Islamophobia

And the Effects of Education On It

Liza Hazelwood and Allison Mackenzie

Chapter I

TABLE OF CONTENTS
Introduction

Research Rationale . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
2-3
Research
Question . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4
Purpose of Lit
Review . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4
Key Terms . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
4
Chapter II

Review of Literature

History of Islamophobia. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5-6

Tension Between Christians and Jews . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5
Christian Success . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5
Muslim Success and Christian Reaction .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5
Causes of Islamophobia . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . . . 6-9
Politics and Religion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6
Misinformation and Perception of Disloyalty . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7
Structural Causes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7-8
Contextual Causes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .8-9
Effects of Islamophobia . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10
Recent Acts of Islamophobia . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10
Education To Combat Islamophobia . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10-12
The Status of Religion in Education . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. . . 10-11
Tanenbaum Center . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11-12
Modesto School District . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12
Chapter III

Summary . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12-13

Chapter IV

Bibliography . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . . . . . . 14

Research Rationale
#PrayForParis trended worldwide when the news broke of the Paris terrorist attacks that left 129
dead and ISIS as the culprit. In the United States, Muslims have increasingly been targeted. Since
November 13, many acts of Islamophobia were committed throughout the world. On November 15, an
Uber driver from Charlotte, North Carolina, reported that a passenger assumed he was Muslim and beat
him while he was driving. Later that day, a couple in Toronto posted a sign outside their house asking if
Muslims were sorry for the slaughter of innocent people by whom [sic] represent your religious beliefs
[sic]? On November 16, former New York City cop Bo Dietl told Fox News that he was for monitoring
mosques to avoid more terrorism by ISIS, saying that they broke so many, so many plots by
eavesdropping on these radical mosques Weve got to do it again - and lets stop worrying about
peoples rights (Reilly).
Anti-Muslim sentiment is nothing new for the U.S. in a post-9/11 world. Fear of Muslims, also
known as Islamophobia, stems from terrorist attacks from extremists like ISIS, but also representation in
the media, politics, and ignorance of people regarding their beliefs. Islamophobia has been around for
centuries. It began in Europe, as Islam and Christianity crossed paths. This intolerance came out of the
unfamiliarity of a different religion. There is a history of conflict between other religions targeting Islam
like during the Crusades. In the U.S., there are not many Muslims so people are not as informed of Islam
or what it means to be Islamic. Shown terrorist acts of a religion that people are not as informed about can
breed bias and ignorance about the religion and the people of the religion. After 9/11 Americans all could
say they knew of one Muslim - Osama bin Laden. American Muslims did not know why they were
being prejudiced against because of people who did not represent them.
Though many attempts have been made to stop terrorism, including the everlasting war on terror,
there has not been any constructive effort to stop Islamophobia. News reports continue to pass on
assumptions and some acts of Islamophobia are not even reported. In a country that is supposed to be
founded on freedom for all and the eradication of discrimination, the government is doing a poor job
protecting its citizens. Muslims are as much victims of terrorist attacks as the people killed because they
get blamed for actions that they had no connection to. If anything can help alleviate their suffering, it is
education, which explains what people are blind to.
Now, theres the popular adage that the more educated a person is, the more tolerant and
understanding they are of something. We were curious if Islam would also fit under this category. In a
broad rewriting of our research question, we essentially want to know if more education about the religion
could help combat the spread of Islamophobia in the United States.

