17

Go, Jenicca Pamela Y.

1F-PH
Exercise 1: Group Properties of Elements

1)
Grp. 1-A
Do not occur free in nature.
Strong basic
^activity, ^at. Wt
+1
Simple Cations
Soluble

occurrence
reactions of O- and OHactivity
Oxidation states
kinds of ions
solubility
2)

A)
B)
C)
D)

Grp. 1-B
Occur free in nature.
Feebly (except Ag2O)
activity, ^at wt
+1,+2,+3
Complex anions and cations
Insoluble

Hg2Cl2 Hg + HgCl2
2 Cu Cu2+ + Cu0
2 Ag Ag2+ + Ag0
3 Au Au3+ + 2 Au0

3) allotrophy - property of a substance of existing in more than one physical form in the same physical state.
Ex. Sulfur
4)

IA and IB
IIA and IIB
IIIA and IIIB
IVA
IVB
VA
VB
VIA
VIB
VIIA
VIIB
VIII
VIIIA

Outer Electronic Configuration and Oxidation State

charge of +1 and 1 valence electron
charge of +2 and 2 valence electrons; IIB has filled set of d orbital
charge of 3+ and 3 valence electrons; IIB has s2p1 electron
configuration
charge of 2+ and 4+ because of s2p2 configuration
2+, 3+ and 4+ oxidation states
3+ and 5+ oxidation states because of s2p3 configuration
charge of 2+ to 5+
charge of 2-, 0, 2+, 4+ and 6+ (only oxygen has 2-, 1- and 0); s2p4
electron configuration
2+, 3+, 5+ and 6+ charges
charge of -1; s2p5 configuration
charge of 2+ to 7+; d5s2 configuration
oxidation states of 2+, 3+, 4+, 6+ and 8+; filled p orbital
eight valence electrons; all completely filled orbitals

5) Alloys - It is a metal combined with other substances, resulting in superior properties. They form adherent oxide or basic
carbonate coating when exposed to air, which prevents further oxidation of the metal. Zinc, amalgams, and brass.
6) A) Iron pyrite- FeS2
hematite- Fe2O3

B) Galena- PbS

C) Cryolite- Na3AlF6

D) Brimestone- Sulfur

E) Silica-SiO2

F)

7) Iron triad group has a marked tendency to form simple cations in contrast to the definite reluctance to do so by the platinum
group. There is an increase in atomic size when comparing the iron triad with the platinum metals, the latter do not differ greatly
in size.
8) Oxygen is a gas and sulfur is a solid.
Fluorine is a pale yellow gas. Chlorine is a greenish-yellow gas. Bromine is a reddish brown liquid. Iodine is a black solid.
9) Tantalum can be used for corrosion-resistant applications in medicine, eg wires, pins, plates, to be left in the human body to
strengthen the human bone.

17

Go, Jenicca Pamela Y.

1F-PH
Chapter 2: Pharmaceutical Aids and Necessities

1 Using the following format, tabulate the compounds studied:

Synonyms
Boracid acid, Hydrogen borate, Orthoboric
acid

a.

Boric Acid

b.

Hydrochloric Acid

Muriatic acid, Spirit of sea salt, Marine acid,

Espiritu de sal marina

c.

Nitric Acid

Spirit of nitre, Aqua fortis, Agua fuerte

d.

Phosphoric Acid

Orthophosphoric acid, Acido Orthofosforico

e.

Sulfuric Acid

Oil of vitiol, Vitriolic acid, Aceite de Vitriolo

f.

Strong Ammonia Solution

Ammonium hydroxide, Stronger ammonia

water

g.

Calcium hydroxide

Slaked lime, Calcium hydrate

h.

Potassium Hydroxide

Caustic potash, Potassa

Uses
Used for solutions, ointments and
dusting powder as antiseptic. Weak
bacteriostatic agent. Found in the
form of solution in concentration
from 2.5% to 4.5% for use as an
eyewash. It is used as a buffer in
ophthalmic solutions and. Reaction of
boric acid with equimolar quantitis of
glycerin produces a compound know
as boroglycerin glycerite which have
found some use as a suppository base.
Used as a pharmaceutacal aid or specifically as
an acdifying agent. Capability of reacting
withorganic molecules which are weakly basic
to form usually water soluble hydrochloride
salts. Diluted hydrochloric acid aids in the
conversion of pepsinogen into pepsin and
proteids into peptones and as gastric antiseptic.
Used as an acidifying agent with bases and is
used in the manufacture of sulfuric acid, coal
tar dyes and explosives. used as a nitrating
agent in pyroxylin and is externally used to
destroy chancers and warts.
Can be used as an acidifying agent. Used a
solvent in the preparation of Anileridine
injection.
Diluted phosphoric acid is used as a tonic and
stimulant to the gastric mucous membranes,
acts as synergistic to pepsinand aids in the
formulation of peptones. It is also used in
making some pharmaceutical preparations.
Chemical use as a strong diprotic acid which
can be utilized to form salts of basic organic
drug molecules. It is also utilized as a
dehydrating aget in the preparation of
Pyroxylin.
Used as a Bronsted base in many applications
to form ammonium salt of acids. It is also used
in the manufacture of nitric acid and sodium
bicarbonate. Strong ammonia solution is used
in the preparation of aromatic ammonia spirit.
Diluted ammonia, occasionaly, it is employed
as circulatory stimulant by inahalation of the
vapors. Externally, it is used as counter-irritant.
Used medically as a fluid electrolyte and as
topical astringent. Used in pharmaceutical
preparations for its potentially high hydroxide
ion concentration.
Used as a caustic principally in veterinary
practice. It is used in official preparations as a
saponifying agent to hydrolyze esters of fatty
acids into their constituent alcohols and the
potassium salt.

