Acta psychiat. scand.

(1978) 57, 145-152

Psychiatric Department (Head: Prof. L. G. Kiloh), University of New South Wales,
hince of Wales Hospital, Randwick, N.S.W., Australia

Motivation for cross-dressing in heterosexual transvestism

N. BUHRICH
The literature concerning the motivation for cross-dressing in heterosexual transvestism is briefly reviewed. Thirty-three members of
a club established for heterosexual transvestites were interviewed.
The sensations they derived from cross-dressing and the importance
of compulsive and narcissistic aspects in their transvestite behaviour
were assessed and compared with those reported by 24 transsexual
subjects.
While cross-dressed, transvestite and transsexual subjects f r e
quently reported feeling relaxed, comfortable and relieved of masculine demands. Transvestite subjects showed significantly more
compulsive and narcissistic aspects in their transvestite behaviour
than transsexual subjects. Fetishistic pleasure was infrequently
given as a motivation for cross-dressing.
Key words: Transvestism

- transsexualism - fetishism - narcissism.

There is considerable confusion concerning the motivation for cross-dressing in

transvestism. Many workers consider that the primary motivation for transvestites to cross-dress comes from the fetishistic pleasure they derive from female clothes (Peabody et at. (1953), Randell (19.591, Benjamin (1966), Baker
(19691, Stoller (1971)). However, not all transvestites, particularly in later life,
experience fetishistic arousal (Roth & Ball (1964), Buhrich & McConaghy (1977)).
Prince, a transvestite with a wide experience of transvestism, considers that
sexual arousal to female clothes is a relatively unimportant aspect of transvestism (Prince (1967), Prince & Bentler (1972)). Prince believes that a major
component of the transvestites urge to cross-dress is their desire to emulate
women. He suggested the term femmiphilic transvestism be used to describe
the common form of cross-dressing in view of the transvestites love of feminine
things.
Other workers believe that the motivation for cross-dressing occurs as a consequence of an obsessive-compulsive neurosis (Steke2 (1930), Hamburger et al.
(1953), Lukianowicz (1959)). Others avoid the connotation of neurosis but emphasize the compulsive personalities of transvestites (Randell (1959), Bentler &
Prince (1969)).
Medical literature concerning the motivation for cross-dressing in transvestism
stresses the narcissistic gratification cross-dressing brings (Hirschfeld (undated),
Gutheil (1954), Lukianowicz (1959), Benjamin (1966)).
The aim of the present study was to record the motivation for cross-dressing
reported by heterosexual transvestite members of a club and to assess the importance of compulsive and narcissistic aspects in their transvestite behaviour.
10 ACTA PSYCH 57:2

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SUBJECTS AND METHODS

The author was introduced to the secretary of a transvestite club - the Seahorse
Club of Australia. The club, established for heterosexual transvestites, is described elsewhere (Buhrich (1976)). The author gained permission to attend
club meetings. At the meetings he sought volunteers for a project concerned
with the investigation of transvestism. Thirty-five members volunteered to be
interviewed. All were male. One subject who was predominantly homosexual
and one who had not shown fetishism were excluded.
The mean age of the remaining 33 subjects was 39 years (range 21-74).
Twenty-four were currently married. Sexual orientation as rated on the Kinsey
Scale (Kinsey et al. (1953)) was: 20 subjects - entirely heterosexual; nine largely heterosexual but with incidental homosexual history; three - largely
heterosexual but with a distinct homosexual history; and one - equally homosexual and heterosexual. Using a technique described by McConaghy (1967)
to determine sexual orientation by measuring the subjects penile volume change
while he viewed pictures of nude men and nude women, 32 subjects showed
a greater interest in the heterosexual than in the homosexual direction. The
remaining subject showed equally strong heterosexual-homosexual interest.
Twenty of the 33 subjects were satisfied with cross-dressing. The remaining
13 subjects showed a degree of feminine gender identity in that they fantasized
or desired physical feminization by surgical intervention or by hormone ingestion. Previous workers commented on the desire of some transvestites who
have shown fetishism, to undergo physical feminization (Randell (1959), Benjamin (1966)).
The transsexual group comprised all males who consecutively presented to
the Prince Henry Hospital Transsexual Clinic seeking a full sex change operation. Five subjects who had shown fetishistic arousal were excluded on the
basis that some authors consider fetishism to exclude the diagnoses of transsexualism (Baker (1969), Stoller (1971)).
The mean age of the remaining 24 subjects was 26 years (range 19-48). None
were married. Sexual orientation as rated on the Kinsey Scale was: 12 subjects
- entirely homosexual; eight - largely homosexual but with incidental heterosexual experience; and one - largely homosexual but with a distinct heterosexual history. Three subjects who denied sexual interest and experience were
not given a Kinsey rating. Twenty-one of the 24 subjects showed greater penile
volume changes to pictures of nude men compared with pictures of nude women.
Of the remaining three, two subjects showed no penile volume changes and
one subject refused to undergo penile volume measurements. All 24 subjects
conformed to a generally accepted definition of transsexualism (Freund (1974))
in that they had a sustained feminine gender identity combined with the desire
for a full sex change operation.

