AIRCRAFT MANUALS, CATALOGUE, AND DOCUMENTATION

THE FEDERAL AVIATION ADMINISTRATION

For more than 20 years after the Wright brothers first flight, aviation was virtually an
unregulated industry. Anyone who wanted could design, build, and fly an aircraft without
obtaining approval from the government. Predictably, the safety record of early air transport was
not very good, and the government responded by passing the Air Commerce Act of 1926. The
1926 Act required registration of aircraft and the licensing of pilots and mechanics. In 1938, the
Air Commerce Act was repealed and replaced by the Civil Aeronautics Act. This law created the
Civil Aeronautics Administration and Civil Aeronautics Board which established and enforced all
regulations pertaining to civil aviation.
The Federal Aviation Act of 1958 repealed the Civil Aeronautics Act and created the Federal
Aviation Agency. The agency was brought into the Department of Transportation in 1967 and
renamed the Federal Aviation Administration (FAA). Currently, the FAA is charged with the
responsibility of regulating and promoting civil aviation in the United States. The FAA's powers
and responsibilities are quite broad, governing virtually every aspect of aircraft manufacture,
operation, and maintenance.
The primary regulatory tools of the FAA are the Federal Aviation Regulations (FARs). When the
FAA wants to adopt a new rule or regulation, it formulates a proposal called a Notice of
Proposed Rule Making and publishes it in the Federal Register. Comments and suggestions are
then solicited from the general public and interested parties. After a prescribed comment period,
the proposals are adopted and printed in Title 14 of the Code of Federal Regulations, thereby
becoming federal law. To help organize, the FARs are broken down into separate sections, or
parts. For example, FAR Part 65 prescribes the requirements, privileges, and limitations for
certification of airmen other than flight crewmembers, which includes aviation maintenance
technicians.
MAINTENANCE FARS
Many regulations do not affect the maintenance technician and require no discussion. Others,
however, are of vital importance to technicians in the performance of their duties. It is imperative
for all technicians to be familiar with these regulations, and to follow them when exercising the
privileges of an A&P certificate. Some of the regulations concerning aircraft maintenance and
inspection are listed below:
1. FAR Part 01, Definitions and Abbreviations
2. FAR Part 13, Investigation and Enforcement Procedures
3. FAR Part 21, Certification Procedures for Products and Parts
4. FAR Part 23, Airworthiness Standards. Normal, Utility and Acrobatic aircraft
5. FAR Part 25, Airworthiness Standards, Transport Category Airplanes
6. FAR Part 27, Airworthiness Standards, Normal Category Rotorcraft
7. FAR Part 33, Airworthiness Standards: Aircraft Engines
8. FAR Part 35, Airworthiness Standards: Propellers
9. FAR Part 39, Airworthiness Directives
10. FAR Part 43, Maintenance, Preventive Maintenance, Rebuilding and Alterations
11. FAR Part 45, Identification and Registration Markings
12. FAR Part 47, Aircraft Registration
13. FAR Part 65, Certification: Airmen other than Flight Crewmembers
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14. FAR Part 91, General Operating and Flight Rules

15. FAR Part 121, Certification and Operations: Domestic, Flag, and Supplemental Air
Carriers and Commercial Operators of Large Aircraft
16. FAR Part 125, Certification and Operations: Airplanes having a seating capacity of 20 or
more passengers, or a maximum pay load capacity of 6,000 lbs or more 17.
17. FAR Part 127, Certification and Operation of Scheduled Air Carriers with Helicopters
18. FAR Part 135, Air Taxi Operators and Commercial Operators
19. FAR Part 137, Agricultural Aircraft Operators
20. FAR Part 145, Repair Stations
21. FAR Part 147, Aviation Maintenance Technician Schools
22. FAR Part 183, Representatives of the Administrator

FAR PART 21: CERTIFICATION PROCEDURES FOR PRODUCTS AND PARTS

FAR Part 21 lists the requirements for establishing and maintaining the certification of aircraft
and components. When an aircraft is manufactured, an inspector determines if it conforms to
that model's type certificate .The type certificate lists all pertinent information on an aircraft or
accessory design. If the aircraft is in conformity, it is issued an airworthiness certificate,
signifying that it meets the standards for service. The airworthiness certificate stays with the
aircraft throughout its service life and is transferred when ownership changes. However, an
aircraft must be maintained properly in order for the airworthiness certificate to remain valid.

