements including quality, safety and legality.
o Reduced operating costs - through continual improvement of processes and
resulting operational efficiencies.
o Operational efficiencies - by integrating pre-requisite programs (PRPs &
OPRPs), HACCP with the Plan-Do-Check-Act philosophies of ISO 9001 to
increase the effectiveness of the Food Safety Management System.
o Improved stakeholder relationships - including staff, customers and suppliers.
o Legal compliance - by understanding how statutory and regulatory
requirements impact the organization and its customers and testing
compliance through internal audits and management reviews.
o Improved risk management - through greater consistency and traceability of
product.
o Proven business credentials - through independent verification against
recognized standards.
o Ability to win more business - particularly where procurement specifications
require certification as a condition to supply.

Who should use ISO 22000?

ISO 22000 can be used by any organization directly or indirectly involved in the food
chain including:
o
o
o
o

Farms, fisheries and dairies.

Processors of meats, fish and feed.
Manufacturers of bread and cereals, beverages, canned and frozen food.
Food service providers such as restaurants, fast food chains, hospitals and
hotels and mobile caterers.

o Supporting services including food storage and distribution and suppliers of

food processing equipment, additives, raw materials, cleaning and sanitizing
products, and packaging.
In summary, part or all of the ISO 22000 requirements will apply to any products that
contact the food industry or the food chain.

How to gain certification to ISO 22000

The process of registration follows three simple steps:
o Application for registration is made by completing the FSMS questionnaire.
o Assessment to ISO 22000 is undertaken by NQA in two stages known as the
Initial Certification Audit.
o Registration is granted by NQA and maintained by the organization.
Maintenance is confirmed through a programme of annual surveillance visits
and a three yearly re-certification audit.
Initial Certification Audit
Stage 1 - the purpose of this visit is to confirm the readiness of the organization for full
assessment. The assessor will:
o Confirm that the management systems manual conforms to the requirements
of ISO 22000.
o Confirm its implementation status.
o Confirm the scope of certification.
o Check PRPs, OPRPs, HACCP, legislative compliance and customer
requirements.
o Produce a report that identifies any non-compliance or potential for noncompliance and agree a corrective action plan if required.
o Produce an assessment plan and confirm a date for the Stage 2 assessment
visit.

Stage 2 - the purpose of this visit is to confirm that the food safety management system
fully conforms to the requirements of ISO 22000 in practice. The assessor will:
o undertake sample audits of the processes and activities defined in the scope
of assessment including production methods, controls, PRPs, HACCP plans
and procedures, as well as test your personnels skills and knowledge in food
safety as well as practical application.
o Document how the system complies with the standard.
o Report any non-compliances or potential for non-compliance.

o Produce a visit plan for the first surveillance visit.

Please note that if any major non-conformance is identified, the organization cannot be
certified until corrective action is taken and verified.

Ingredients of cookies:
A cup of sugar, two of flour, a stick of butter, a couple of eggs, a dash of salt, a teaspoon of
baking soda, a little vanilla....Ingredients to make cookies sound simple enough. But are
they?
Once upon a time, sugar was simply sugar, flour was simply flour, and butter was only
butter. Eggs are still eggs, but almost everything else has changed -- ingredients have
gotten better.
We now have a choice of sugars, flours and shortenings. Ingredients are now specialized to
suit our baking needs. Granulated sugar, comes in regular grind, fine grind and extra fine
grind. We can get all-purpose flour, cake flour, bread flour and several specialized types of
flour. Instead of butter we may choose a flavored margarine with no cholesterol or an
excellent all-purpose shortening.
Your chance for successful baking has never been better. Your opportunity to create a
personal baking masterpiece is almost assured.
A mix package of cookie dough, whether in a bag, box, or frozen in a tube is a mixture of
ingredients. Granted, these mixes are great time savers, but they still demand careful
preparation in order to be special.

BAKING POWDER:
Baking Powder and Baking Soda will lose its kick with age. Seal it tightly after use
to keep out moisture and odors.

BAKING SODA:
Baking soda causes cookies to spread when baked. Baking powder causes cookies
to rise and be crunchy.

SUGAR:
Cookies are best when a fine-grind granulated sugar is used. Coarse sugar causes
cookies to spread excessively and crumble. Powdered sugar causes cookies to be
tight-grained and dry.

FLOUR:
All-purpose and pastry flour is fine for most cookies. A mixture of one third cake
flour to two thirds all-purpose flour is better. Use straight cake flour in your sugar
cookies.

SHORTENING:
All-purpose shortening or hydrogenated shortening will make almost any cookie. A
mixture of three-fourths all-purpose flour and one-fourth real butter better tastes.
The butter should be cool, but not hard, when blending with the shortening.

EGGS:
Eggs should always be fresh. The egg's size is very important. When the recipe
doesn't say - use large eggs. Frozen eggs come in 4 packages; whole eggs, egg
whites, 2 yolks to 1 white; and sugar yolks. If you use frozen eggs the kind that
comes 2 yolks to 1 white is best. Whole eggs are second best.

SALT:
Use very little salt and add at the end of mixing, before flour is completely mixed
in. Salt causes flour to toughen and can make your cookies tough.

COLORING:
Never use excessive food coloring. Some food coloring has a taste and may give
your cookies an off flavor.

WATER:
Use very cold water in making cookies (unless the recipe reads differently). Cold
water will help keep the mix from separating. Cold fruit juice is a great substitute
for water if you like the fruit flavor.

BROWN SUGAR:
Brown sugar frequently gets dry and lumpy. Lumpy brown sugar can be brought
back to life by adding a little cold water and either sifted or placed in a blender.

FRUIT:

Dried fruit (such as raisins) should be soaked in a bowl of hot water for about 10
minutes. This will plump them a little, but will not make them too tender.

NUTS:
Nut-meats should always be sampled before using. The oil they contain goes rancid
rather quickly and can ruin the taste of your cookies. Nut-meats freeze well and
should be stored in the freezer, not in the refrigerator. Nut-meats absorb odors.

COCONUT:
Freshen up coconut by adding a little hot water and tumbling until the water is
absorbed.

CHOCOLATE:
If you've stored chocolate morsels in the refrigerator and they are covered with a
white haze, don't worry, that's normal. However, chocolate will absorb odors and
should always be sealed tightly and stored at a cool temperature. Also, chocolate
will haze over when allowed to heat over 100 degrees while melting.
Melt chocolate in your microwave when possible. If you must melt it on the stove,
use very low heat. Put the chocolate in a bowl, then place the bowl in a pan
containing water. You must avoid getting water in your melting chocolate. Water will
cause chocolate to lump. When the melted chocolate is very thick, add a small
amount of vegetable oil or cocoa butter to thin it down. Never add water to thin
melted chocolate.

COCOA:
If you like your chocolate cookies more flavorful, add a little more cocoa to the mix.
Cocoa will dry the batter out, so you must add a little more shortening or an extra
egg yolk. Make a thick paste out of Cocoa and vegetable oil for use in cookie mixes
and icing toppings.

SPICE:
Use fresh spices in cookies. Spice loses flavor with age and can sometimes taste
like something else altogether. Remember, a little spice goes a long way.

VANILLA EXTRACT:
Use plenty of Vanilla extract. Extracts are alcohol based and much of the flavor may
bake out in the oven.

ALMOND EXTRACT:
Use Almond extract along with Vanilla extract to make cherry cookies taste like
cherries.

ORANGE EXTRACT:
A little Orange extract added to a chocolate cookie gives it a special flavor. Don't be
afraid to experiment with flavors. Always use a little and build the flavor up.

Types of Flour:
Flour that is used in baking comes mainly from wheat, although it can be milled from
corn, rice, nuts, legumes, and some fruits and vegetables. The type of flour of flour used
is vital at getting the product right. Different types of flour are suited to different items
and all flours are different you cannot switch from one type to another without
consequences that could ruin the recipe. To achieve success in baking, it is important to
know what the right flour is for the job!