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Table 1. Sensations of transvestites while cross-dressed

During adolescence

Comfortable, relaxed, at ease

Relief of stress or tension
Relief of responsibility, less masculine
demand, less competition
Sensual, elegant, beautiful
Sexual arousal
Exhilarated by fear of being caught
More confident, come alive
Less aggressive, less irritable
Other

Currently

n=33

(%)

n=33

(%)

17

(51)
(24)

19
15

(58)
(45)

RESULTS
Sensations while cross-dressed

Transvestite subjects were asked to describe the primary sensations experienced

while cross-dressed during adolescence and currently. Some subjects described
more than one sensation. A summary of the sensations reported by the transvestite subjects is listed in Table 1.
In order to indicate what subjects meant when they reported feeling sensual,
elegant or beautiful, several characteristic comments are given:
When I change into womens clothes I feel silky and soft all over. And the smell
of perfume and taste of lipstick is sublime.
It is the delicate Sensuousness of lingerie and the sensation of sleek nylons on my
shaved legs that I enjoy most when dressed.
When I walk, I enjoy the rustling of my petticoat and the wind gently blowing my
dress.
Subjects frequently reported that when alone they felt and looked like a beautiful
woman. When appearing in public, subjects were less certain about the success
with which they passed for a beautiful woman.
When I leave the house I feel like an attractive middle-aged woman. As people approach me in the street I become less convinced of my attractiveness and feel with
trepidation that I will be recognized for what I am,a man in womens clothes ... HOW
I wish I had the confidence to talk to people. But with my voice and face?

As can be seen from Table 1, less than half of the subjects during adolescence
and 12 % currently reported sexual arousal when cross-dressed. Sexual arousal
to female clothes was not always sought or enjoyed. Statements exemplifying
this attitude were:
When I ejaculate it is an accident and undesirable.
I can manage to dress now and not have an erection.
I masturbate to get rid of the erection so I can get on with dressing.
10

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COMPULSIVE ASPECTS
Intensity o f urge to cross-dress
When dressed as men, the urge for transvestite subjects to cross-dress occurred
all the time in six subjects and at least once a day in 18. The remaining
subjects were unable to respond to the question or experienced the urge to crossdress less often than once a day. The urge to cross-dress was frequently precipitated by seeing an attractively dressed girl or womens clothes in a shop window
or magazine. A characteristic comment was: When I see a beautifully dressed
woman, I try to imagine myself in her position.
Resistance to cross-dressing urge
Three transsexual and 21 transvestite subjects had in the past attempted to permanently discard all their female clothes. This difference was significant (x2
< 0.01, Yates corrected). Thirteen transvestite subjects discarded their female
clothes on more than one occasion. The decision to discard clothes usually
occurred during adolescence or prior to marriage and was associated with a
conflict between the pleasure in cross-dressing and the guilt associated with it.
Subjects invariably began cross-dressing again, usually within several weeks.
Number of dresses owned
All transvestite subjects had at least one full female outfit which usudly included
feminine accessories such as wrist watch, brooch or necklace. Thirteen subjects
owned less than five dresses, 15 owned between five and 20 dresses and five
owned over 20 dresses. Of the five, the female clothes of two subjects filled two
or three wardrobes and included such items as wedding gowns and a bunny suit.
The care given by transvestites to male clothes was frequently less than that
given to female clothes. The wife of one subject complained:
I weary picking up your suits and slacks out of the comers you dump them in, and
I wonder why you seem to treat your feminine clothes so much better than your male
clothes.

