STUDY GUIDE: UNIT 2 after Minitest

CHAPTERS 9 13

Chapter 9
What are the Big Five personality dimensions. Be capable of
defining/describing each of the five and discussing which, of the five,
correlate with task performance, organization commitment.
- Conscientiousness: conscientious people are dependable, organized, reliable,
ambitious, hardworking, and persevering. They prioritize accomplishment striving,
which reflect a strong desire to accomplish task-related goals as a means of
expressing personality. People who are accomplishment striving have a built-in
desire to finish work tasks, channel a high proportion if their efforts toward those
tasks, and work harder and longer on task assignments.
- Agreeableness: agreeable people are warm, kind, cooperative, sympathetic,
helpful, and courteous. Agreeable people prioritize communion striving, which
reflects a strong desire to obtain acceptance in personal relationship as a means of
expressing personality.
- Neuroticism: Neurotic people are nervous, moody, emotional, insecure, and
jealous. Neuroticism is synonymous with negative affectivity- a dispositional
tendency to experience unpleasant moods such as hostility, nervousness, and
annoyance.
- Openness to experience: Open people are curious, imaginative, creative,
complex, refined, and sophisticated. Sometimes its called Inquisitiveness,
intellectualness, or culture.
- Extraversion: Extraverted people are talkative, sociable, passionate, assertive,
bold, and dominant. Extraversion is the easiest to judge in zero acquaintance
situations. Extraverted people prioritize status striving, which reflects a strong
desire to obtain power and influence within a social structure as a means of
expressing personality. Extraverts care a lot about being successful and influential
and direct their work toward moving up and developing a strong reputation.
- Conscientiousness has a moderate positive effect on job performance and
organizational commitment. They have a higher level of performance, and are more
likely to set goals and commit to them. They are more likely to engage in citizenship
behavior because they have good work attendance and more available to offer
extra mile, also have higher job satisfaction. Also they less likely to engage in
counterproductive behaviors because they are satisfy so they do not do anything
against the organization, also because of their personality, they will not violate the
organizations norms.
Additionally see the handout distributed in class.
Extraversion and openness are the two that have been found to be determined
more by genetics more than other three dimensions.
Extraverted people tend to have a strong desire to influence other and obtain
power, also emerge as a leader in a group setting, and finally be rated more highly
as leader.
Openness increase dramatically during late teenage and early twenties then
remain stable. Agreeableness and conscientiousness increase steadily
throughout ones life.
Neuroticism is most likely to decline the most during ones life.

Be capable of defining locus of control and describing how it is related to

neuroticism.
Locus of control reflects whether people attribute the causes of events to
themselves or to the external environment. Neuroticism is strongly related to locus
of control. Neurotic people tend to hold an external locus of control, meaning that
they often believe that the events that occur around them are driven by luck,
chance or fate.
Less neurotic people tend to hold an internal locus of control, meaning that they
believe that their own behaviors dictates events.
Understand the different levels of global involvement a company may be operating
at and be able to discuss the differences among these levels of globalization (i.e.
domestic, international, multinational, global).
Domestic: Firm operates solely in its parent country (where the corporation
begins).
International: firm that operates in one or two countries outside of the parent
country. The operations in other countries may simply be the selling or product
made in the parent country. The company creates a distribution center in the other
countries. The company may hire host country nationals. Low on global efficiencies
and low on responsiveness.
Multinational: Firm operates in several countries/ cultures. Significant production
and sales may occur in two or more countries simultaneously. The operations in
different countries and regions of the globe operate independently from those in
other countries. Mass customization occurs. Expatriates, host country nationals,
third country nationals, and perhaps inpatriates are employed. Global efficiencies
are moderate, Local responsiveness is high.
Global: create a decentralized network of facilities to enhance global efficiencies
(efficiencies high). Facilities no longer tightly controlled by corporate or regional
headquarters. Local responsiveness is high irregardless of whether responsiveness
is due to mass customization or creation of a homogenous market.
Also know the following terms as they relate to globalization:
Global efficiency: the efficiency of the corporation when it move out to other
countries
Local responsiveness: the response to local communitys desire, the modification
to different market
Mass customization: enhance local responsiveness. Create a customized product
for that culture.
Ethnocentrism: the belief that ones native country, culture, language and
behavior are superior to others.
Host country national: citizen of the host country
Third country national: citizen from other countries other than the parent and
host countries
Parent country national: citizen of parent country, who has socialized in the
parent country
Expatriate: the parent country nationals who are sent to work in the host country
(the parent country want the host country to work in the parent countrys way)
Inpatriate: the host country nationals who are sent to work in the parent country
(they have good in-sight how everything works in the host country, so they can
bring those ideas and share it with the executive of the Headquarter. Inpatriate can
also learn the host country ways of doing stuff)