All-Purpose Flour is a blend of hard and soft wheat; it may be bleached or

unbleached. It is usually translated as "plain flour." All-Purpose Flour has 8% to 11%
protein (gluten). All-purpose flour is one of the most commonly used and readily
accessible flour in the United States.
Flour that is bleached naturally as it ages is labeled "unbleached," while chemically
treated flour is labeled "bleached." Bleached flour has less protein than unbleached.
Bleached is best for pie crusts, cookies, quick breads, pancakes and waffles. Use
unbleached flour for yeast breads, Danish pastry, puff pastry, strudel, Yorkshire
pudding, clairs, cream puffs and popovers.
Shelf-Life: For cabinet storage, up to 8 months if properly stored in a sealed
container or if tightly wrapped, and for refrigerator storage, up to one year.
Bread Flour is white flour made from hard, high-protein wheat. It has more gluten
strength and protein content than all-purpose flour. It is unbleached and sometimes
conditioned with ascorbic acid, which increases volume and creates better texture.
Bread flour has 12% to 14% protein (gluten). This is the best choice for yeast
products.
Shelf Life: Several months in a cool, dry cabinet when stored in a sealed container or if
tightly wrapped, and up to one year in the freezer.

Buckwheat Flour is gluten-free which makes it a good choice for anybody with gluten
sensitivities or celiac disease. It is packed with nutrients, readily available, easy to work
with and has a nice nutty flavor.
Cake Flour is a fine-textured, soft-wheat flour with a high starch content. It has the
lowest protein content of any wheat flour, 8% to 10% protein (gluten). It is chlorinated (a
bleaching process which leaves the flour slightly acidic, sets a cake faster and
distributes fat more evenly through the batter to improve texture. When you're making
baked goods with a high ratio of sugar to flour, this flour will be better able to hold its
rise and will be less liable to collapse. This flour is excellent for baking fine-textured
cakes with greater volume and is used in some quick breads, muffins and cookies. If
you cannot find cake flour, substitute bleached all-purpose flour, but subtract 2
tablespoons of flour for each cup used in the recipe (if using volume measuring).
Gluten Flour is usually milled from spring wheat and has a high protein (gluten) of 12%
to 14%. It is used primarily for diabetic breads, or mixed with other non-wheat or lowprotein wheat flours to produce a stronger dough structure.

Instant Flour (Wondra from Gold Medal) is granular and formulated to dissolve quickly
in hot or cold liquids. It will not work as a substitute for all-purpose flour, although there
are recipes on the container for popovers and other baked goods. It is used primarily in
sauces and gravies

Organic Flour is used in the same way as regular flour. It must follow U.S. Department
of Agriculture regulations to be labeled "organic." Using this flour is a matter of personal
preference.

Pastry Flour also is made with soft wheat and falls somewhere between all-purpose
and cake flour in terms of protein content and baking properties. Pastry flour (also
known as cookie flour) has a protein (gluten) of 9% to 10%. Use pastry flour for making
biscuits, pie crusts, brownies, cookies and quick breads. Pastry flour makes a tender
but crumbly pastry. Do not use it for yeast breads. Pastry flour (both whole-wheat and
regular) is not readily available at supermarkets, but you can find it at specialty stores

and online. You can try to mimic it by using a 2-to-1 ratio of all-purpose flour to cake
flour.
Rice Flour - Rice flour (also called Mochiko on Japanese and Pirin Unu in Turkish) is a
form of flour made from finely milled rice. It can be made from either white or brown rice.
Self-Rising flour, sometimes referred to as phosphated flour, is a low-protein flour
with salt and leavening (baking powder) already added. It's most often recommended
for biscuits and some quick breads, but never for yeast breads. Exact formulas,
including the type of baking powder used, vary by manufacturer. Recipes that call for
self-rising flour do not call for the addition of salt or leavening agents.
Make your own self-rising flour: Using a dry measure, measure the desired amount of
all-purpose flour into a container. For each cup of all-purpose flour, add 1 1/2 teaspoons
of baking powder and 1/2 teaspoon of salt. Mix to combine.

Semolina Flour is used in making pasta and Italian puddings. It is made from durum
wheat, the hardest type of wheat grown. The flour is highest in gluten. When other
grains, such as rice or corn, are similarly ground, they are referred to as "semolina"
with the grain's name added, i.e., "corn semolina" or "rice semolina." There are
difference grades:
(1) Semolina flour is finely ground endosperm of durum wheat.
(2) Semolina meal is a coarsely ground cereal like farina.
(3) Wheatina is ground whole-grain wheat.
(4) Durum flour is finely ground semolina and is grown almost exclusively in North
Dakota.

Spelt Flour is one of the most popular and widely available of alternative baking flours.
The full name of spelt is Triticum aestivum var. spelta. Triticum denotes that it is of the
wheat family, but the fats are more soluble and the nutritional content higher than
traditional wheat flour. People who have issues with wheat digestion but who are not
gluten ill tolerant often do well with Spelt. Spelt flour has a nutty and slightly sweet flavor

similar to that of whole wheat flour. It does contain gluten and is a popular substitute for
wheat in baked goods

Teff Flour - Teff is an ancient and intriguing grain, tiny in size yet packed with nutrition.
It is simple to prepare and similar to millet or quinoa in cooking. Teff is a great addition
to your diet for nutrition, taste, and variety. Teff is packed with nutrition. It is higher in
protein than wheat and has a high concentration of a wide variety of nutrients, including
calcium, thiamin and iron. The iron from teff is easily absorbed by the body. Since the
grains are so small, the bulk of the grain is germ and brand. It is very high in fiber and is
thought to benefit people with diabetes as it helps control blood sugar levels. Teff
contains no gluten which makes it a suitable grain for celiacs or people with wheat
sensitivities. Due to its nutritional content and energy enhancing properties, it has also
gained favor with athletes.

Whole-Wheat Flour (also called graham flour) is made from the whole kernel of
wheat and is higher in dietary fiber and overall nutrient content than white flours. It
does not have as high a gluten level, so often it's mixed with all-purpose or bread
flour when making yeast breads. Whole wheat flour is equivalent to British whole
meal flour.
Shelf Life: 6 months to one year in the freezer if stored in tightly sealed plastic
containers or if tightly wrapped. It will keep for only a few months if stored in a cabinet.
Due to the presence of the wheat germ, resulting in an unsaturated oil content that is
higher than refined flour. The potential for rancidity is greater if whole-wheat flour is kept
for long periods and particularly if it is not stored under refrigerated conditions. It is best
to store whole-wheat flour in a tightly sealed container in the refrigerator or freezer.

How To Buy Flour:

Look for tightly sealed bags or boxes. Flours in torn packages or in open bins are
exposed to air and to insect contamination.

How to Store Flour:

Flour must be kept cool and dry. All flours, even white flour, have a limited shelf life.
Millers recommend that flours be stored for no more than 6 months. The main
change that occurs is the oxidation of oils when flour is exposed to air. The result of
this is rancid off flavors. During hot weather, store flour in the refrigerator.
Flour should be stored, covered, in a cool and dry area. This prevents the flour from
absorbing moisture and odors and from attracting insects and rodents. Freezing flour
for 48 hours before it is stored will kill any weevil or insect eggs already in the flour. It
is better not to mix new flour with old if you are not using the flour regularly.
Do not store flour near soap powder, onions or other foods and products with strong
odors.
If freezer space is available, flour can be repackaged in airtight, moisture-proof
containers, labeled and placed in the freezer at 0 degrees F. If flour is stored like this,
it will keep well for several years.
Keep whole wheat flour in the refrigerator the year around. Natural oils cause this
flour to turn rancid quickly at room temperature.
Throw away flour if it smells bad, changes color, or is invested with weevils.
Flour is always readily available so it should only be brought in quantities that will last
a maximum of two to three months.
Put a bay leaf in the flour canister to help protect against insect infections. Bay leaves
are natural insect repellents.

List of Cookies:

Name

Image

Place

Description

Aachener
Printen

Aachener Printen are a type

of Lebkuchen. The term is
a protected designation of origin and
The city
so all manufacturers can be found in
of Aacheni or near Aachen. Printen are made
n Germany from a variety of ingredients
including cinnamon, aniseed, clove,c
ardamom, coriander, allspice and
also ginger.

Afghan
biscuits

It is a traditional New Zealand biscuit

and is made from cocoa powder,
butter, flour and cornflakes. It is then
New
topped with chocolate icing and half
Zealand,Au a walnut. The origin of both the
stralia
recipe and name are unknown, but
the recipe has appeared in many
editions of cookbooks sold in New
Zealand.