i.
j.

Sodium Hydroxide
Sodium Carbonate

k.

Soda Lime

l.

Sodium Borate

Caustic soda, Soda lye

Monohydrated sodium carbonate

Borax, Sodium pyroborate, Sodium

tetraborate, Tinkal

m. Hypophosphorous Acid

n.

Sulfur Dioxide

Sulfurous anhydride

o.

Sodium Bisulfite

Sodium hydrogen sulfite, Sodium acid

sulfite, Leucogen

p.

Sodium Metabisulfite

q.

Nitrogen

Extensively used in industrial purposes.

It is used for its basicity in pharmaceutical
preparations where it will form sodium salts of
acidic drugs. Preparation of Nitrmerosal
Solution.
The function of soda lime in a closed system is
to absorb the carbon dioxide which would
otherwise accumulates in the system.
One of the best eyewash when acids happen to
enter the mucosa, A 1-2% solution is used in
collyria. It is one of the components of
mouthwashes and oral preparations and is
frequently apllied in the form of powder to
ulcers in the mouth. It froms borax soap which
serves as an emulsifying agent in the
preparation of ointments particularly cold
cream and Rose water ointment.
Its use principally as an antioxidant. It serves to
prevent the formulation of free iodine in diluted
hydrochloroc acid and syrup. It prevent the
formulation of both ferric ions and molecular
iodine.
It will protect many susceptible compounds
from oxidation.It is usually used in injectible
preparations enclosed in single dose ampoules
or multiple dose vialss. ALso find extensive use
in industry for such processes as bleaching
wood pulp, fumigating grains and arresting
fermentation. It is also used to fumigate houses.

Used almost exclusively as an antioxidant. May

also be found in ascorbic acid injections as a
reducing agent. It may also be used to prepare
water soluble derivatives of normally insoluble
drugs (Menadione Sodium Bisulfite).
Used as an inert atmosphere to retard oxidation.
It is also used to replace air in the conatiners for
parenterals and solutions for topical
applications. Also used to reatrd oxidation in
the qualitative test for carbon monoxide.

2. When is a substance classified under pharmaceutical aid or necessity?

When it includes the preparation, preservation and storage of pharmaceutical products.
3. What are the official acids? Give the advantages of using of each acid.

Boric Acid- not absorbed through the intact skin but is highly toxic
Hydrochloric acid-acidifying agent
Dilited HCl-liberates hydrochloric acid in the stomach
Nitric Acid-known as oxidizing, and nitrating agent
Phosphoric Acid- used in Anileridine Injection
Diluted Phosphoric Acidacts as tonic and stimulant to mucous membranes
Sulfuric Acid- used as oxidizing, dehydrating and sulfonating agent

4. What acids are needed in the body? What concentration should be used in its administration?
Diluted HCl- it should be in the form of a capsule like Glutamis Acid Hydrchloride and Betaine Hydrochloride on order to
take it( 9.5-10.5 g in 100 mL)