Networking: your suppliers, your customers, the ones who you interact with in the
country of operation
Homogenous market: the market that you create for your product, the product is
standardized. Sell the same product everywhere around the globe.
Hofstedes (and Bonds) Five Cultural Dimensions---be capable of identifying
each and addressing how the level a nation/society is at on each of these
dimensions may impact managements leadership style, systems, practices, policies
and actions.
- Individualistic (concern about themselves) / collectivistic (group focus, take care of
a group)
- Power distance high (culture accept certain people to have more power, accept a
class system) vs low (culture prefer that power be distributed uniformly where
possible)
- Uncertainty avoidance high (culture feel threatened by uncertain and ambiguous
situations, prefer stability) vs low (tolerate uncertain and ambiguous situations, like
to take risk and value them)
- Masculinity (value male traits) / Femininity (value female traits)
- Short-term (past or present-oriented, such as respect for tradition and fulfilling
obligations) vs Long-term orientation (more future-oriented, such as persistence,
prudence, and thrift)

Chapter 10
What are the various types of specific cognitive abilities (be able to simply list a
few)?
Cognitive abilities are capabilities related to the acquisition and application of
knowledge in problem solving.
Types of cognitive abilities:
- Quantitative ability
- Reasoning ability
- Spatial ability
- Perceptual ability
What is ones general cognitive ability or g- factor?
The most popular explanation for the similarity in the level of different cognitive
abilities within people is that there is a general mental ability, sometimes called g or
the g factor- that underlies or causes all of the more specific cognitive abilities
discussed so far.
To what degree does ones g-factor correlate with task performance?
Cognitive ability has a strong correlation with task performance
How is this correlation impacted by the type of job one is in?
The positive correlation between cognitive ability and performance is even stronger
in jobs that are complex or situations that demand adaptability. This correlation is
weak when people are physical labor.
To what degree does ones g-factor correlate with good citizenship behavior,
counterproductive behavior, and organizational commitment?

Cognitive behavior tends to be more strongly correlated with task performance than
citizenship behavior or counterproductive behavior. Cognitive behavior has a weak
effect on organizational behavior.
Recall the discussion concerning the issue of whether to hire an overqualified
applicant or a qualified one.
Overqualified people may get a job somewhere else, low commitment. Qualified
people may stay longer. Overqualified peoples performance maybe low because
the job is not challenging and complex for them. Qualified people have higher
motivation because the job is challenging for them, so maybe the performance is
even higher than the overqualified. Depend on the opportunity of advancement, you
may hire overqualified people so that you can promote them quickly with less
training cost. Overqualified people can also help other co-worker.
HR tend to hire qualified people because overqualified people may be not a person
job fit.

Chapter 11
Understand the following terms: formal vs. informal groups, work teams,
management teams, parallel teams or staff teams, project teams, action teams and
virtual teams.
- Formal Group: teams that are formed by the organization to accomplish a goal.
- Informal Group: teams that are not part of the organizations structure
-Work teams: work teams are designed to be relatively permanent. Their purpose
is to produce goods or provide services, and they generally require a full-time
commitment from their members. E.g.: self-manage work team, production team,
maintenance team
-Management team: management teams are designed to be relatively
permanent. They participate in managerial-level tasks that affect the entire
organization. They are responsible for coordinating the activities of organizational
subunits- typically departments or functional areas- to help the organization achieve
its long-term goals. E.g. top management team
-Parallel team or Staff team: parallel teams are composed of members from
various jobs who provide recommendations to managers about important issues
that run parallel to the organizations production process. Parallel teams require
only part-time commitment from members, and they can be permanent or
temporary, depending on their aim. E.g. quality circle, advisory council, committee
-Project teams: Project teams are formed to take on one-time tasks that are
generally complex and require a lot of input from members with different types of
training and expertise. Project teams exist only as long as it takes to finish a project.
Members of some project teams work full-time, whereas other teams demand only a
part-time commitment. E.g. product design team, research group, planning team
-Action team: action teams perform tasks that are normally limited in duration.
However, those tasks are quite complex and take place in contexts that are either
highly visible to an audience or of a highly challenging nature. Some types of action
teams work together for an extended period of time. E.g. surgical team, musical
group, expedition team, sports team
-Virtual team: virtual teams are teams in which the member are geographically
dispersed, and interdependent activity occurs through electronic communicationsprimarily e-mail. Instant messaging, and web conferencing.