Alfajor

some
regions
ofSpain an
d countries
of Latin
America

Almond
biscuit
Almond
cake,
almond
cookie

The biscuits are small with no filling

by default and have a crunchy
China, Hon texture, but sometimes crumbling on
g
first bite. When they are sold in
Kong,Maca different countries, they are usually
u
imported from Macau, where it is one
of the most popular specialty
products.

Amaretti di
Saronno

Originally Italian biscuit similar to macaroons

fromSaronn

Its basic form consists of two round

sweet biscuits joined together
with dulce de leche or jam and
covered withpowdered sugar. In most
alfajores there are two layers
of cake, and a filling in between.

Name

Image

Place

Description

o, Italy

Animal
cracker

New York
City inThe
State of
New York

A small cracker or cookie baked in a

shape of an animal, especially
a lion, tiger, bear, or elephant.

ANZAC
biscuit

Australian
and New
Zealand Ar
my Corps
(ANZAC)

ANZAC Biscuits are a sweet biscuit

made using rolled oats, flour,
coconut, sugar, butter, golden syrup,
bicarbonate of soda and boiling
water. The biscuits appear to be a
variation of Scottish oatcakes.

Apas

Apas are oblong-shaped biscuits that

are topped with sugar. Apas is
Philippines
a Tagalog term for wafer. They are a
popular part of Filipino cuisine.

Ballokume

Albania

It is a traditional Albanian deessert

made of cornflour,butter and
vanillia.The origin of this is in the city
of Elbasan in center of
Albania. This deesert cooked in 14
March in Spring Day.

Basler
Lckerli
Leckerli,
Lggerli

It is a Swiss traditional
hard spice biscuit made
Basel ofSwi of honey, almonds, candied peel,
tzerland
and Kirsch. The dough is cut into
rectangles while it is still hot and a
sugar glaze is then added on top.

Name

Bath Oliver

Image

Place

Description

It is a hard dry biscuit made from

flour, butter, yeast and milk and often
Bath, Engla
eaten with cheese. It was invented by
nd
DrWilliam Oliver of Bath, around the
year of 1750.

It is a buttery vanilla wafer topped

with thick creamy fudge. The recipe
is derived from Germany and are an
iconic cultural icon of Baltimore. The
recipe was first brought to the USA
from Germany by George and Henry
Berger in 1835.

Berger
Cookie

Germany

Berner
Haselnussl
ebkuchen

It is a traditional Christmas cake

from Berne in Switzerland, made
from ground hazelnuts. It is
Bern of Swi
sometimes confused with another
tzerland
Bernese speciality, Berner
Honiglebkuchen, due to its similar
appearance.

Berner
Honiglebku
chen

It is a traditional Christmas cookies

made with honey. It is distinguished
Bern of Swi
from Berner Haselnusslebkuchen as
tzerland
it often has more elaborate sugar
decorations.

Biscotti

In North America, the term refers to a

specific type of biscuits, derived
Italy, North
from Tuscan cantucci, a type of hard
America
almond-flavoured biscuits
traditionally served with vin santo.

Biscuit

United
In the US: small soft leavened bread
States and
British
In the British Commonwealth: a small
Commonw
and hard, often sweet, baked product

Name

Image

Place

ealth

Biscuit roll
egg roll (
), love
letters,
kueh
belandah,
crispy
biscuit roll,
crisp
biscuit roll
or cookie
roll

Description

with different types of decorations,

flavours and toppings.

It is a common biscuit snack that is

commonly found in Asia. It is crunchy
China, Hon and can be easily broken into pieces
g Kong,
made of wheat flour, butter, egg,
Asia
sugar and vanilla flavor. The
traditional Chinese characters ()
are same for "egg roll".

It is a crispy butter cookie flavored

with anise and cinnamon. It is served
during special celebrations, such as
wedding receptions, baptisms, and
religious holidays. It is usually eaten
with morning coffee or milk.

Bizcochito
biscochito

New
Mexico

Black and
white
cookie
Half-Moon
cookie

The black and white cookie is a soft,

sponge cake-like shortbread which is
Utica, New
iced on one half with vanilla fondant,
York
and on the other half by dark
chocolate fondant.

Boortsog
boorsoq,
or
bawyrsak

Central
Asia, IdelUral,
and Mongol
ia

Boortsog are made by deep-frying

small pieces of a flattened dough.
Boortsog is often eaten as a dessert,
with sugar, butter, or honey.
Mongolians sometimes dip boortsog
in tea.

Name

Image

Place

Description

London,
England

Bourbon biscuit is a
sandwich biscuit consisting of two
thin oblong dark
chocolate biscuits with a
chocolate fondantfilling. The biscuit
was introduced in 1910, originally
under the name "Creola" by
the Bermondsey biscuit company
inLondon, England.

Slavic
Europe

Salty bread sticks

or cookie cutter shaped puff
pastry with egg glaze and sesame on
top.

Bredela
Bredele,
Bredle or
Winachtsb
redele

Alsace

Many varieties can include

anisbredela (cake with egg white and
aniseed) butterbredle,
schwowebredle (orange and
cinnamon), spritzbredle, small pain
d'pices and spice cakes that are
made with sugar rather than honey.

Butter
cookie

Unleavened cookies consisting of

butter, flour and sugar. They are
often categorized as a "crisp cookie"
North
due to their texture, which is a result
America
of specific quantities of flour and
and Europe
sugar being used. They are often
flavoured with vanilla, chocolate and
coconut.

Bourbon
biscuit
Bourbon
cream or B
ourbon

Bread
Sticks
with sesam
e
---

---

or cookie
cutter shap
ed puff
pastry with
sesame

Butter

<

United

Butter pecan is a flavor, used

Name

Image

Place

Description

especially United States, in cakes,

cookies, and ice cream. The flavour
is achieved by adding roasted
pecans, butter, and vanilla flavor are
used in butter pecan baked goods.

pecan

States

Caramel
shortbread
Millionaire'
s
Shortbrea
d

It is a rectangular shortbread based

biscuit that consists of layers
Most
of caramel and chocolate. It is
likelyScotla
commonly known as caramel
nd
shortcake, caramel squares, caramel
slice, or millionaires' shortbread.

Cavallucci

Italy

Chewy anise biscuits that contains

almonds, candied fruits, coriander,
flour and uses Tuscan millefiori
honey. The versions of these cookies
sold today are a similar version of a
pastry which were originally served to
servants who worked in the stables
of rich Italian aristocrats.

England

A biscuit based on a powdered willow

charcoal or activated carbon mixed
with ordinary flour, and made into
dough with butter, sugar and eggs.
They were originally made to cure
stomach trouble and are nowadays
enjoyed with cheeses.

Charcoal
biscuit

Chocolate
biscuit

Unknown

Made with cocoa powder

and chocolate chips. This is the
name that is usually given to biscuits
that have a circular base coated and
are topped with a layer of chocolate

Name

Image

Place

Description
icing.
A drop cookie that originated in the
United States and features chocolate
chips as its distinguishing ingredient.
They also contain flour, shortening,
eggs, sugar and chocolate chips.
Variations include recipes with
other types of chocolate or additional
ingredients, such as nuts or oatmeal.

Chocolate
chip cookie

Whitman,
MA

Chocolatecoated
marshmall
ow treats
Chocolate
Teacake

There are regional variations.

The Tunnock's teacake is made with
Denmark (d
a shortbread base topped with
isputed)
marshmallow and coated in
chocolate.

Christmas
cookies

Sugar biscuits and cookies from

various types of doughs. They all
have in common that they are
Throughout shaped and decorated in a way that
the world
has something to do with Christmas
and its traditions. See
also Gingerbread, Pfeffernsse,Sprin
gerle and sugar cookies.

Coconut
macaroon

Cookies that consist of a paste of

egg whites with coconut that is
North
placed on a wafer and then baked.
America,
Its main ingredients are egg whites,
Europe and sugar and shredded dried coconut. It
Middle East is closer to a soft cookie than its
meringue cousin, and is equally as
sweet.

Cornish
fairings

Cornwall, E Soft, chewy biscuits flavoured

ngland
with ginger

Name

Image

Place

Description

Coyotas

Mexico

Large flat cookies usually made with

brown sugar.