Islamophobia is pervading through the entire world after numerous terrorist attacks. People blame
the acts of a few extremists on the larger population of Muslims who do not share the beliefs of the
terrorists. The misconception that all Muslims are terrorists is offensive and dangerous to Muslims
because people lash out in fear, hurting them. After 9/11, 7/7, the Paris attacks, and many more attacks by
Islamist extremists, people are scared, and willing to protect themselves any way they can. As the war on
terror grows, it is likely that terrorist groups will eventually be eradicated, or, at the very least, limited.
However, how long until that happens? It is the governments responsibility to keep its citizens safe, so
they should take steps to do so. Violence and discrimination causes harm to the 2.77 million Muslims in
America today. Education about all religions is important for religious tolerance, so that future
generations dont inherit the intolerance that invades some people. Not only would an educational
program centered around learning about religion increase tolerance for Islam, it would help with other
religions as well. Learning and being able to express oneself is important for emotional health, and these
classes would help with that.
Higher levels of education have proven to be connected to greater tolerance of religions, as shown
by a Gallup study: More than half of people with a college degree or more are more tolerant
(52%), compared with 40% of those with a high school diploma or less (Winseman 2). Even though this
research has been done, there has still been little to no action in implementing mandatory religion classes
in the United States.
People will always consider themselves superior to others unless educators take action against
these beliefs early on. As students, people are more understanding of issues and are less rigid than people
who have had time to cement their ideas. But the idea of superiority still remains. In fact, there is a
tendency within any human group, defined in virtually any way sports teams, for example to define itself
as superior to all others. And when it is difficult to identify traits that set ones group apart from the rest,
negative traits are created in what Freud called the narcissism of minor differences (Firestone 43).
Though this narcissism isnt the cause of Islamophobia specifically, it is important to deal with in the
context of a class.
All in all, Islamophobia damages the lives of 2.77 million Muslims, even if they are not directly
discriminated against. Split second prejudices emerge in the minds of people who are unaware of the
tenets of Islam or what Muslims actually practice and believe. On one end of the spectrum, this could
impact whether a shop assistant approaches a Muslim, or someone assumed to be Muslim, or, on the more
extreme end, whether they get attacked violently and blamed for terrorist attacks. These people need to be
protected, and education can help save their lives.
Research Question

What would be the effect of a mandatory class to promote greater understanding of religions to combat
Islamophobia in the United States?
Purpose of Review of Literature
In this review of literature, we will explain the history of Islamophobia to understand its causes, which
will then be used to understand the need for an educational program that combats Islamophobia. We will
showcase two programs that have shown promising results regarding tolerance in children towards
religion. This will highlight the need for a mandatory religion class in schools in the hopes of increasing
tolerance to combat hatred.
Key Terms
Islamophobia: having an irrational fear of or prejudice towards Muslim people or people who appear to
be Muslim

Review of Literature
History of Islamophobia

To understand the current situation with Islamophobia and the need for more religious tolerance,
it is important to know how this problem started and why it persists. The long history of Christianity and
Islam has pervaded into modern history, and it will continue strongly into the foreseeable future. There is
no need for hatred and intolerance to continue along with it.
Tension Between Jews and Christians
The tension between Jews and Christians existed as they disputed with one another over which
expression of religion was actually sanctioned by God. Each religion argued that the others expression
was false. Around the first century BCE, hundreds of thousands, if not millions, of Greco-Romans had
stopped believing in their traditional religion. Their previous religion of Greco-Roman myths had been
entertaining, but did not offer much spiritual advice or provide a code of ethics. Greeks and Romans were
looking for religious identity associated with meaningful prayer, personal introspection, and moralethical guidance (Firestone, 2010, p. 45). First they became interested in Judaism, then after the
emergence of Christianity, they were attracted to it as well. Some even joined both communities, going to
synagogues on the Jewish Sabbath and then going to church on the Christian Sabbath the following day.
This caused friction between Jews and Christians, but more importantly, in the religious leaders. The
arguments between the two religions went on for centuries, often at the same time as the Roman Empire,
following pagan beliefs, was persecuting both religions.
Both religions were a threat to the Roman Empire. At the time, making sacrifices to the Roman
gods on behalf of the emperor was the statement of civic loyalty. Later Roman subjects were obligated to
make sacrifices to the emperor. Jews and Christians refused to perform both of these functions. Intense
pressure was being placed on Jews and Christians to convert to paganism, at the same time as numerous
pagans joined Jewish and Christian communities. Both communities grew substantially and drew support
away from the Roman religious establishment and the associated political authority. Constantines
predecessor, Diocletian, persecuted Christians by executing thousands of non-believers who refused to
make offerings to the gods.
Christian Success
Only a few years after Diocletians rule ended in 305, Emperor Constantine declared Christianity
a legal religion, and then made it the official religion of the Roman Empire. In the eyes of the Christians,
this was not only a victory over the previously pagan Roman Empire, but also over the Jews. They took
this win as proof of their Gods approval of Christianity, meaning that their expression of God was the
true one. Their main view was that the only way the Roman Empire could become Christian was if it was
Gods will.
Muslim Success and Christian Reaction