NARCISSISTIC ASPECTS
Time required for make-up and cross-dressing
The time taken by transvestite subjects to apply make-up and cross-dress varied
greatly depending both on the individual subject and the events anticipated. If
the subject remained at home he required less preparation than if he were going
out. To apply make-up and cross-dress, 10 subjects required an hour or less,
13 required between 1 and 2 hours and 10 subjects required at least 2 hours.
In contrast to the transvestites, 14 of the 24 transsexuals reported that they
required an hour or less, and only one that he required more than 2 hours to
apply make-up and cross-dress. Transvestite subjects required significantly longer
to cross-dress than transsexual subjects (x2 < 0.05, Yates corrected).
Time spent parading before mirror
Frequently, transvestite subjects, having completed cross-dressing and applied

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make-up, admired their reflection in a mirror. This behaviour was more noticeable in subjects who had not appeared cross-dressed in public. Seventeen transvestite subjects reported that they spent less than 15 minutes parading crossdressed before a mirror, seven spent between 15 minutes and 1 hour, and nine
spent 1 hour or more. The comments of one of the nine subjects follows:
I put on my coat and hat and gloves, and I am thrilled with my image in the long
mirror. I parade back and forth, practicing walking and standing, also sitting and
handling my skirt. Sometimes I become so involved that I lose track of time.

In contrast to the transvestites, transsexuals spent little time parading crossdressed before a mirror. Of the 24 transsexual subjects 22 spent less than 15
minutes and none spent 1 hour or more parading before a mirror. Transvestite
subjects spent significantly more time than transsexual subjects parading crossdressed before a mirror (,$ < 0.05, Yates corrected).
Number of photographs of self cross-dressed
Subjects were asked to assess the number of photographs they possessed of themselves cross-dressed. Fifteen transvestite subjects reported they possessed less
than five photographs, nine possessed between six and 50 photographs and nine
possessed over 50. The importance of photographs for at least some transvestites
was indicated by the fact that eight subjects had at least three albums filled with
photographs of themselves dressed as women. One of the eight subjects, on several occasions, hired a motel room for the specific purpose of taking photographs
of himself cross-dressed. During the course of the evening several rolls of coloured film were used.
Thirteen transsexual subjects possessed less than five photographs, seven possessed between six and 50 and four possessed more than 50 photographs of
themselves cross-dressed. Of the four, three were professional entertainers. The
trend for transsexuals to show less interest than transvestites in photographs of
themselves cross-dressed did not reach statistical significance.

DISCUSSION
The most frequent and sustained sensation reported by transvestite subjects
while cross-dressed was a feeling of comfort or ease and relief of stress or
tension. Benjamin (1966) recorded similar reports from older transvestites and
transsexuals. The relaxed atmosphere of transvestite gatherings has been stressed
(Beigel (1969), Buhrich (1976)).
Almost half the transvestite subjects reported that while cross-dressed they
felt relieved of current responsibilities or of normal masculine demands. Prince
(1967) considered that transvestites cross-dressed to escape expected social demands of masculinity such as aggression, dominance and forcefulness. When
cross-dressed the transvestite abandoned himself to a passive, accepting, nondemanding feminine role. Subjects reported significantly more relief of masculine demands while cross-dressed currently compared with during adolescence.
Whether such reports were as a consequence of the knowledge of the views