What are the advantages and the disadvantages of using teams rather than
individuals working independently, to accomplish work?
Advantages:
1. Teams are often more creative and make higher quality decisions. Especially
if deeper levels of diversity exist.
2. If the task of the group is to make a decision, allowing all members input into
the decision creates a greater willingness of the group member to work
towards completion of the tasks decided upon. In other words collaborative
decision making leads to greater commitment to achieving the goal
3. Social facilitation may occur.
4. Allows complex tasks to be completed by a set of individuals who must work
interdependently in order to complete the complex task. Most individuals
working alone would be unable to complete the task due to its complexity.
5. New members can be socialized and trained by experienced members. New
members can learn about their job, the culture of the group, as well as much
concerning the operations of the organization.
6. Working within a group can aid the individual as well
a. Teams allow individuals to have their needs for affiliation met
b. Since one can rely upon others for assistance felt anxiety may be less
c. Team members can be available to aid individuals in learning problemsolving skills as well as interpersonal skills
Disadvantages:
1. Teams may be inefficient
a. Stages of development a team must progress through may slow down
task completion
b. Coordination loss may occur. Individuals may actually work slower
because much of their time is spent coordinating activities with other
2. Social loafing may occur because one is not solely responsible for completion
of a task
3. Risker decisions may be made as a result of groupthink processes
What characteristics differentiate a team from a group?
Teams have: greater level of interaction, smaller size (<10), greater levels of
interdependence, specific goals, cohesiveness, trust, greater level of
communication, cooperation, greater level of member participation, as well as
shared leadership and mutual accountability
We discussed several characteristics of a team (i.e. factors upon which teams
differ). Be able to define the terms, provide examples of and discuss the research
presented in relation to the following concepts or models: five stages of
development, different forms of team Interdependence including: task, goal and
outcome/reward interdependence, pure outcome interdependence, hybrid-outcome
interdependence, roles-including team task roles, team building roles, individualistic
roles, role overload, role ambiguity, role conflict (person-role conflict, intrarole
conflict and interrole conflict), member abilities in relation to disjunctive,
conjunctive and additive tasks, diversity including the terms value in diversity
problem-solving approach, similarity-attraction approach, surface level and deeper

level diversity, size of groups, norms, cohesiveness, groupthink, social loafing, social
facilitation.
Five stages of development:
- Forming: members orient themselves by trying to understand their
boundaries in the team. Get the feel of what is expected of them, what types
of behaviors are out of bounds, and whos in charge
- Storming: members remain committed to ideas they bring with them to the
team
- Norming: members realize that they need to work together to accomplish
team goals, and consequently, they begin to cooperate with one another
- Performing: members are comfortable working within their roles, and the
team makes progress toward goals.
- Adjourning: members experience anxiety and other emotions as they
disengage and ultimately separate from the team.
Task interdependence: refers to the degree to which team members interact with
and rely on other team members for the information, materials, and resources
needed to accomplish work for the team
- Pooled interdependence: lowest degree of required coordination. Group
members complete their work assignments independently, and then this
work is piled up to represent the groups output (fishing)
- Sequential interdependence: different tasks are done in a prescribed order,
and the group is structured such that the members specialized in these tasks.
Although members in groups with sequential interdependence interact to
carry out their work, the interaction is only between members who perform
tasks that are next to each other in the sequence. The later one depends on
the one who perform earlier. (assembly line)
- Reciprocal interdependence: requires members to be specialized to perform
specific tasks. However, instead of a strict sequence of activities, member
interact with a subset of other members to complete the teams work
(salesperson and customer and engineering team)
- Comprehensive interdependence: highest level of interaction and
coordination among members. Each member has a great deal of discretion in
terms of what they do and with whom they interact in the course of the
collaboration involved in accomplishing the teams work.
Goal interdependence: a high degree of goal interdependence exists when team
members have a shared vision of the teams goal and align their individual goals
with that vision. Team should develop a formalized mission statement that members
buy in to (this can be set by the leader, or better if the members to develop
themselves, so they know the importance of the goals, increase the feeling of
ownership, higher commitment)
Outcome interdependence: high degree of outcome interdependence exists
when team members share in the rewards that the team earns, with reward
examples including pay, bonuses, formal feedback and recognition, pats on the
back, extra time off, and continued team survival.
Pure outcome interdependence: if you work for an organization with
compensation that has high outcome interdependence, a higher percentage of your
pay will depend on how well your team does. If you work for an organization that
has low outcome interdependence, a lower percentage of your pay will depend on
how well you team does. High outcome interdependence promote higher levels of
cooperation.