Centuries later when the Arab Muslims controlled the land from the Atlantic Ocean to India and
the Christians were confined to Anatolia and several provinces west of the Bosporus, the same logic was
used. The assumption of Christian supremacy was questioned and their reason challenged by the
Muslims. Suddenly the Muslims were claiming that it was Gods will that they dismantled both the
Persian Empire and Byzantium in one fell swoop.
Christian apologists started hostilities with the Muslims, and the previous war between the
Christians and the Jews was reincarnated as the new fight between the Christians and Muslims. One of
the earliest examples of this in writing was by an eighth century monk named Theophanes. Theophanes
wrote that the Prophet Muhammad was a fraud and an epileptic who rationalized his fits as visits from the
angel Gabriel. His cleverness convinced many people to follow him, including some Jews, who then fed
him misinformation on the Christians. In the thirteenth century, Riccoldo da Monte di Croce wrote that
Muhammad was chosen not by God, but by the Devil. Instead of accepting the new religion, as the
Roman Empire had done for Christianity, the Christian reaction was to harbor a deep fear and resentment
that became imbedded in the Christian self-concept and view of the Muslim other (Firestone, 2010, p.
47). Though the term Islamophobia had not yet been coined, this reaction is the core of it.
Causes of Islamophobia
Modern Situation
When asked, most people would say that one of the main causes of Islamophobia is the terrorism
that surrounds the world now, especially after 9/11, 7/7, and 11/3. But according to Firestone, these
events, however heinous and shocking, are not the cause. They are only the most recent triggers. The
upcoming chapter titled Effects of Islamophobia will go further into detail about the recent attacks on
Muslim people.
Politics and Religion
Those in the Middle East, North Africa, Canada, and the United States equally cite religion and
political interests as the main cause for tensions between Islam and the West, as found in a study done by
Gallup, Inc. In the case of Sub-Saharan Africa, religion is more commonly cited than politics, while
Europeans say that political interests are the driving force behind Muslim-West tensions.
Misinformation and Perception of Disloyalty
More commonly there is the problem of misinformation. Misinformation actively promotes
Islamophobia in America. This creates prejudice and discrimination in the general population, which
creates a dangerous environment for Muslims. Self-reported knowledge about Islam affects Americans
feelings of prejudice towards Muslims. Approximately 29% of the American who said that they had no
prejudice towards Muslims said that they had no knowledge at all of Islam Gallup, Islamophobia:
Understanding Anti-Muslim Sentiment in the West, 2015, p. 10). Even more surprisingly, those who said

that they held no prejudice were more likely than those who say they hold a little, some, or a great deal of
prejudice to say they had no knowledge about Islam.
Another influence on Islamophobia is the perception of disloyalty. In the United States, Muslim
disloyalty or the perception of disloyalty creates the idea that Muslims cannot be trusted and are to be
feared. Gallup research shows that those who think Muslim Americans are loyal to the country are
younger than those who think they are disloyal. Most Americans, 87% in fact, strongly agree that they
would not object to a person of a different faith living next door. The remaining 13% is more likely to
believe that Muslims are disloyal. However, the idea of disloyalty creates problems for Muslims because
of Islamophobia, while also being a cause of it.
Structural Causes
There are two different types of causes, structural and contextual, according to Marwan
Muhammad, an advisor on combating racism & intolerance in the Organization for Security and
Cooperation in Europe (OSCE). Under structural causes of Islamophobia, there are also two forms of
racism. The first occurs when one majority group paints another group of people as backwards and
uncivilized to legitimize their claims. In France, there has been a lengthy trend of anti-religious
movements since the Age of Enlightenment around the 18 th century. Throughout French history, religious
have frequently been depicted as backward ideologies used to control the masses, supposedly prone to
hysteria and extremism (Muhammad, 2010, p. 96). This is a complete contrast to the praised approach of
modern secularism that has now become the cornerstone of French ideology. This form of racism was
built around colonization, so that those in power could take away the humanity of those colonized so that
they could justify the spoils of war and the unequal treatment of other populations.
The second is forced assimilation of one group of people into a common culture. Built around a
civilizing myth, this form of racism paints the target population as in need of assistance. This has
widespread usage in the West and has been used to justify war in Iraq to free Iraq or the banning of the
veil in some Western European countries. These two forms of racism have created a world in which
Islamophobia is accepted because of the idea that Muslims are not as advanced as the modern world and
arent on the same level of humanity as the rest of the world, but also because they need help and their
women are in trouble. These stereotypes and generalizations help promote the idea that Muslims are
inferior to other people.
Another way that humans create these problems is through the creation of the idea of others.
The idea of us had to create the idea of other people who are not us. It is occasionally easier to
define an ethnic/cultural/national community based on who they are not, rather than based on who they
actually are. After creating the definition of us, the Christians made the group of others (Muslims) to
differentiate themselves (Muhammad, 2010, p. 96). Creating these groups and differences is inevitable,