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To ensure that aircraft perform reliably the FAA requires that all installed parts and appliances
conform to technical standard orders (TSOs). TSOs are a set of specifications that call for parts
to meet certain quality standards. A TSO stamp on a part means that the part meets FAA
requirements for manufacturing quality, and is approved for installation on aircraft.

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Companies can obtain a parts manufacturing approval (PMA) from the FAA to produce
replacement parts. However, the manufacturer must prove to the FAA that their product meets
performance and quality standards. Again, the installation of non-approved parts can affect the
airworthiness of the aircraft and lead to catastrophic failure. Always check parts for TSO and
PMA conformity.

FAR PART 23: AIRWORTHINESS STANDARDS. NORMAL, UTILITY AND

ACROBATIC AIRCRAFT
FAR Part 23 describes in detail the performance characteristics various aircraft must
demonstrate to be airworthy. It specifies requirements for every component and system installed
on an aircraft, often down to the smallest detail. Maintenance technicians can use Part 23 to
verify that a particular aircraft or component is in conformity with its type certificate. For
example, when cockpit instruments are repaired or replaced, the technician installing the
instrument must check that the range markings painted on the instrument face are correct. The
aircraft's approved flight manual gives the correct operating speeds and ranges for that
particular model. Part 23 specifies color codes and instrument face markings that must be on all
flight and engine instruments.

FAR PART 39: AIRWORTHINESS DIRECTIVES

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When an unsafe condition exists with an aircraft, engine, propeller, or accessory, the FAA issues
an Airworthiness Directive (AD) to notify concerned parties of the condition and to describe the
appropriate corrective action. No person may operate an aircraft to which an AD applies, except
in accordance with the requirements of that AD. AD compliance is mandatory, and the time in
which the compliance must take place is listed within the AD. Information provided in an
Airworthiness Directive is considered approved data for the purpose of the AD. The compliance
record for ADs must be entered into the aircraft's permanent records.

ADs are listed by a six digit numerical number. The first two digits denote the year an AD is
issued. For example, all ADs issued during the year 1996 begin with the number 96-. The third
and fourth digits of the AD number denote the biweekly issue in which the AD was first
published. There are twenty six issues of the biweekly AD listing issued each year, and the
issues are numbered beginning with number 01. The last two digits indicate the number of the
AD in the specified biweekly listing. For example, the fourth AD issued in the first biweekly
publication in May 1996 would be issued the number: 96-10-04.