Nitric Acid- used a nitrating agent in Pyroxylin as source of nitrate ion, used to destroy chancres and warts (68-71% by
weight)
Phosphoric Acid- used in making Anileridine Injections (85-88% by weight)
Diluted HCl- used as a tonic and stimulant to gastric mucous membrane (9.5-10.5 g in 100 mL)
Sulfuric Acid- used as dehydrating, oxidizing and sulfating agent (94-98%)
5. Give the 2 commercial methods of preparing sulfuric acid. Cite the advantage and disadvantage of each.
Contact Process- produces most of the commercial sulfuric acid, the advantage of this is that it produces better
Lead Camber Process- used in making fertilizer
6. How would you prepare a liter of 10% ammonia soln from the official strong ammonia soln?
By the help of the appropriate quantity if purified water. This product is also known as ammonia water.
7. Give the advantages of sodium hydroxide over potassium hydroxide.
Calcium hydroxide is less deliquescent, milder, amd cheaper than potassium hydroxide.
8. Differentiate deliquescent, efflorescent and hygroscopic salts. Give examples of each
Deliquescent- to become liquid by adsorption of water from atmospherecalcium chloride, zinc chloride-9. How does the official sodium carbonate prepared using the Solvay process?
By saturating a cooled concentrated solution of NaCl with NH4 then with carbon dioxide.
10. How does soda lime function as carbon dioxide absorbant in the body? Writhe equations involved.
The calcium hydroxide is capable of picking up carbon dioxide, but its combining power is soon exhausted. The calcium
hydroxide present in the mixture will react with the accumulated CO2 in the form of sodium carbonate to form calcium
carbonate, thereby regenerating the sodium form of hydroxide.
11. Give the mechanism involved on how buffers can control the ph of the soln.
It is because the buffer pair will complement each other. When the small amounts of hydrogen ion are introduced into the
medium they will react with the conjugate base or basic members of the buffer to form the weak acid which, by definition will
only slightly be ionized.
12, what chemical and pharmacological considerations should be taken in selecting a buffer system?
The buffer pair should not participate in oxidation-reduction reaction, alter the solubility of other components, form
complexes with active ingredient.
13. Why are some antioxidants included in some of the pharmaceutical preparations? Give the rationale of its use.
Because they are compounds which have the capability of functioning chemically as reducing agents, they are used in
pharmaceutical preparations containing easily oxidizable substances in order to maintain these substances in their reduced forms.
14. What is the advantage of using sulfur dioxide as antioxidant in parenteral preparations?
Because it will protect many susceptible compounds from oxidation by reducing the oxidized form back again or probably
even more important, by reacting with oxygen before the susceptible compounds do.
15. Give the chemical property of nitrogen responsible for its antioxidation action.
Nitrogen is used as an inert atmosphere to retard oxidation in oxidation sensitive products. It is also used to replace air in
containers for parenteral and solutions for topical applications and used to retard oxidation in the quantitative test for carbon
monoxide
16. Differentiate
A) Hard water from soft water-their hardness depends on the ions that is present from water. It is due to Ca, Fe, Mg, salts and
it is soft water if there is no salts in your water.

B) Temporary hardness from permanent hardness- temporary is also known as bicarbonate hardness and you can still soften it
by adding hydroxide
17. Give some chemical agents used in removing hardness of water.
Zeolite, and Sodium Aluminum Silicate
18. What is deionizer? Why can deionized water be classified under Purified Water?
It makes use of certain synthetic resins which are endowed with removing both cations and anions from water. Because it is
obtained by distillation and by that it occurs as a clear, odorless liquid. It is the water of choice for extemporaneous compounding
and preparation of most reagents.
19. Differentiate Sterile Water for Injection from Bacteriostatic Water for Injection on the ff points:
A) Storage- The former is usually packaged in Type I or II glass or plastic containers while the latter is stored in single-dose or
in multiple dose containers of not larger than 30 mL size.
B) Route of administration- the former I intended for inhalation therapy while the latter is for intramuscular injection
20. In what types of glass are parenterals are usually stored?
21. What are the advantages of including additives to glass?
Because it will give the glass a specific distinction or the intended kinds of solutions that should be used for it like its uses
22.

Since that amber-colored glass screens out the ultraviolet radiation, it is often used because most of the solutions should be.

17
Go, Jenicca Pamela Y.

1F-PH
Exercise 3 Major Intra- and Extracellular Electrolytes

1.

2.
3.
4.

Principal metabolic functions of:

a. Cl - maintains normal hydration and osmotic pressure, gastric HCl, acid and base balance, electrolyte balance
b. Na - buffer constituent, acid-base balance, water balance, CO transport, osmotic pressure, cell membrane
permeability, muscle irritability
c. K - buffer constituent, acid-base balance, water balance, CO transport, neuromuscular irritability
d. Ca - formation of apatite in bones and teeth, blood clotting
e. Mg - co-factor for PO transferring enzymes; constituent of bones and teeth
f. HPO - constituent of bones and teeth; constituent of buffers, ATP, NAD, and FAD
Intracellular electrolytes Potassium, Magnesium and Phosphorous
Extracellular electrolytes Sodium, Chloride and Calcium
Sodium Chloride, Potassium Chloride and Calcium Chloride are compounds that are classified as fluid and electrolytes
repleshiners in the official compendia.
Conditions where acidosis occurs:
Failure to excrete metabolic acids
Formation of excessive quantities of metabolic acids like carbonic acids
Loss of base from body fluids
Absorption of excess metabolic acids
Diabetes mellitus
Diarrhea
Excess vomiting
Uremia
Conditions where alkalosis occurs:

5.

6.