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promulgated by Prince is uncertain. Transvestites were frequently interested in
theoretical aspects of transvestism and many were aware of articles written by
Prince. Similar reports of feeling relaxed combined with the relief of masculine
demand are made by transsexuals when cross-dressed (Benjamin (1966)).
In contrast to transvestites, transsexuals tend to emphasize the feeling of discomfort or unnaturalness of wearing male clothes rather than the pleasure of
wearing female clothes. Approximately half the transvestite subjects while crossdressed reported feeling sensuous, elegant or beautiful. Benjamin (1964) believed
that the transvestite was in love with his femininity and that the importance of
the symbolism of female clothes distinguished transvestism from transsexualism.
Prince (1967) believed that transvestites were motivated to cross-dress by their
need to experience beauty. The experience of beauty was only attainable when
dressed in feminine clothes. In addition, mens clothing was in general dark,
heavy, coarse and plain and as a consequence, some men cross-dressed in order
to enter into the feminine world of colour, fabric decoration and design. Why
the allure of colour and design is found in womens but not mens clothes is
not made clear by Prince.
The essential nature of a compulsive symptom lies in the subjective sense of
compulsion overriding an internal resistance (Mayer-Gross et ul. (1970)). The
compulsive nature of transvestite urges was emphasized by previous workers
(Lukiunowicz (1959), Randell (1959)). Benjamin (1966) considered that the transvestite cross-dressed out of a strong, sometimes overwhelming urge (p. 331).
The compulsive aspects of transvestism are indicated by the fact that well over
half the subjects of this report had attempted and failed to permanently discard
their female clothes and that over two-thirds felt the urge to cross-dress at least
once a day. A minority of subjects owned an inordinate number of dresses and
photographs. The compulsion to collect has been termed the Collectors Impulse by Kruflt-Ebing (1951). He felt it was characteristic of fetishism.
Previous workers considered that the emotional relief gained from crossdressing in transsexualism is less than that which occurs in transvestism. Ellis
(1928) believed that the transvestite differed from the transsexual in that the
transsexual regarded cross-dressing with comparative indifference whereas the
transvestite showed a constant complacent absorption in all the smallest details
of feminine costume (p. 5). Benjamin (1966) agreed with Ellis. Benjamin considered that to the transsexual, in contrast to the transvestite, cross-dressing was
incidental and not more than a partial and temporary help (p. 13).
Narcissistic aspects of transvestism were emphasized by previous authors (Gutheil (1954), Lukiunowicz (1959)). Benjamin (1966) reported that for transvestites
the mirror and camera are indispensible adjuncts (p. 45) to cross-dressing.
Transvestite subjects of this report significantly required longer to cross-dress
and apply make-up and spent more time parading before a mirror than did transsexual subjects. The degree to which subjects, while cross-dressed, paraded before a mirror and accumulated photographs of themselves tended to diminish
with aging and with the freedom they had to cross-dress.
The most surprising finding of this study was that current fetishistic arousal
was reported as a primary sensation by only 12 % of transvestite subjects. The

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importance of the association of fetishistic arousal and transvestism has been
frequently emphasized (RandelE (1959), Benjamin (1966)). Some authors regard
the pleasure associated with fetishistic arousal as the primary reason for transvestites to cross-dress (Barker (1966), Stoller (1968), Allen (1969)). Benjamin
considered that transvestites minimized the fetishistic pleasure of transvestism in
order to conform to social mores. To attribute the subjects failure to disclose
sexual pleasure while cross-dressed as being due to their bashfulness is unlikely
since, earlier in the interview, all subjects reported personal aspects of fetishistic
arousal in detail. It appears likely that at least some transvestites d o not regard
fetishistic arousal as a particularly pleasurable aspect of transvestism.

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
The author is indebted to Professor N. McConaghy for his assistance, to Dr. R. Burr
for referral of transsexual subjects and to members of the Seahorse Club of Australia
for their cooperation. The project was supported by a grant from the National Health
and Medical Research Council of Australia.
This research was carried out while the author was a Research Fellow at the New
South Wales Institute of Psychiatry.
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Received July 5, 1977

Neil Buhrich, D.P.M.

Psychiatric Department
Prince of Wales Hospital
Randwick, N.S.W. 2031
Australia