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FAR PART 43: MAINTENANCE, PREVENTIVE MAINTENANCE, REBUILDING AND

ALTERATIONS
FAR Part 43 Maintenance, Preventive Maintenance, Rebuilding, and Alteration are one of the
most critical sections for the aviation technician to study. As its title indicates, Part 43 outlines
the fundamental standards for aircraft inspection, maintenance, and repair, as well as all record
keeping requirements.
REPAIRS AND ALTERATIONS
A repair is an operation that restores an item to a condition of practical operation or to original
condition, whereas an alteration is any change in the configuration or design of an aircraft. The
FAA divides aircraft repairs and alterations into two categories: major and minor. A major repair
is one that, if improperly done, might appreciably affect weight, balance, structural strength,
performance, powerplant operation, flight characteristics, or other airworthiness factors. It is also
a repair that cannot be performed using elementary operations. A major alteration is an
alteration not listed in the product's specifications that might affect the product's performance in
a similar fashion to a major repair.
Appendix A of FAR Part 43 lists examples of major repairs and alterations to airframes, engines,
propellers and appliances. Some examples are listed below.
1. Airframe major alterations: alterations to wings, fuselage, engine mounts or control
systems. Changes to the wing or to fixed or movable control surfaces which affect flutter
and vibration characteristics.
2. Powerplant major alterations: conversion of an aircraft engine from one approved model
to another, replacing engine structural parts with parts not supplied by the original
manufacturer.
3. Propeller major alterations: changes in blade, hub, or governor design. Installation of a
propeller deicing system.
4. Appliance major alterations: alterations of the basic design not made in accordance with
recommendations of the appliance manufacturer or in accordance with an FAA
Airworthiness Directive.
5. Airframe major repairs: airframe repairs involving reinforcing, splicing, and
manufacturing of primary structural members or their replacement, when their
replacement is by fabrication such as riveting or welding.
6. Powerplant major repairs: separation or disassembly of the crankcase or crankshaft of
certain reciprocating powerplants. Special repairs to structural engine parts by plating,
welding, or other methods.
7. Propeller major repairs: any repairs to, or straightening of, steel blades, shortening
blades, overhaul of controllable pitch propellers.

of

8. Appliance major repairs: calibration of instruments or radios, overhaul of pressure

carburetors, pressure fuel cells, and oil and hydraulic pumps.
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The FAA defines minor repairs and alterations as those that are not major repairs and
alterations. Since this definition is not very specific, it is sometimes difficult to distinguish which
category a repair or alteration falls into. However, as a general rule, the complexity of the work
being done is a good indication of whether a repair or alteration is major or minor.
For example, Appendix A of FAR Part 43 specifically states that replacement of an engine mount
by riveting or welding is an airframe major repair. But if the same engine mount is attached by
bolts and is replaced, it is considered a minor repair. The same holds true of other airframe and
engine components. Generally, if a part is replaced with one exactly the same as the original
and elementary operations are used in the installation of a replacement part, the procedure is
considered a minor repair or alteration. Records of minor repairs and alterations need only be
entered into the aircraft's permanent maintenance records.
PREVENTIVE MAINTENANCE
Preventive maintenance consists of preservation, upkeep, and the simple replacement of small
parts. Under some circumstances, the FARs allow licensed airmen other than maintenance
personnel to perform preventive maintenance. For example, if an aircraft owner holds at least a
private pilot license, the owner can, among other things, change an aircraft's oil and replace or
repair a landing gear tire. A complete listing of those items that are classified as preventive
maintenance is given in Appendix A of FAR Part 43.
INSPECTION CHECKLISTS
FAR 43.15 lists the performance criteria for performing inspections and specifically states that a
checklist which meets the minimum requirements listed in FAR 43 Appendix D must be used for
all annual and 100-hour inspections. This, however, does not preclude you from developing a
more extensive checklist or using one prepared by a repair station or manufacturer. As long as
the checklist covers the items listed in Appendix D it may be used. Most major aircraft
manufacturers provide inspection checklists for their aircraft by type and model number. These
forms are readily available through the manufacturer's representatives and are highly
recommended. They meet the minimum requirements of Appendix D and contain many details
covering specific items of equipment installed on a particular aircraft. In addition, they often
include references to service bulletins and letters which could otherwise be overlooked. They
meet the minimum requirements of Appendix D and contain many details covering specific items
of equipment installed on a particular aircraft. In addition, they often include references to
service bulletins and letters which could otherwise be overlooked.