Hybrid outcome interdependence: members receive reward that are dependent

on both their teams performance and how well they perform as individual. One way
to resolve the dilemma of outcome interdependence is to implement a level of
team-based pay that matches the level of task interdependence.
Roles: a pattern of behavior that a person is expected to display in a given context.
Maybe formal or informal (6)
- Team task role: refers to behaviors that directly facilitate the accomplishment
of a team tasks. Example include the orienter who establishes the direction of
the team, the devils advocate who offers constructive challenges to the
teams status quo, the energizer who motivates team members to work
harder toward goals.
- Team building role: refers to behaviors that influence the quality of the teams
social climate. Examples: harmonizer who steps in to resolve differences
among teammates, encourager who praises the work of teammates,
compromiser who helps the team see alternative solutions that teammates
can accept. They take on social roles to help teams manage conflicts that
could hinder team effectiveness.
- Individualistic role: reflects behaviors that benefit the individual at the
expense of the team. Example: aggressor puts down or deflates fellow
teammates, recognition seeker takes credit for team success, and dominator
manipulates teammates to acquire control and power. Individualistic role
hinder a teams ability to function and perform effectively
- Role overload: expectations of the role senders exceed the abilities of the
person occupying the role. OR the demand of the role a person holds is so
high that the person simply cannot perform some or all of the tasks
efficiently.
- Role ambiguity: unclear expectations and uncertain job requirements
characterize role ambiguity and also included is the lack of predictability of
the consequences of performing the role in a given way -> consequences:
dissatisfaction, erode self-efficacy (the believe whether I can finish the task),
diminish job performance
- Role conflict: conflicting expectations that other people who interact with us,
may have of us
o Person-role conflict: the role conflicts with the value of the person
holding the job
o Intratole conflict: different people have different expectations on your
job
o Interrole conflict: a person has too many roles and performing this role
can influence the performance of other roles.
Member abilities: team members provide a wide array of abilities, both physical
and cognitive abilities.
- Disjunctive tasks: are tasks with an objectively verifiable best solution, and
the member who possesses the highest level of the ability relevant to the
task will have the most influence on the effectiveness of the team (trivia
team)
- Conjunctive tasks: are tasks where the teams performance depends on the
abilities of the weakest link (pit crew)
- Additive tasks: are tasks for which the contributors resulting from the abilities
of every member add up to determine team performance (scout girl team)

Diversity: is the degree to which members are different from one another in terms
of any attribute that might be used by someone as a basis of categorizing people.
- Value in diversity problem-solving approach: says diversity is beneficial
because it provides for a larger pool of knowledge and perspectives from
which a team can draw as it carries out its work. Team that engage in work
thats relatively complex and requires creativity tend to benefit most from
diversity.
- Similarity-attraction: says people tend to be more attracted to others who are
perceived as more similar. People also tend to avoid interacting with those
who are perceived to be dissimilar, to reduce the likelihood of having
uncomfortable disagreement. Diversity may lead to conflict and lower
effectiveness.
- Surface level: refers to diversity regarding observable attributes such as race,
ethnicity, sex and age. Disappear as time go by
- Deep-level diversity: refers to diversity with respect to attributes that are less
easy to observe initially, but that can be inferred after more direct
experience. Time appears to increase the negative impact.
Size of groups: having a greater number of members is beneficial for
management and project teams but not for teams engaged in production tasks
(coordination loss may occur with too many members: losing energy and wasting
time to coordination process). Research concluded that team members tend to be
most satisfied with their team when the number of embers is between 4 and 5
Norms:
Cohesiveness: the degree to which group members desire to remain in the group
and the strength of their commitment to the group and its goals.
Factor leading to cohesive group:
1. Size of the group: size increases, cohesiveness decreases and vice
versa
2. Level of diversity (homogenous groups): diversity increases, team
cohesiveness decreases
3. Gender of members
4. Mutual attraction of members
a. Similar goals and purpose for the team
b. Similar values
c. Physical attraction
5. Frequency of interaction
6. Common enemy/ common threat
7. Degree of success of group
8. Difficulty of admission into group. Initiation Hurdle: how difficult it is
to get in the group
Norms: norms are shared attitudes, opinions, feelings, or actions that guide social
behavior. Typically the norms are implicit rules governing behavior. Norms are
typically enforced by the members themselves in order to maintain order and to
direct the behavior and interactions of members.
Development of norms:
o Explicit statements by supervisors, leaders
o Carryover behaviors from situations members were in, in the past
o Critical events in the groups history
o Primacy (institutionalization)