Custard
cream

UK

Vanilla fondant sandwiched between

two plain biscuits.

United
Kingdom

A semi-sweet biscuit that typically

contains coarse brown wheat flour
(which gives it its distinctive texture
and flavour), sugar, malt extract,
vegetable oil, wholemeal, raising
agents and salt. Usually consumed
for tea.

Empire
biscuit

United
Kingdom

The typical Empire Biscuit has a

layer of jam in between two biscuits.
The top is covered with white water
icing, usually decorated with a glace
cherry in the centre.

Florentine
Biscuit

Florence, It A chocolate base topped with

aly
candied fruit and nuts.

Fortune
cookie

New York

Digestive
biscuit

Folded biscuit with a 'fortune' written

on paper inside.

Name

Image

Place

Description

Garibaldi
biscuit

UK

Currants sandwiched between two

oblong biscuits

Ghorabiye

Iran

A cookie made of almond flour,

sugar, egg white, vanilla, margarine
and pistachio.

United
Kingdom
and
Northern
Europe

Hard twice-baked biscuits that are

flavored with powdered ginger,
cinnamon, nutmeg, and other spices,
but predominantly ginger. They are
also known as Gingersnaps, Ginger
thins or "Ginger Nuts" (a term
popular for them in the United
Kingdom). They may be rectangular
or disc-shaped in shape (when they
are called "ginger nuts", they are
normally circular in shape).

Gingerbrea
d

Europe

Commonly a soft dough cookie that

is made with Potassium
carbonate and/or Baker's
ammonia instead of yeast, flavoured
with ginger and comprising other
ingredients such as nuts and
succade.

Gingerbrea
d man

Europe

Made of gingerbread and shaped like

flat male figures.

Ginger
biscuits

Name

Place

Description

Hamantas
h

Ashkenazi
Jewish
cuisine

Triangular cookie featured in holiday

of Purim. Shape is associated
with Haman, a biblical villain, and his
ears or hat. Fruit,
cheese, poppyseed or other sweets
are used as a filling.

Jammie
Dodgers

UK

Jam sandwiched between two

biscuits, with a heart in the middle.

Jodenkoek

Netherland
Large, flat, round shortbread cookies.
s

Jumble
(cookie)

Cookie-like pastries whose simple

recipe comprises nuts, flour, eggs,
Azerbaijan
and sugar, with vanilla, anise, or
caraway seed used for flavoring.

Khapse

Tibet

Simple cookies made of flour, butter,

eggs and sugar that come in various
shapes with various decorations.

Israel

A Jewish and Israeli sweet cracker or

cookie commonly made with egg and
sugar rolled out flat and cut into large
diamond shapes. They are typically
eaten with a savoury dip or topping.

Iraq

National cookie of Iraq that contains

a filling of dried fruit (usually dates)
and is flavoured with cardamom and
sometimes rose water.

Kichel

Kleicha

Image

Name

Image

Place

Description

Greece

A butter-based pastry that is

traditionally hand-shaped in a ring
form, glazed with egg and sprinkled
with sesame. It is usually made at
Easter to be eaten after Holy
Saturday.

Greece

Butter cookies (biscuits) that

resemble light and airy shortbread,
but are typically made with the
addition of almonds. They may be
flavoured with vanilla, rose water or
liquors such as metaxa.

Krumiri

Italy

A cookie made without water from

wheat flour, sugar, butter, eggs and
vanilla, in the form of a slightly bent,
rough-surfaced cylinder.

Krumkake

Norway

Cookie batter is cooked on a special

iron

Lady
Finger
(cookie)

Europe

Light, sweet sponge cakes that are

shaped like fingers and are
commonly used to prepare desserts
such astiramisu, trifle and charlotte.

Lebkuchen

Germany

German kind of Gingerbread with

many regional varieties and
specialities.

Koulouraki
a

Kourabied
es

Name

Image

Place

Description

Lincoln
biscuit

A short dough biscuit and a kind of

Ireland and shortcake biscuits. It has a pattern of
United
dots on the top in concentric circles
Kingdom. and was brought to America by
British expats.

Linzer torte

A jam covered flat cookie built upon a

nutty cinnamon dough and typically
Switzerland
covered with a raspberry preserve.
/Austria
Often decorated with a dough lattice
and glazed with egg white.

Macaroon

Europe

Cookies that consist of a paste of

egg whites with other ingredients
such as almond, hazelnut and/or
coconut that is placed on a wafer and
then baked.

Maple leaf
cream
cookies

Canada

Sandwich cookie with a mapleflavoured cream filling.

Marie
biscuit

United
Kingdom
(but also
popular
throughout
all
continents)

A rich cookie made with wheat flour,

sugar, vegetable oil and vanilla
flavouring. It is usually eaten
for tea and dunked in tea or coffee.

Moravian
spice
cookies

United
States

A very thin cookie that contains

various spices and molasses.

North
America
(especially
Canada)

A popular candy bar that consists of

a wafer crumb-based layer, topped
by a layer of light vanilla or custard
flavoured butter icing, which is
covered in chocolate made from

Nanaimo
bar

Name

Image

Place

Description
melted chocolate squares.

Nice
biscuit

UK

Coconut flavoured, this is otherwise

a plain biscuit which does not contain
cream or jam.
Cookies made from oat, sugar and
butter and sometimes flour with
additional flavouring such
as ginger and syrup.

Oat crisps

Oatmeal
Raisin

Oreo

Panellets

Paprenjak

Party ring

United
States

Cookies consisting of two chocolate

disks with a white creme filling in
between them.

Spain

Small cakes or cookies in different

shapes, mostly round, made mainly
of marzipan (almond paste). They
are often decorated with pine nuts
and varnished in egg white.

Croatia

Typical Croatian cookie that is known

for containing pepper beside sugar
syrup or honey, butter, various nuts
and other spices.

United
Kingdom

Commercial circular cookie with a

central hole that comes in various
colour combinations. Each biscuit is
topped with a layer of hard icing with
"wiggly" lines in a different colour.

Name

Image

Place

Description

Peanut
butter
cookie

United
States

Pfefferns
se

Baked traditionally during

Netherland
'Sinterklaas', a feast on the 5th of
s
December

A cookie that features peanut

butter as a main ingredient.

Italy

Moist, soft and chewy cookie from

Sicily that is of a light golden color,
made from almond paste and
studded with golden pine nuts (also
called pignoli).(In the picture on the
left)

Pizzelle

Italy

Waffle cookies made from flour,

eggs, sugar, butter or vegetable oil,
and flavoring (often vanilla, anise, or
lemon zest) that can be hard and
crisp or soft and chewy depending on
the ingredients and method of
preparation.

Polvorn

Spanish
speaking
countries

Very soft shortbread. Crumbles at the

first bite

Pretzel

Germany

It is a type of baked food made from

dough in soft and hard varieties and
savory or sweet flavors in a unique
knot-like shape, originating in
Europe.

Rainbow
cookie

United
States

Pignolo
(macaroon
)

A kind of small cake with layers of

almond-based sponge cake in
different colours, apricot and/or
raspberry jam, and a chocolate
coating. A variation resembles the
Italian flag and is called Italian Flag

Name

Image

Place

Description
Cookie.

Reshteh
Khoshkar

Iran

A cookie made of rice, flour, sugar,

walnut, cardamom, cinnamon, ginger
and spice that is slowly fried in hot oil
or fat.

Ricciarelli

Siena, Italy

Flavoured with ground almonds and

topped with icing sugar.

Rich tea

United
Kingdom

A type of sweet biscuit whose

ingredients generally include wheat
flour, sugar, vegetable oil, and malt
extract. Due to its consistency it is
ideal for being dunked into coffee or
tea and is therefore usually
consumed with tea (seeDunking
(biscuit).

Rosette
(cookie)

Scandinavi
Deep fried
an

Russian
tea cake

A jumble-like pastry that generally

consists entirely of ground nuts, flour
Russia and
and water or, more commonly, butter.
United
After baking, it is coated in powdered
States
sugar while still hot, then again once
the cookie has cooled.

Shortbread

Scotland

A very rich kind of unleavened biscuit

that is made from one part white
sugar, two parts butter, and three
parts oatmeal flour. It is available in
different shapes and flavours (e.g.
lemon flavour).