FAR PART 91: GENERAL OPERATING AND FLIGHT RULES

FAR Part 91 is entitled General Operating and Flight Rules of which Subpart E contains the
regulations governing the maintenance, preventive maintenance, and alteration of U.S.
registered aircraft. Unlike Part 43, Subpart E of Part 91 outlines the inspections that must be
performed on all aircraft.
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ANNUAL INSPECTIONS
FAR Part 91 states that all general aviation aircraft must go through an annual inspection to
remain airworthy. All annual inspections are based on calendar months and, therefore, are due
on the last day of the 12th month after the last annual was completed. For example, if a
previous annual was completed on June 11, 1995, the next annual inspection is due on June
30, 1996. Annual inspections must be performed regardless of the number of hours flown in the
previous year. Furthermore, they may only be performed by airframe and powerplant mechanics
holding an inspection authorization (IA). The IA cannot delegate the inspection duties to an
airframe and powerplant mechanic, nor may an IA merely supervise an annual inspection.
Annual inspections must be performed regardless of the number of hours flown in the previous
year. Furthermore, they may only be performed by air-frame and powerplant mechanics holding
an inspection authorization (IA). The IA cannot delegate the inspection duties to an airframe
and powerplant mechanic, nor may an IA merely supervise an annual inspection.
100-HOUR INSPECTION
All general aviation aircraft that are operated for hire must be inspected every 100 flight hours.
This inspection is in addition to the annual inspection requirement, and covers the same items
as the annual inspection. The major difference is that an A&P technician may perform a 100hour inspection. As in the case of an annual inspection, the person conducting a 100-hour
inspection cannot delegate inspection duties.
PROGRESSIVE INSPECTIONS
The progressive inspection is designed for aircraft operators who do not wish to have their
aircraft grounded for several days while an annual or 100-hour inspection is being
accomplished. Instead, the inspection may be performed in segments each 90 days, or at each
25 hour interval. The procedures for establishing a progressive inspection program are covered
in FAR Part 91.409(d) and the owner must request this program. Furthermore, approval must be
received from the FAA prior to beginning a progressive inspection program.
CONTINUOUS INSPECTION PROGRAMS
The continuous inspection program is designed for operators of large commercial carrier aircraft
operating under FAR Parts 121, 127, and 135. Like a progressive inspection program, a
continuous inspection program must be approved by the FAA. These inspection programs are
very comprehensive and require complex maintenance facilities with large numbers of technical
personnel. Most large airlines operate under the continuous inspection programs of FAR Part
121.
RECURRING INSPECTION
At times, an airframe component, engine, or accessory requires a recurring inspection at
specified intervals. For example, a manufacturer may require that a mechanic check the torque
of cylinder base nuts at every second 100 hour inspection. This means that the actual interval
between inspections is 200 hours. Airworthiness directives often specify recurring inspections
after a certain time in service.
OVERWEIGHT OR HARD LANDING
This inspection is performed any time an aircraft has experienced an overweight, or unusually
hard landing. The structural damage which can occur during this type landing can lead to
catastrophic failure and, therefore, manufacturers typically publish a set of instructions outlining
what should be inspected as well as the method of inspection used.
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SEVERE TURBULENCE INSPECTION