because there is a tendency within any human group to define itself as superior to all others. And
When it is difficult to identify traits that set ones group apart from the rest, negative traits are created in
what Freud called the narcissism of minor differences (Firestone, Islamophobia & Anti-Semitism:
History and Possibility, 2010, p. 43).
These groups of us and others, or the Christians and the Muslims, went through history
telling their people about the other group. This new ideology of anti-Muslim hatred was established by
thinkers and missionaries, which was then dropped into popular culture through songs and poems, such as
the Chanson de Roland from the 11th century. One thousand years later and the themes told about are still
the same: the enemy within, Muslim barbarians, and persecuted Muslim women. All these years
later and the same method of spreading themes is the same; popular culture diffuses through songs,
novels, television shows and movies.
Contextual Causes
The aftershock of the terrorist attacks on 9/11, 7/7, and 11/3 created widespread fear and
confusion throughout the world. A lot of this fear was directed at Muslims or people who appeared to be
Muslim. The fight between what is perceived as Good and Evil, the West being the Good and Islam as the
Evil, stokes the flame of contextual causes. Post-event analysis introduces a bias which makes
explanations more obvious than they actually are (Muhammad, 2010, p. 97). After a disaster, the media
has to sift through complex information about timing, locations, resources, while dealing with their own
issues with the same problems and with conflicting interests and an unstable state of human emotions. Yet
the most common explanation cites a highly skilled Islamist group that planned and executed a successful
terrorist action in a Western city that caused a high civilian death toll. Post-event analysis in the media
influences the masses, which can reach millions of people, and can cause Islamophobic actions.
This instability in the human state can cause the loss of in-depth analysis of facts. This leads to
two streams of thought, conspiracy theories and the apology of suspicion. For conspiracy theories to
function, the official version of the event is so convoluted and flawed that it has the appearance of being a
set up to further a governments political or military agenda. This allows anyone to create their own
account of what happened. The governments completely lack of transparency when it comes to what
could be terrorism makes any conspiracy theory plausible, which destroys the ideals of democracy and
legitimizes a more aggressive form of power.
The apology of suspicion places Muslims as a whole as the scapegoat for the whole affair.
Following 9/11 and 7/7, counter-terrorist measures like x-rays, personal investigations, and random
checks were introduced in public areas. This approach means that somewhere in the public opinion, the
Muslims have been elected as the scapegoat with a link to terrorist actions. This frames Muslims as the