Name

Image

Place

Description
A type of sugar cookie made with
butter or oil, sugar, and flour rolled in
cinnamon sugar. Most distinctive
feature is the cracked surface that
can be crisp or soft depending on
preparation.

Snickerdoo
dle

New
England

Speculaas

Very flat Christmas shortcrust biscuit

Netherland
that contains typical Christmas
s, Belgium
spices such as cinnamon, nutmeg,
and
white pepper, cardamom, ginger and
Germany
cloves.

Germany

Very hard anise cookie made from

eggs, flour and sugar with an
embossed design that is impressed
before baking. It is a typical treat for
Christmas.

Spritzgeb
ck

Germany

German Christmas cookies that

constist of a shortcrust pastry that is
squirted onto the baking sheet in
various shapes and then baked. The
finished product is very fragile, crisp,
dry and buttery and is sometimes
partly coated with chocolate.

Stroopwaf
el

A waffle made from two thin layers of

Netherland
baked batter with a caramel-like
s
syrup filling in the middle.

Sugar
cookie

A very simple cookie made from

sugar, flour, butter, eggs, vanilla, and
either baking powder or baking soda.
Europe and
They are often glazed with icing and
North
decorated with chocolate or sprinkles
America
and may be themed according to
season (e.g. Halloween cookies or
Christmas cookies).

Springerle

Name

Image

Place

Description

Brazil

A little tough disk-shaped biscuit that

is made of wheat flour, eggs and
sugar.

Teiglach

Lithuania

A small, knotted Jewish pastries

boiled in a honeyed syrup and often
filled with nuts or raisins and topped
with shredded coconut.

Tirggel

Very thin, hard and sweet Christmas

Switzerland biscuits that are made from flour and
honey.

Toll House
Cookie

United
States
Chocolate chip cookie from the
(Massachu manufacturer Toll House Inn.
setts)

Tareco

Toru
gingerbrea
d

Poland

Vanillekipf
erl

Small, crescent shaped biscuits that

Germany, are made from a pastry that contains
Austria and hazelnut and/or almonds and vanilla
Hungary
sugar and are rolled in vanilla sugar
after baking.

Wafer

Worldwide

Polish gingerbread that can be filled

and is often glazed with chocolate or
icing depending on variety.

A crisp, often sweet, very thin, flat,

and dry biscuit, often used to
decorate ice cream. Wafers can also
be made into cookies with cream
flavoring sandwiched between them.
Also used in religious celebrations.

Name

Wibele

Image

Place

Germany

Description
Very small, sweet and dry biscuits
whose dough is made from egg
white, icing sugar, flour and vanilla
sugar.

Ingredients, Equipments and Recipes:

Gluten-Free Chocolate Chip Cookies - These cookies use sweet rice flour, also
known as glutinous rice flour. Don't be fooled by the name; there's no gluten in glutinous
rice flour (or any rice flour, for that matter). This flour, like most gluten-free flours, is easy
to find if an Asian grocery can be located. It can also be found in many boutique grocery
stores, such as Trader Joe's or Whole Foods. Other gluten-free flours may be
substituted, but be prepared to adjust the amount of flour needed to compensate for
variations in starchiness.
It should go without saying, for any household coping with celiac disease, that it is
imperative to make sure all your ingredients, work surfaces, and utensils are free of
gluten contamination. Special care should be taken with compound ingredients such as
baking powder; make sure its ingredients list does not include gluten-containing items
such as modified food starch.
The cookies are pictured to the right with various additions to the dough. Experimenting
is encouraged, but please be careful choosing additions. Some of the cookies pictured
have oats added, which introduce trace amounts of gluten and are not safe for celiac.

Equipment

Large mixing bowl

Stand mixer and bowl (or a hand-held mixer and a medium mixing bowl)

Wooden spoon

Cookie sheet

Non-stick silicone baking sheet liner (Silpat, etc.)

Ingredients

cup (1 stick) (120ml) butter

cup (120ml) sugar

cup (120ml) brown sugar

2 eggs

tsp vanilla extract

1 cup (300ml) (1 cup + 2 tablespoons) sweet rice flour

1 tsp xanthenes gum

tsp baking powder

tsp baking soda

Chocolate chips (as many as you like)

Procedure

The finished dough (with various additions), ready for

baking
1. Preheat oven to 350F (180C).
2. Mix the sweet rice flour, xanthenes gum, baking powder and baking soda in a
large mixing bowl.
3. In a smaller mixing bowl or stand mixer, cream the butter, sugar, and brown
sugar. Add the eggs and vanilla and continue mixing.
4. Add the wet ingredients to the dry ingredients and mix thoroughly with a wooden
spoon. Don't worry about over-mixing; since there is no gluten in the flour, there
is no danger of overworking it.
5. Fold in the chocolate chips.
6. Line cookie sheet with silicone mat and spoon on balls of dough, about 1"
(4cm) in diameter.
7. Put cookie dough in the fridge for 30-40 minutes or into the freezer for 10-20
minutes.
8. Using a tablespoon, spoon dough out and form little balls. Set them on the
baking sheet a couple inches apart.
9. Bake until golden brown. Makes approximately 30 cookies.
Notes

This will likely take longer to bake than a gluten-containing cookie recipeperhaps
about 25 minutes. Baking time will depend on the flour you use, since the protein
content of the flour will determine the rate of browning from the Mallard reaction.
The silicone baking sheet liner is important, as these cookies tend to stick to the pan
more than most. If you don't have one, parchment paper might also work.
Chocolate Chip Cookies

Ingredients

2 sticks ( lb / 225 grams / 1 cup) butter (or margarine), softened

cup (180ml) granulated white sugar

cup (180ml) packed brown sugar

teaspoon vanilla extract

2 large eggs

2 cups (600ml) (290g) all-purpose flour

1 teaspoon baking soda

1 teaspoon salt

1 teaspoon dry ground lemon or orange peel (optional)

2 cups (480ml) (12-ounce package) semi-sweet chocolate morsels / chips

5 oz. (150g) chopped nuts, such as groundnuts (optional)

Procedure
1. Preheat oven to 375F, or 350F if you want chewy cookies.
2. Cream butter (or margarine), granulated sugar, and brown sugar in a large mixer
bowl.

3. Add eggs one at a time, beating until fully incorporated.

4. Add vanilla extract and beat in.
5. In a small bowl, sift together the dry ingredients (except chocolate & nuts). Add to
the wet mixture in two parts and fold until combined. (If you beat this too long,
you may get some gluten formation which will change the cookie texture).
6. Stir in chocolate morsels (chips), and nuts if using. Please be considerate of
people with nut allergies by mentioning the nuts if you use them.
7. Drop by rounded tablespoons onto ungreased baking sheets. There should be
enough fat in the cookie dough to prevent sticking, but using parchment paper or
non-stick pans may help if you find this not to be the case.
8. Bake in the preheated oven for 10 to 12 minutes or until golden brown (cooking
times may vary). Let stand for about 1 minute and remove from hot baking sheet
to cool on a wire rack.
Notes, Tips, and Variations
The quality of the flavoring ingredients makes a great difference in the outcome.
Using top-quality butter, chocolate, and vanilla will produce a superior cookie.
#Note that using "dark" chocolate (>65% cacoa) will result in a significantly
different taste than the "traditional" recipe. In general, if you find the raw
chocolate to be too bitter or not enjoyable to eat, you may not like them in the
cookies (no matter the quality).
If you want to use regular flour, as well as butter, the trick is to increase the amount
of flour to 3+ cups, which should result in a fairly stiff dough, that will not spread out
very much. This trick even works with whole wheat flour.
Use cake flour instead of all-purpose, replace granulated sugar with brown sugar
and use butter instead of margarine. Using cake flour and brown sugar allows you to
use butter without fear of your cookies becoming puddles (which is the only reason
to use margarine in the first place).
Use some vegetable shortening in place of butter/margarine to reduce "spread"
(cookies will be thicker).

Or add some vegetable oil (no more than 1/5 of total fat) in place of
butter/margarine to increase spread, resulting in thinner cookies.

Some people also recommend chilling dough before baking, though this is usually
not necessary.

Chilling dough may help to reduce spread, resulting in thicker cookies.

Use an ungreased, non-stick baking sheet instead of a greased sheet to help reduce
spread, for thicker cookies.