Severe turbulence exerts substantial stress on all areas of an aircraft structure. Therefore,
when an aircraft flies through severe turbulence, a detailed inspection of the airframe should be
conducted.
ADVISORY CIRCULARS (ACs)
Many of the technical publications and regulations issued by the FAA are complex in nature and
often require additional explanation. As a result, the FAA issues Advisory Circulars (ACs) to
inform, explain, and provide further guidance. Advisory circulars are informative only and cannot
be used as approved data unless incorporated into a regulation or an airworthiness directive.
Advisory circulars are listed in a numerical sequence closely following the same subject areas
covered by the FARs.
For example, within the general subject of Aircraft, the specific subject of maintenance,
preventive maintenance, and rebuilding and alterations is assigned the number 43, which is also
the number of the FAR Part that covers maintenance. One of the most popular Advisory
Circulars for maintenance technicians is in the AC43 series. AC 43.13-lB and -2A, Acceptable
Methods, Techniques and Practices is a highly technical publication covering most of the aircraft
maintenance areas which the A&P technician must service. Another popular AC within the 43
series is AC43.9-1E which gives information on how to complete of a Major Repair and
Alteration Form (FAA Form 337). In particular, it lists FAA approved data sources that can be
used as a reference for major repairs and alterations. Data obtained from Airworthiness
Directives, approved manufacturer's instructions, Type Certificate Data Sheets, Supplemental
Type Certificates, and Technical Standard Orders are considered approved. For a complete
listing of ACs, the FAA publishes an advisory circular checklist. Periodically, the Advisory
Circular Checklist (AC 00-2) is revised and reissued to inform you of the current status of ACs.
The checklist also provides you with pricing and ordering information.
TYPE CERTIFICATE DATA SHEET
As previously discussed, new airframes, powerplants, and appliances are issued a type
certificate once they meet FAA approval. The type certificate number assigned to the product is
also used on the Type Certificate Data Sheet (TCDS), which lists technical and other
information concerning the product. The type certificate number, with the date and revision
number of the data sheet, is enclosed in a box located in the upper right corner of the data
sheet.
Any deviation from the items listed in the data sheets is considered a major alteration and must
be documented by a Major Repair or Alteration Form, a Supplemental Type Certificate (STC), or
by compliance with an Airworthiness Directive. The Type Certificate Data Sheet is the primary
source of information for:
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.

The type and model of approved engine(s) for the model aircraft.
The minimum fuel grade for the approved engine(s).
The maximum approved rpm and the horsepower rating of the engine(s).
Propellers approved for use, rpm limits, and operating restrictions, if any.
Airspeed limits for the aircraft in knots and mph.
Center of Gravity range, in inches from the datum.
Empty weight center of gravity range may be listed, if it has been established by the
manufacturer.
8. Location of the reference datum line.
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9. Means to level the aircraft for weighing purposes.

10. All maximum weights allowed for various compartments and locations within the aircraft.
11. Oil and fuel capacity and fuel tank moment arms.
12. Control surface movements in degrees.
13. Required equipment necessary for operation of the aircraft.
14. Any additional equipment found necessary for certification of the aircraft.
15. Any placards which must be displayed in full view of the pilot will be listed in Note #2 of
the data sheet.
Type Certificate Data Sheets are used during annual inspections to ensure that an aircraft
conforms to its type certificate. For example, a TCDS lists an aircraft's various airspeed limits.
These limits must be marked on the face of the aircraft's airspeed indicator in accordance with
FAR Part 23.1545 and the technician performing the inspection must check these instrument
markings to be sure they agree with those in the TCDS.
AIRCRAFT LISTINGS
When the total number of any type aircraft, engine, and propeller still on the aircraft registry falls
below fifty, its specifications and Type Certificate Data Sheets are no longer published. Instead,
their information is transferred to an aircraft, engine, or propeller listing as appropriate. Type
approvals which have expired, or for which the manufacturer no longer holds a production
certificate, are also transferred to the Listing Section.
SUPPLEMENTAL TYPE CERTIFICATES
The FAA allows a product to deviate from the original configuration detailed on the Type
Certificate Data Sheet if it is modified according to data provided on a Supplemental Type
Certificate. Supplemental Type Certificates (STCs) are issued in accordance with FAR Part 21,
Subpart E, and are a common method for approving the replacement of an original engine with
another model, modifying an aircraft for a specific use such as short take off and landing, or
installing equipment not originally certified on an aircraft. Any individual or organization may
apply for a Supplemental Type Certificate, and an STC may be issued to more than one
applicant for the same design change, providing each applicant shows compliance with the
applicable airworthiness requirement.
When a Supplemental Type Certificate is issued, the holder may alter aircraft to meet the
specifications of the certificate, offer kits for the modification, or offer the plans and use of the
STC as approved data. STCs which have been issued are published in the Summary of
Supplemental Type Certificates, and listed by aircraft make and model.

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