7.

8.

Administration of diuretics
Excessive ingestion of alkaline drugs
Loss of chloride ions
Endocrine disorder
The acid-base balance of the plasma in our body is maintained by bicarbonate/carbonic acid buffer system in our blood
plasma. When there are excess acid that liberated in the body, it will be neutralizes by some of the sodium carbonate
and when there is alkalinity, it combines with carbonic acid to form bicarbonate.
Sodium Bicarbonate USP, Potassium Bicarbonate USP, Sodium Acetate USP and Potassium Citrate are the official
systematic alkalizers.
IV 0.9% saline solution is used as a combat for Cl-responsive metabolic alkalosis
Maintenance therapy with intravenous fluids is intended to supply normal requirements for water and electrolytes to
patients who cannot take them orally. All maintenance solutions should contain at least 5% dextrose. This minimizes
the build-up of those metabolite associated with starvation: urea, phosphate and ketone bodies. In addition to dextrose,
the general electrolyte composition of maintenance solutions are: Na, Cl, HCO, Mg and HPO ions while Oral
electrolyte solutions are used to supply water and electrolytes in amounts needed for maintenance as soon as intake of
usual foods and liquids is discontinued and before serious fluid loses or deficits occur. They are also given to replace
mild to moderate fluid losses due to diarrhea and other conditions associated with excessive fluid loss or deficit fluid
intake.
Examples of:
a. Official combination electrolyte infusion- Ringers Injection USP XX and Lactated Ringers Injection USP XX
b. Commercially available preparations of the above Pedialyte and Lytren.

17
Go, Jenicca Pamela Y.

1F-PH
Exercise 4: Essential and Trace Ions

1.

2.

3.

4.

5.
6.

a. Fe- Constituent of hemoglobin

Anemia
b. I- Constituent of thyroxine and triiodothyronine
Endemic (simple) goiter; cretinism
c. Co- Constituent of Vit. B12 (cyanocobalamin)
Deficiency of Vit. B12 (pernicious anemia); an excess (polycythemia)
d. Zn- Constituent of insulin and carbonic anhydrase
Anemia; stunted growth; hypogonadism in male
e. Cu-Formation of hemoglobin increase of iron utilization constituent of oxidase enzymes
Hypochromic anemia; excessive heptic storage in Wilsons disease
Iron is present in some from wherever respiration occurs in higher animals. It is essential to the elementary metabolic
processes in cell. In the respiration chain, iron functions as an electron carrier. Iron is responsible for the transport of
molecular oxygen in higher organisms. Both of these functions depend on the ability of the iron to exist in coordination
compounds in different states of oxidation and bonding.
Ferrous sulfate USP occurs as pale, bluish green crystals or granules which are odorless. It has a saline, styptic taste and
is efflorescent in dry air Ferrous Sulfate USP oxidizes readily in moist ar to form brownish yellow basic ferric sulfate.
For this reason the USP carries the italicized warnings: Note- Do not use Ferrous Sulfate that is coated with brownish
yellow basic ferric sulfate.
Much of the commercial ferrous sulfate (known as Copperas) is obtained as a by-product in the picking of steel. This
consist in immersing steel in diluted sulfuric acid to clean it perfectly from spots or rust that may have been formed.
The vat liquor which contains ferrous sulfate in solution is concentrated to crystallization. Another commercial source
of ferrous sulfate is from the mineral pyrite (ron pyrites or fools gold, occurring in nature in shining golden yellow
crystals) which is subjected to atmospheric oxidation. After sometime the mass is extracted with water, the solution
treated with the scrap iron to convert any ferric to ferrous. The clarified solution is evaporated by crystallization.
Lack of sufficient iodine in the diet results in an enlargement of the thyroid gland, knows as simple or colloid goiter.
Fluoride- is widely used today for their anticariogenic action (inhibition of dental cavity development)
Aluminum- soluble aluminum compounds are astringent and antiseptic and are used by cosmetic industry as deodorants

7.

Lithium- is a depressant to the central nervous system and to circulation which is used in manic-depressive disorder.
Bromide- serves to cause a depression of the central nervous system in small doses. I
Mercury currently mercurial are used as diuretics, antiseptic, parasiticide and fungicide.
Strontium- have been used at various times, ranging from the use of strontium bromise NF X as a seductive Strontium
Lactate in the treatment of osteoporosis and Strontium Chloride in a dentrifice as a tooth temperature desenstizing
agent
Silver- the action of silver ion on tissues ranges from antiseptic, astringent, irritant to corrosive, as the concentration of
free silver ion increases
Chromium- to improve or normalize the impaired glucose tolerance of some diabetic, old people and malnourished
children
Gold is used in rheumatism arthritis and lupus erythematosus while arsenic is a solution that has been used for
leukemia because it lowers leukocyte counts