Conversely, grease your sheet if you like thinner (crispier) cookies.

If vanilla extract is not readily available, substitute two teaspoons of vanilla sugar for
granulated sugar.
Using chopped bar chocolate instead of pre-formed chips will result in a more rustic
texture -- just make sure the pieces are small enough to eat comfortably.
The proportion of granulated to brown sugar may be adjusted to suit taste.

More brown sugar will result in chewier cookies.

More white sugar will result in crisper cookies.

Do not stack hot cookies otherwise they will bend out of shape and not cool as
quickly..
Add a small amount of oatmeal to give cookies more flavor & mouth-feel.
For a stronger nut flavor, toast the nuts. Spread them evenly on a baking pan and
set them in the 350 degree oven for ten minutes. Take them out and let them cool
before adding them to the dough.

Ingredients

2 sticks (1 cup) butter, softened

1 cup (240ml) granulated white sugar

1 cup (240ml) packed brown sugar

2 extra large eggs

1 teaspoon vanilla extract

2 cups (480ml) all-purpose flour

2 cups (480ml) oat flour

teaspoon salt

1 teaspoon baking soda

1 teaspoon baking powder

2 cups (480ml) (12-ounce package) Semi-sweet chocolate morsels / chocolate

chips

4 oz (120g) grated milk chocolate (1/2 a bar)

3 cups (720ml) your favorite chopped nuts (optional)

Procedure
1. Preheat oven to 375 F (around 200c).
2. Cream butter and both sugars in a large mixer bowl.
3. Beat in eggs and vanilla extract.
4. Sift together the flour, salt, oat flour, baking powder and baking soda.
5. Stir in chocolate morsels, grated chocolate bar and nuts.
6. Roll into balls and place two inches apart on a cookie sheet. Instead of a cookie
sheet, I use a pizza stone.
7. Bake for 10 minutes or until golden brown (cooking times may vary). Remove
and let stand for about 1 minute before moving cookies to a plate or cooling
sheet.

WHEAT QUALITY & CARBOYHYDRATE RESEARCH

Flour Analysis
The production of uniform bakery products requires control over the raw materials used
in their formation. Flour is a biological material and when obtained from different
sources can vary considerably in its protein quality, protein quantity, ash, moisture,
enzymatic activity, color, and physical properties. It is essential for the baker to be
aware of any variations in these characteristics from one flour shipment to the next. The
purpose of flour testing is to measure specific properties or characteristics of flour.
Ideally the results of these tests can be related to the flours performance in the bakery.
The American Association of Cereal Chemists (AACC) publishes approved methods for
determining various properties of flour and bakery products.

Moisture
The simple air-oven method is sufficiently accurate for the routine analysis of flour
moisture at the flour mill or bakery. The procedure involves heating a small sample of
flour (~2g) for 1 hr at 266F (130C + 1C) and taking the loss in weight as the moisture
content.
The moisture content of the flour is important for two reasons. First, the higher the
moisture content, the lower the amount of dry solids in the flour. Flour specifications
usually limit the flour moisture to 14% or less. It is in the millers interest to hold the
moisture as close to 14% as possible. Secondly, flour with greater than 14% moisture is
not stable at room temperature. Organisms naturally present in the flour will start to
grow at high moistures, producing off odors and flavors.
Ash
Ash is the mineral material in flour. The ash content of any given flour is affected
primarily by the ash content of the wheat from which it was milled and its milling
extraction. The test for determining the ash content involves incinerating a known
weight of flour under controlled conditions, weighing the residue, and calculating the
percentage of ash based upon the original sample weight.
The ash content of wheat varies from about 1.50 to about 2.00%. The pure endosperm
contains about 0.35% ash. Considering that the wheat kernel contains about 80%
endosperm, it becomes clear that the non-endosperm parts of the kernel (pericarp,
aleurone, and germ) are very high in ash when compared to the endosperm. Thus, the
ash content is a sensitive measure of the amount of non-endosperm material that is in
the flour.

The goal of milling is to separate the endosperm from the non-endosperm parts of the
wheat kernel. This separating is difficult and never clean. Thus, there is always
contamination of endosperm with non-endosperm and visa versa. As flour yield is
increased, the amount of contamination with non-endosperm increases and the ash
content increases. Thus, the ash content is a good and sensitive measure of the
contamination of the endosperm.
Millers will often comment that the ash does not affect the baking performance of flour.
This is probably true. However, the non-endosperm parts of the wheat kernel are known
to decrease baking quality and as the ash content increases so does the level of nonendosperm material.
The ash content of white pan bread flour has increased over the years from 0.45% in
the 1950s to the current level of 0.50-0.55%. This has undoubtedly resulted from
negotiations where the miller has agreed to the flour buyers price but only if he can
raise the ash content of the flour a couple of points (0.02%).

Protein
The amount of protein in a food material is usually determined by measuring the
nitrogen content of the material and multiplying that value by a factor. The nitrogen
content of a given protein varies depending on its source. For milk products a factor of
6.38 is used, for most cereal grains the factor is 6.25, and in wheat products the factor
is 5.70. These factors depend on the percentage of nitrogen in the respective proteins.
The flour protein content is an important parameter for bread flour. Flours containing
higher protein contents are more expensive than flours of lower protein content.
Likewise, flours with very low proteins for cakes are also more expensive. There is
usually, but not always, a good correlation between protein content and bakery
performance of a flour.
The classic procedure to determine the nitrogen was the Kjeldahl procedure. This
involved digesting the sample in concentrated sulfuric acid, then neutralizing the acid
with concentrated sodium hydroxide, followed by distillation of the ammonia (derived
from the nitrogen in the protein) into a standard acid. The procedure worked well,
however it was an environmental nightmare. In addition to the strong acid and base, the
catalysts used to speed the digestion included such materials as mercury and selenium.
It should surprise no one that the procedure is seldom used today.
The Kjeldahl procedure has been replaced by the Dumas combustion procedure. In the
original Dumas procedure the sample is mixed with cupric oxide and heated in a stream
of carbon dioxide in a combustion tube packed with cupric oxide and copper metal. The
organic material is converted to carbon dioxide, water and nitrogen. The gas stream is
led into 50% potassium hydroxide. This absorbs the carbon dioxide and any oxides of
sulfur, leaving only nitrogen as a gas. The volume of nitrogen is then determined.

Various machines have been developed to carry out the analysis automatically. The
percent nitrogen is then converted to protein using the appropriate factor. Both the
Dumas combustion and the Kjeldahl procedures estimate the quantity (total amount) of
protein and not the protein quality. As discussed elsewhere, the quantity of protein is
extremely important in the baking performance of a flour.
Near Infrared Reflectance (NIR)
The rapid instrumental analysis of cereals and flours has considerable commercial
appeal. Therefore, the near infrared reflectance (NIR) method of estimating protein and
moisture contents has found ready acceptance in the milling and baking industries
because it is capable of generating nearly instantaneous results. NIR instruments can
be operated by non-technical personnel with good precision and reproducibility. The
methods accuracy is dependent upon its calibration.
Near infrared (NIR) methodology has been developed for the determination of protein,
moisture, and starch of cereals and their milled products. The range of the
electromagnetic spectrum extends from the very long radio waves to the very short
gamma rays. The near infrared region is between 0.75 and 2.5 microns (m).
The first commercial NIR instruments appeared in the 1970s and have been improved
during the ensuing years by interfacing them with computers. This has led to the rapid
evaluation of the spectral data whose numerical results are then shown on the readout
screen.
In the NIR range, the absorption bands are broad and overlapping. Thus,
measurements taken at any wavelength are affected by several components of the
wheat or flour. Therefore, it is necessary to consider several bands of the spectrum to
eliminate the interfering effects of other components. This approach necessitates
measurements at several wavelengths and computations using multiple regression
analysis, which requires computer facilities. The regression equations have to be
developed for various cereal types and varieties to calibrate the instrument. They must
be rechecked periodically with standard samples. While the equipment is expensive, it
is also very efficient and worth the investment for laboratories that need rapid and
accurate analyses.
The procedure for carrying out an analysis is quite simple. Essentially, it involves
carefully filling a sample cup with the finely ground test material, e.g., flour or meal, and
placing the cup in the drawer of the instrument. When the drawer is closed, the
instrument automatically starts to analyze the sample by exposing its surface to
radiation within a selected narrow band of wavelengths and measuring the reflectance.
This reflectance is amplified and converted by the instruments microcomputer into
numerical results that are displayed on a readout screen. Some newer instruments are
transmitted radiation rather than reflected. The entire operation takes approximately one
minute. Some of the newer instruments are designed to analyze whole grain samples.
Free Fatty Acids