suspect community or group because of the actions of a fringe few who are often taken to represent the
whole community, or even the Muslim faith as a whole (Muhammad, 2010, p. 98).
Effects of Islamophobia
Recent Acts of Islamophobia
Attacks on Muslim people and those who appear Muslim have especially surged after the Paris
attacks on November 13, 2015. Examples previously mentioned show the recurrence of hatred after
extremist attacks towards those not involved. These attacks are the most recent trigger to widespread antiMuslim sentiment across the world. Since Paris, attacks against Muslims have tripled in the U.S.. Before
Paris, there was an average of 12.6 reported per month and after Paris there were 38 attacks within a
month (Lichtblau, 2011). There are many more examples than these ones that are listed. On November
13, a pregnant Muslim woman was attacked in California. On November 15th, a mosque was fired on in
Connecticut and also armed protesters gathered around a mosque in Texas. On November 16th, a Muslim
college student was almost run over in Ohio. On November 17th, a flight was delayed after a passenger
was scared by a Muslim man looking at his cellphone in Maryland. On December 3rd, the San Bernardino
shooting occurred with a total of 14 people dead (Mack, 2015). Islamophobia was shown even before the
latest trigger. The number of anti-Muslim groups tripled from 10 to 30 groups in 2011. Attacks stemmed
from religious prejudice is also nothing new. There were 107 hate crimes in 2009 and in 2010 there were
160 hate crimes. An estimated 20% of these hate crimes were motivated by religious bias (Council on
American-Islamic Relations, 2013).
These Islamophobic acts do not just occur in the U.S. The number of attacks against Muslims
have also tripled since the Paris attacks (Blake, 2016). It is not surprising that this Islamophobia is
rampant in Europe because this phenomenon had its beginnings in Europe (Muhammad, 2010). In 2010,
it was found that every three days a Muslim person is attacked on the streets in France and every three
weeks a mosque is damaged (Muhammad, 2010, p. 100). The Paris based National Committee for Human
Rights (CNCDH) found that a proportion of 18% of French people who say they have no issue with
immigrants do admit that they have strong negative feelings associated with Islam (Muhammad, 2010, p.
99). The effects of Islamophobia have been shown way before and after Paris.
Not only are these effects shown through attacks and ideology, but these effects are shown
through discrimination against Muslims. Muhammad explains on page 98 how In Why Should Suicide
Bombers Buy Life Insurance, economist Steven Levitt and journalist Stephen Dubner teamed up with a
banking data analyst to build an algorithm that would detect highly probable terrorist suspects...The
algorithm consists of a series of statistical indicators that are supported to define risky
behaviors...Whenever an individual shows most of these indicators as positive, he or she is considered a
suspect...They are designed to find potential Muslims. In fact the indicators are mostly identifying the

practice of Islam, not using a credit card and not purchasing life insurance are common amongst
Muslims. These triggers make the effects of Islamophobia even greater and further institutionalize
suspicion of Muslims throughout the world.
Education to Combat Islamophobia
The Status of Religion in Education
Religion and schools usually remain separate. The Establishment Clause explains how the
government cannot establish a religion. Talking about religion is a fine line in public schools. Schools
may not want to bring up the issues that come with teaching about religion. Schools do not want to violate
the Lemon Test. The Lemon test is related to the restrictions on how religion can be talked about in
schools. The Lemon test explains that, A government action violates the Establishment Clause if it does
not have a clear secular purpose, if it has the primary effect of either advancing or inhibiting religion, or if
it results in excessive entanglement between the government and religion. The goal, of course, is
absolute neutrality on the part of the government so that Americas religious diversity does not result in
inequality (Kerby, 2012, p. 2). The fear of violating the law leads many schools not to divulge much on
religion. Not talking about religion at all is something that Justice Thomas Clark believes is not right. He
says how, It might well be said that ones education is not complete without a study of comparative
religion or the history of religion and its advancement of civilization. The 1963 case Abington v.
Schempp cracked down on teaching bible reading in schools, but did indoctrinate the idea of the right to
offer academic instruction about religion (Yoffie, 2014, 2). Providing some sort of class or education
program that enlightens students on the cultures and religions in the world could advance and diversify
their understanding of the world.
This idea is further supported through Kerbys article Teaching for Tolerance: The Case for
Religious Studies in American Public Schools. Religion is also important for students, not only to
understand, but also to use in everyday life. Even if a student is not religious, the lessons and morals that
religion teaches can be useful. A class on religion would not only work on increasing tolerance, but would
also add more depth to other classes. In an essay about why teaching religion in schools is important,
Lauren Kerby brings up several points about these classes. Religion is related to many conflicts in the
world now and in history. Not teaching students about religion impacts their ability to understand these
events, creating a lack of understanding about religions role in history, literature, and art, but also in
understand how other people live. Students need to be aware of both sides of a controversial argument,
secular and religious, which gives kids the ability to make educated judgements instead of snap
judgements that theyve been taught by their parents. This class would also give students a more
exploratory frame of mind because it can ask the questions that traditional classes cant, like the meaning
of life and death and why existence happens. Questions of meaning or purpose - the big questions - are