Who is allowed to deviate from norms: Who has social credit that other
people give them are likely to deviate the rules because they may be the one
who perhaps has the greatest influence on the success of the group.
Groupthink: cohesiveness is too high.
Symptoms:
o Strong charismatic leader and his ingroup
o Excessive optimism among group members
o Sense of what we do is right morally
o Those who oppose leadership are stereotyped as ignorant, immoral
o Seek consensus in decision-making (lead to self-censorship or
members who oppose leadership; peer pressure to conform and
therefore lack of viable alternatives) so decisions are risky
Prevention of groupthink:
o Transfer individuals in and out of the group
o Change leadership frequently, or have shared leadership
o Different groups with different leaders should analyze the policy or
make the decision
o Bring outside consultants and listen to their recommendations
o Devils advocate or debates can force many different perspectives to
be analyzed
Social Loafing: loafing has occurred when the sum of the outputs of each
individual working independently is greater than the total output of the group when
members are interacting as a group (member work in a group not as hard as when
they work individually)
Factors impacting level of loafing:
o Group size (more members more social loafing)
o Cohesiveness (more cohesiveness less social loafing)
o Members know one another, vs acquaintance
o Complexity of the task
o Task is uninteresting
o Members knew their individual output or effort was not measured
o Abilities of coworkers
o Individualistic vs collectivistic
Social Facilitation: the tendency for people to do better on simple tasks when in
the presence of other people. This implies that, whenever people are being watched
by others, they will do well on things that they are already good at doing.
Team Compensation: Be capable of explaining the thoughts of researchers on how
to best compensate individuals working within a team environment.
One way to resolve the dilemma of outcome interdependence is to implement a
level of team-based pay that matches the level of task interdependence.

Chapter 12
Be able to discuss what a process gain is as well as how the terms synergy and
social facilitation relate to a process gain.
Process gain: the outcome from the team is more than you would expect
according to the capabilities of its individual members
Synergy: total results of a system is more than sum of the part

Social Facilitation: the tendency for people to do better on simple tasks when in
the presence of other people. This implies that, whenever people are being watched
by others, they will do well on things that they are already good at doing.

Likewise be capable of discussing a process loss and the two factors of

coordination problems and motivation problems that lead to process loss.
Process loss: the outcome from the group is less than you would expect based on
the capabilities of its individual members.
Coordination loss: it consumes time and energy to coordinate other peoples
activities that could otherwise be devoted to task activity.
Motivational loss: the loss in team productivity that occurs when the team
members dont work as hard as they could. This occurs because the uncertainty
regarding who contributes what results in team members feeling less accountable
for team outcomes.
In addition know how social loafing is associated with process loss.
Those feelings of reduced accountability cause social loafing
Additional terms to know that are highlighted under key terms at the end of the
chapter include cohesion and groupthink.
Cohesion: the emotional attachment (members of teams develop strong emotional
bonds to other members of their team and the team itself)
Groupthink: conformity at the expense of other team priorities when cohesion is
high (member try to maintain harmony by striving toward consensus on issues
without ever offering, seeking, or seriously considering alternative viewpoints and
perspective.