The level of free fatty acids in flour milled from sound wheat is very low. However, if
either the wheat or the flour is subjected to poor storage conditions (high moisture
and/or high temperature), enzymes will degrade the native grain lipids and produce free
fatty acids. Thus, the level of free fatty acids is a good measure of the storage
conditions of either the grain or the flour. Flours with high levels of free fatty acids will be
more subjected to rancidity than will sound flours. This is of little importance in bread but
quite important in dry products (cookies, crackers, croutons, pretzels, etc.).
The procedure for determining free fatty acids is quite simple. The lipids are extracted
with a suitable solvent such as petroleum ether. The petroleum ether is then evaporated
off and the lipid is dispersed in a toluene-alcohol mixture and titrated with standard
potassium hydroxide.
Damaged Starch
The starch in wheat occurs as partially crystalline granules. When placed in excess
water, the granules will absorb about 30% of their weight. The crystallinity of the
granules restricts it from absorbing additional water. During milling some of the granules
are damaged. The damage results from the shear on the granule during roller milling.
The shear shatters/ruptures some of the crystals. The damage may include the entire
granule or just a part of it. This loss of crystals allows the granule to take up more water
and swell more. Damaged starch will absorb as much as 300X its weight in water. Hard
wheat flour contains a much higher level of damaged starch than does soft wheat. This
apparently is because the soft wheat crushes easily during milling and does not subject
the starch to as much shear.
Damaged starch is positive factor in bread flour because it increases the water
absorption. High water absorption increases the yield of dough and bread from a flour,
which has obvious positive effects on bakery profits. Damaged starch is a strong
negative in flours for cookies and other dry finished products.
The damaged starch is highly susceptible to - amylase attack. Much of the damaged
starch is degraded to maltose and small dextrins by the combination of - and amylase. This is the major reason that bread flours are malted (- amylase added) at
the mill. If the damaged starch is not removed during fermentation it interacts with the
gluten and reduces bread volume.
Damaged starch is generally measured by enzymatic methods. The amount of reducing
sugar produced in a certain time with excess enzyme is measured. The flour sample is
subdivided into 2 subsamples, one of which is treated directly with the enzyme. The
second subsample is autoclaved to gelatinize all the starch and then treated with the
same enzyme system. The value obtained for the non-autoclaved sample is divided by
the value for the autoclaved sample and the result is multiplied by 100. This gives the
percentage of damaged starch. Most hard wheat flours will have from 6-9% damaged
starch by the AACC procedure.

A second procedure used in an instrument that uses an electrode system to measure

iodine. The amount of iodine bound is related to the amount of damaged starch. The
procedure is accurate by requires that the electrode be properly maintained.
Flour Color
Flour color is important because it affects the crumb color of the finished product. The
color of the flour used for variety breads, that have a dark color because of non-wheat
components in the formula, is not important. Unbleached flours have a creamy color
because of the presence of carotenoid pigments in the endosperm. The level of these
pigments and therefore the color of the flour will vary from one flour to another. The
level of pigments is under genetic control. The pigments can be readily bleached with
benzoyl peroxide (mixed with the dry flour at the mill) or by enzyme active soy flour in
the bread formula.
Flour color can be judged by visual comparison with a standard patent flour. In the
Pekar (slick test), the sample flour is slicked alongside the standard sample and their
colors compared visually. This procedure is also useful to determine if the sample is
contaminated with bran.
In the procedure, 10-15 grams of the flour to be tested is placed on a glass, plastic, or
metal plate. The surface of the flour is smoothed with a clean flour slick to a wedge
approximately one-fourth inch thick at the top end of the flour sample down to a thin film
at the bottom edge of the plate. The sides of the flour sample are trimmed so they form
a straight edge. Next, similarly slick a second flour beside the first making certain that
the two flours join and a straight edge forms between the two samples. If addition flours
are to be compared, they can be placed on the plate next to the other flours and
slicked so that there is one continuous wedge of all the flours, with a distinct line of
demarcation between them. Any color differences between the samples can then be
readily evaluated.
Color difference attributable to bran can be further accentuated by submerging the
same samples at an angle into fresh clean water until air bubbles cease to rise (1-2
minutes). The plate is then carefully removed and placed in a warm place for the
surface to dry. The relative intensity of the sample colors can then be noted after the
surface has dried. The above experiment can also be carried out by dripping the glass
plate containing freshly prepared flour wedges into a solution containing pyrocatechin.
The bran contains the enzyme polyphenol oxidase that will convert the pyrocatechin into
brown pigments. After the surface has dried, the samples are inspected for the
presence of bran specks.
A number of instruments have been developed to measure the color of solids and foods.
Although the may be useful with flour and baked products, they have not been readily
accepted by the milling or baking industries.
Enzyme Activity

Although flour contains a large number of enzymes, only a few are measured and/or
controlled. Clearly, the most important enzymes in bread flour are the amylases. Beta
amylase is found in sufficient quantities in all flours. It has no action on native starch
granules but does attack gelatinized and damaged starch. It acts from the non-reducing
end of the gelatinized starch chain to produce maltose. It cannot go past a branch point
so its action is stopped with a large part of the molecule still intact. This is called the
beta limit dextrin. It will convert about 30% of the amylase and 45% of the amylopectin
to maltose.
The other amylase of importance in wheat flour is -amylase. Flour milled from sound
wheat contains little or no -amylase. Bread produced from flours with low levels of amylase will be low in volume and have a rough textured crumb. Thus, it is common to
add malted barely or malted wheat flour to increase the -amylase activity. Some millers
will add fungal amylase preparations to increase the -amylase activity. This requires a
modified method of analysis.
Although sound grain contains low levels of -amylase, the level of activity increases
rapidly if the grain is sprouted. After the grain is mature, raising the moisture content
(i.e. rain) may cause the grain to lose its dormancy and it may start to sprout while still
in the field before harvest. This greatly increases the level of -amylase and other
enzymes.

-Amylase Activity
-Amylase breaks the -1 4 bonds in starch in a more or less random attack. It is not
truly random as it does not break those bonds near an -1 6 branch point. Because of
its attack pattern, each break dramatically reduces the size of the resulting dextrin. As a
result the viscosity of the starch-water paste decreases rapidly. This is why -amylase is
sometimes referred to as the liquefying enzyme. Because of the rapid decrease in
viscosity with each bond broken, measurement of viscosity is a sensitive measure of
enzyme activity. The following three methods to measure -amylase activity are all
viscosity measuring procedures.
Falling Number. The falling number apparatus consists of a boiling water bath,
matched test tubes (to conduct heat at the same rate), a stirrer, a stirring apparatus, and
a timing mechanism. Flour plus a known amount of excess water is placed in a test tube
and shaken to disperse the flour. The tube is placed in the apparatus that stirs the
sample as if it is heated. At the end of stirring, the stirrer is dropped from the top
position. The number of seconds required for the stirrer to fall through the flour-water
paste is the falling number.
Sound flour will have a falling number of 400 seconds or greater. Increased enzyme
activity will decrease the falling number. Flour milled from badly sprouted wheat may
have falling numbers of 50 to 100 sec. Bakery flours are generally adjusted to 250-300
seconds. The procedure is rapid and reasonably reproducible. It can be used for either
whole-wheat meal or flour.