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pushed to the side in the race to score highest on a test, to get into a good college, to obtain a high paying
job and important thoughts that students need to confront are shoved aside, but in a religion class, their
feelings and opinions can be explored (Kerby, 2012, p. 6). It would also be important to make sure the
class or program would no doubt pass the Lemon test so schools would have less anxiety about the
possibility of going up against the First Amendment.
Tanenbaum Center
This education program relies on the idea of making younger people more tolerant. This is based
off the idea that children can have racist attitudes as early as preschool. A Bartal study found that Israeli
children as young as 2 rated a photograph of a person more negatively when identified as Arab
(Ramarajan and Runnell, 2007, 92). This program tries to integrate the education of different religions
into everyday learning. A lesson on astronomy helps connect science to peoples different religions. This
lesson has students participate in class activities that demonstrate how shadows are cast on the Earth and
how the positional relationships between the Earth, the Sun and the Moon affect the phases of the Moon.
The phases of the Moon are then linked to festivals and holidays such as Ramadan, Diwali and Hanukkah,
which are connected to the Lunar Cycle, (Ramarajan and Runnell, 2007, 92). This program also
introduces cooperative learning. This allows students to learn from the diversity of their pers in order to
reduce prejudice. Students learn about poetry by reading poetry about their own different religious
holidays. Sharing these poems helps facilitate a discussion about whats important about their religion to
them. The students can compare and contrast their points of view. This program is idealistic because it
does not yet to have a firm curriculum and needs more teacher training how to actually teach about
religion in schools. This type of program does not exactly translate into the older grades unlike the
Modesto County world religions class.
Modesto
Modesto, California School District created a 9 week course to improve respect and tolerance
through the knowledge of religions for high school freshmen. The first two weeks educated the kids on
the first amendment while the next 7 weeks talked about different religions across the world. After
conducting surveys and interviews, researchers found that the kids had obtained more knowledge and
tolerance of religions. The researchers did struggle with testing these factors to be true because it is hard
to use a survey to tell if people are more tolerant. Although, the answers could have not been as reliable
there was still benefit to be found of a class that was not even a semester long. One student explains how
I had a Hindu person living across the street and hed be praying to a statue, a Russian Orthodox student
began, Id be all confused. I couldnt understand why he was doing it. I thought it was just plain dumb.
But I notice now that he had a pretty good reason to, (Lester and Roberts, 2011, p. 10). Students like this

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one showed more tolerant behavior. The tolerant and understanding the class promotes can translate into
having a better understanding of Muslims in order to combat islamophobia.
Conclusion
Religion in schools is something that needs to be incorporated for educational reasons so even
one student can be more tolerant such as the student above. A combination of the Tanenbaum and
Modesto education programs could be the most beneficial to combatting islamophobia. Students could be
more tolerant at a younger age and then become more intelligent about the Muslim community. Some sort
of action is necessary since public schools are in an unique position to play a crucial role in modeling
civil dialogue about religion. No other authority whether journalists, politicians, religious leaders, or
parents regularly stresses the importance of respectful discussion about religion or, more importantly,
teaches young people how to engage in such deliberation (Lester, 2011, p. 210.) Schools can at least
make some impact on the problem of Islamophobia. 7% of reported anti-Muslim incidents are involved in
school settings in a 2006 survey (Council on American-Islamic Relations, 2013). If a class throughout a
students years of school does not prove to be effective despite the likeliness due to examples such as
Modesto than there can be another idea to combat Islamophobia. Any positive effects are a glimmer of
hope for combatting Islamophobia. Today, Muslims (48%) are more likely than Americans of other major
religious groups to say they, personally, have experienced racial or religious discrimination in the past
year (Gallup, Islamophobia: Understanding Anti-Muslim Sentiment in the West, 2015, p. 9). Schools have
a role they can play in breaking this cycle so Muslims are not subject to the intolerance they face
everyday.

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