Chapter 13
Definitions from text: leadership, influence and power?
Leadership: the use of power and influence to direct the activities of followers
toward goal achievement.
Influence: the use of an actual behavior that causes behavioral and attitudinal
changes in others
Power: the ability to influence the behavior of others and resist unwanted influence
in return.
Blaus definition of Power is: The greater As dependency on B, the greater power B
has in relation to A. B has power over A to the extent that B can cause A to do
something they would not ordinarily do.
PowerKnow French and Raven's Five Bases of Individual Power.
Organizational bases of individual power:
- Legitimate power is derived from a position of authority inside the
organization and is sometimes referred to as formal authority
- Reward power exists when someone has control over the resources or
rewards another person wants (positive reinforcement)
- Coercive power exists when a person has control over punishments in an
organization
Personal bases of individual power:
- Expert power is derived from a persons expertise, skill, or knowledge on
which others depend
- Referent power exists when others have a desire to identify and be
associated with a person

Know the Strategic Contingencies Model of Subunit/departmental Power (coping

with uncertainty: forecast, prevention, absorption, centrality, substitutability,
discretion, visibility).
- Coping with uncertainty: help the organization to cope with critical event ->
gain power
o Obtaining prior information forecasting
o Prevention proactive action to prevent the event
o Absorption successful reactive action to cope with the occurrence of
the event
- Substitutability is the degree to which people have alternatives in accessing
resources
- Centrality represents how important a persons job is and how many people
depend on that person to accomplish their tasks. Whether the tasks
completed in the job were core tasks
- Discretion is the degree to which managers have the right to make decisions
on their own
- Visibility is how aware others are of a leaders power and position
Know the handout concerning influence tactics including definitions as well as the
popularity and effectiveness of each of the original eight tactics.
Consultation: seeking someones participation in a decision or change
Rational persuasion: trying to convince someone by relying on a detailed plan,
supporting information, reason
Inspirational appeals: appealing to someones decision, values, or ideals, to
generate enthusiasm and confidence
Ingratiating tactics: making someone feel important or good or acting humbly
before making a request
Coalition tactics: seeking the aid of others to persuade someone to agree (ask
others to help influencing)
Pressure tactics: relying on intimidation, demands, or threats to gain compliance
Upward appeals: obtaining formal or informal support of higher management
Exchange tactics: offering an exchange of favors, reminding someone of a past
favor, offering to make a personal sacrifice
Popularity: same order
1-3 most popular, 4-5 moderately popular, 6-8 least popular
Effectiveness:
1. Consultation
2. Ingratiation tactics
3. Inspirational appeal
4. Rational persuasion
5. Exchange tactics
6. Coalition tactics
7. Pressure tactics
8. Upward appeals
1-3 most effective, 4-5 moderately effective, 6-8 least effective
Also know the additional research by Yukl and colleagues (Figure 13-2 of text). In
relation to that research what are the three new tactics discussed in Figure 13-2?
Can you define these three? How effective were the ten different tactics presented
in Figure 13-2?
Three new tactics:

Collaboration: attempting to make it easier for the target to complete the

request by helping them, providing resources, or removing obstacle
- Personal appeals: occurs when the requestor asks for something based on
personal friendship or loyalty
- Apprising: occurs when the requestor clearly explains why performing the
request will benefit the target personally
Effectiveness: 4-4-2
1. Rational persuasion (move back because its the best way to influence
leader)
2. Consultation
3. Inspirational appeals
4. Collaboration
5. Ingratiation (only effective when used in long-term, not right before making
the influence attempt)
6. Personal appeals
7. Exchange
8. Apprising
9. Pressure
10.coalitions
Influence tactics tend to be effective when combining together (e.g. rational
persuasion and collaboration)
The influence tactics that tend to be most successful are those that are softer in
nature
Definition of Political Behavior (i.e. Organizational politics)?
Organizational politics can be seen as actions by individuals that are directed
toward the goal of furthering their own self-interests
Political skill is the ability to effectively understand others at work and use that
knowledge to influence others in ways that enhance personal and possibly
organizational objects
What were the four key skills the authors of your text stated were necessary to be
skilled in political behavior?
Networking ability, social astuteness, interpersonal influence, apparent sincerity
See Figure 13-4 for the following: be able to list the two personal characteristics that
lead to more political behavior as well as the five organizational characteristics that
lead to greater level of political behavior.
Personal characteristics:
- need for power
- Machiavellianism
Organizational characteristics:
- Lack of participation in decision making
- Limited or changing resources
- Ambiguity in roles
- High performance pressure
- Unclear performance evaluations
Note: We will NOT cover the topic of conflict resolution that is present in chapter
13.