Amylograph. In this procedure, flour and a buffer solution are stirred in a rotating bowl
that is heated by an air bath. The sample is heated from room temperature to 95C
(203F) at a rate of 1.5C/minute. If one is only interested in the -amylase activity, the
test can be ended when the slurry reaches 95C (203F). If the flour contains no amylase activity the viscosity (consistency) of the sample will continue to increase as
the temperature rises to 95C. Optimumly treated bread flours are in the range of 400600 BU. If there is increased enzyme activity, the curve will peak at a lower viscosity
(consistency) and at a lower temperature. The peak height is taken as the measure of
enzyme activity. The amylograph procedure is relatively slow and requires a relatively
are sample. The procedure is reproducible and still widely used to control the level of
malt addition.
Rapid ViscoAnalyzer (RVA). The RVA was developed as a faster and more rugged
version of the amylograph. Stimulating the amylograph, the temperature control can be
programmed to heat at various rates. This viscosity is determined by the load on the
stirring motor. As is the case with the amylograph, the height of the viscosity vs.
temperature curve is related to the -amylase activity of the sample. Because of the
flexibility in controlling heating/cooling profile, the RVA has found many uses in cereal
laboratories in addition to determining -amylase activity. The RVA can also stimulate
the falling number method when samples are heated at 95C (203F) for three minutes.
Stirring number is reported as the viscosity at the tests end.

Proteolytic Activity
Proteolytic enzymes hydrolyze proteins. Proteolytic activity can be divided into two basic
types. Some enzymes hydrolyze an amino acid from the end of a protein molecule while
other proteolytic enzymes attack the protein chain internally. The attack is not random
but instead occurs between specific amino acids. The two types of enzyme are
classified as exo- (which releases amino acids from the exterior) and endo- (which
breaks the protein chain internally).
Soluble Nitrogen. In general the determination of photolytic activity is difficult. The
most popular method is to measure soluble nitrogen produced from a suitable substrate.
The buffered enzyme is incubated with hemoglobin (substrate) for a suitable time. The
protein is precipitated and the remaining soluble nitrogen determined. The results are
reported as hemoglobin units (H.U.). This is a very popular method to measure
proteolytic activity but it can be misleading. The test is biased to measure exo-enzyme
activity. There can be considerable endo-activity with little or no soluble nitrogen
produced. Additionally, flour proteins may be degraded differently than hemoglobin.
Rheological Measurement. The chemical determination of endo-proteolytic activity is
complicated and difficult. Because the endo-proteolytic enzyme significantly reduces the
size of the protein molecule by its activity, it changes the rheological properties
(viscosity or consistency) of the system. Thus, a dough becomes more viscous and less
elastic as the result of endo-proteolytic activity. The enzyme activity can then be
estimated by following the change in rheological properties as a function of time. One of

the advantages of using a rheological test is that it is not affected by exo-proteolytic

activity. Reducing the size of the protein by one amino acid is insignificant from a
rheological viewpoint. The other advantage is that the substrate used (native gluten)
and the conditions of the test (dough) both apply directly to our area of concern.
A number of rheological tests have been used to follow endo-proteolytic activity. The
most appropriate appear to be the extensograph, alveograph, and lubricated
compression. All of these tests will be discussed later in the chapter.
Wet gluten
Wet gluten provides a quantitative measure of the gluten forming proteins in flour that
are primarily responsible for its dough mixing and baking properties.

How to Keep Cookies Fresh

Edited by Katy Linsao, Victoria Sauder, Maniac, Chris and 1 other

Keeping cookies fresh is a trick that many bakers or cookie-lovers would like to learn. To
preserve the freshness of cookies, you'll have to store them appropriately, with the type
of cookies that they are in mind. Read the following tips to learn how to extend cookies'
shelf life and keep them edible.

Steps

1.

1
Store soft cookies in containers with very tight lids.

Tight lids keep moisture out of the container and can keep cookies from
becoming too soggy to eat.

2
Place hard cookies in containers that have easily removable lids.

The traditional cookie jar is a good example of this type of container.

The little ventilation that cookie jars allow can keep the cookies hard and crisp.

3
Separate your cookies with wax paper if you need to layer them in a container.

Keeping wax paper in between cookies prevents cookies from sticking

together and crumbling when you try to remove them.

4
Put different types of cookies in different containers.

Avoid the temptation to store cookies of all types in 1 container. Doing

so increases the likelihood that scents and flavors will transfer.

5
Freeze your cookies if you want them to stay fresh for as long as half a year.

Before freezing cookies, be sure to wrap them in freezer-safe plastic

and place the cookies in an airtight container. This procedure protects against
freezer burn, preserves flavors, and guards against the unwanted absorption of
scents of other foods in your freezer.

Tips

If you've baked your own cookies, be sure to allow them to cool completely
before storing them. This helps keep cookies fresh because extra heat in a small,
confined space speeds up the process of spoilage. Generally, once cookies have
reached room temperature, they are safe to store.

If you're planning on shipping freshly baked cookies, pack them with a piece
of bread and send them the same day that they are baked. This can preserve their
freshness until they reach their destination. You can also use wax paper to help keep
cookies separated from each other and apart from the piece of bread.

Cookies can stay fresh for about 7 days if you store them properly and at
room temperature.

To keep home-baked cookies soft naturally, try adding pieces of dried fruit to
their recipes.

If you find that your cookies are too dry, place a piece of apple in the container
in which they are stored. The apple's components can help restore cookies'
softness. Similarly, if your hard cookies become too soft, place a piece of bread into
their container. The bread will naturally soak up the unwanted moisture that is
making them unnecessarily soft. Replace the piece of bread with a fresh slice when
it becomes stale.

Containers made out of tin or durable food-grade plastic are best to store
cookies.

Warnings

Moist cookies, or cookies that require moisture to remain fresh, often present
mold faster than crisp cookies.

SHELF LIFE OF COOKIES

How Long Do Cookies Last?

Cookie Storage & Expiration

How long do cookies last? Most cookies are made of sugar, butter, flour and an
unlimited number of other ingredients. The shelf life of cookies depends on a variety of
factors, such as the sell by date, the preparation method and how the cookies were
stored. Because of their relatively low cost and high calorie density, cookies are a
popular and very portable dessert. So, how long do cookies last? When properly
stored, the shelf life of most cookies past their best by date is approximately
(Unopened)

Pantry

Freezer

Past Printed Date

Past Printed Date

Bakery Cookies last for

2-3 Days

4-5 Months

Packaged Cookies (Soft) last for

1-2 Months

4-5 Months

Packaged Cookies (Hard) last for

1-2 Months

4-5 Months

(Opened)

Pantry

Freezer

Packaged Cookies (Soft) last for

7-10 Days

4-5 Months

Packaged Cookies (Hard) last for

2-3 Weeks

4-5 Months

Homemade Cookies (Soft) last for

2-3 Days

4-5 Months

Homemade Cookies (Hard) last for

2-3 Weeks

4-5 Months

Of course, all foods last for a shorter period of time if they are not stored properly. But
remember, cookies, like a lot of other baked, usually have a sell by date or a best
before date and not a use by date. Because of this distinction, you may safely use them
to satisfy your sweet tooth even after the best before date has lapsed.
How to tell if cookies are bad, rotten or spoiled?

Practicing proper hygiene and food safety discipline will help prevent food borne illness.
Although not a perfect test, your senses are usually the most reliable instruments to tell
if your cookies have gone bad. Some common traits of stale cookies are a hard and dry
texture (if they started soft), or a soft texture (if they started hard). There are, of course,
certain health risks associated with spoiled cookies, so always remember to practice
food safety and enjoy your cookies prior to the eat by date suggested above.
How to store cookies to extend their shelf life?

Proper food storage is the key to extending the expiration date of food. You can help
keep cookie dough fresh by storing it in an air-tight container in the fridge. Once
prepared, cookies should be stored in a tightly closed container or wrapped with plastic
wrap to keep out air and other contaminants. For a long-term option, you can freeze
your cookies while preserving their taste if you use an air-tight freezer safe container.
Some benefits of proper food storage include eating healthier, cutting food costs and
helping the environment by avoiding waste.
How to send cookies to someone you cant bake for?
Here at Eat by Date we believe in using your own fresh ingredients to make homemade
cookies whenever possible, because nothing beats warm from the oven. But

sometimes, youd like to cheer someone up who lives across the country. There are lots
of options for sending gifts of food, but we like ones that offer a bit of customization so
that your recipient knows you care. Cookies are a place where you can create a special
bouquet that will delight the eyes and sweet tooth of any recipient.
How long are cookies good for when prepared in a dish?

How long do cookies last? That depends. How long does milk last? In general, foods
last only as long as the quickest expiring ingredient in the recipe. To find out how long
those other ingredients are good for, please visit the dairy, drinks, fruits, grains,
vegetables and other sections eat by date or use the search.