RELATIVITY

MOMENTUM,
MASS, ENERGY,
AND GRAVITY

16

..........

Objectives
Describe how an objects
momentum changes as it
approaches the speed of light.
(16.1)

RELATIVITYMOMENTUM,
MASS, ENERGY, AND GRAVITY
THE BIG

IDEA

Describe how mass and energy

are related. (16.2)
Describe how the
correspondence principle
applies to special relativity.
(16.3)

According to special relativity, mass and energy

are equivalent. According to general relativity,
gravity causes space to become curved and
time to undergo changes.

o material object, particle or future

spaceship, can be accelerated to
the speed of light. Why this is
so has to do with momentum and
energy, which, in relativity theory,
have new definitions. One of the
most celebrated outcomes of special relativity is the discovery that
mass and energy are one and
the same thingas described by
E  mc 2. Einsteins general theory
of relativity, developed a decade
after his special theory of relativity, offers another celebrated outcome, an alternative to Newtons
theory of gravity. Both theories of
relativity have changed the way we see
the universe.

State the principle of

equivalence. (16.4)
Describe the relationship
between the presence of mass
and the curvature of spacetime. (16.5)
Describe Einsteins predictions
based on his theory of general
relativity. (16.6)

discover!
plastic garbage
bag, trash can, pool ball,
marble

MATERIALS

ANALYZE AND CONCLUDE

1. Slow moving marbles

rapidly spiral into the
central ball. Faster moving
marbles should orbit
about the central ball.
Depending on the direction
of launch, orbits may be
circular or elliptical.
2. A heavier ball will make a
steeper well, simulating a
stronger gravitational field.
3. Done with care, the marble
may nicely simulate a planet
orbiting the sun or a probe
orbiting Earth.

302

discover!
How Can Space-Time be Modeled?

Analyze and Conclude

1. Stretch a plastic garbage bag tightly across

the top of a trash can. Tape the edges of the
bag to the side of the can.
2. Place a pool ball or other heavy sphere in the
center of the garbage bag. This should cause
the bag to sag in the center.
3. Launch a marble by giving it a velocity tangent to the circumference of the can.
4. Try launching the marble with a variety of initial velocities.

1. Observing Describe the motion of the

marble. What effect does changing the initial
speed and direction of the marble have on
the shape of the orbit?
2. Predicting How might changing the mass of
the heavy central sphere affect the motion of
the marble?
3. Making Generalizations How closely does
this model represent the motion of Earth
satellites?

302

16.1 Momentum and

16.1 Momentum and Inertia

in Relativity
If we push an object that is free to move, it will accelerate. If we
maintain a steady push, it will accelerate to higher and higher speeds.
If we push with a greater and greater force, we expect the acceleration in turn to increase. It might seem that the speed should increase
without limit, but there is a speed limit in the universethe speed
of light. In fact, we cannot accelerate any material object enough to
reach the speed of light, let alone surpass it.

Inertia in Relativity
At least one thing
reaches the speed of
lightlight itself! But a
particle of light has no
rest mass. A material
particle can never be
brought to the speed
of light. Light can never
be brought to rest.

Key Terms
relativistic momentum, rest mass
Common Misconception
The momentum of an object is
always simply its mass 3 velocity.
FACT The relativistic momentum
of an object of mass m and speed
v is actually larger than mv.

 Teaching Tip State that if you

push an object that is free to
move, it accelerates in accord with
Newtons second law, a 5 F/m. The
momentum version of Newtons
second law, F 5 Dp/Dt, says that if
you push an object that is free to
move, its momentum increases.
Both the acceleration and the
change-of-momentum versions
of the second law give the same
result. However, for very high
speeds, the momentum version
is more accurate. F 5 Dp/Dt holds
for all speeds, even those near
the speed of lightas long as
the relativistic expression for
momentum is used.

Newtonian and Relativistic Momentum We can understand this from Newtons second law, which Newton originally
expressed in terms of momentum: F  mv/t (which reduces to
the familiar F  ma, or a  F/m). The momentum form, interestingly, remains valid in relativity theory. Recall from Chapter 8 that
the change of momentum of an object is equal to the impulse applied
to it. Apply more impulse and the object acquires more momentum.
Double the impulse and the momentum doubles. Apply ten times as
much impulse and the object gains ten times as much momentum.
Does this mean that momentum can increase without any limit, even
though speed cannot? Yes, it does.
We learned that momentum equals mass times velocity. In equation form, p  mv (we use p for momentum). To Newton, infinite
momentum would mean infinite speed. Not so in relativity. Einstein
showed that a new definition of momentum is required. It is
mv
p
2
1  v2
c

where v is the speed of an object and c is the speed of light. This

is relativistic momentum, which is noticeable at speeds approaching the speed of light. Notice that the square root in the denominator
looks just like the one in the formula for time dilation in Chapter 15.
It tells us that the relativistic momentum of an object of mass m and
speed v is larger than mv by a factor of 1/
1  (v2/c2) .
As an object approaches the speed of light, its momentum increases dramatically. As v approaches c, the denominator
of the equation approaches zero. This means that the momentum
approaches infinity! An object pushed to the speed of light would
have infinite momentum and would require an infinite impulse,
which is clearly impossible. So nothing that has mass can be pushed
to the speed of light, much less beyond it. Hence, we see that c is the
speed limit in the universe.

CHAPTER 16

For: Links on speed of light

Visit: www.SciLinks.org
Web Code: csn 1601

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 Teaching Tip Write the

expression for relativistic
momentum on the board.
Point out that it differs from
the classical expression for
momentum by its denominator.
A common interpretation is
that of a relativistic mass,
m 5 mo/1 2 v 2/c2 , times
velocity v. Because the increase in
m with speed is directional (as is
length contraction), and P rather
than m is a vector, the concept
of momentum increase rather
than mass increase is preferred in
advanced physics courses. Either
treatment of relativistic mass or
relativistic momentum, however,
leads to the same description of
rapidly moving objects in accord
with observations.
 Teaching Tip Show that
for small speeds the relativistic
momentum equation reduces
to the familiar mv (just as for
small speeds t 5 to in time
dilation). Then show that when
v approaches c, the denominator
of the equation approaches zero.
This means that the momentum
approaches infinity! An object
pushed to the speed of light
would have infinite momentum
and would require an infinite
impulse (force 3 time), which
is clearly impossible. Nothing
material can be pushed to the
speed of light. The speed of light
c is the upper speed limit in the
universe.

......

As an object
approaches the
speed of light, its momentum
increases dramatically.
CONCEPT

CHECK

Teaching Resources
Reading and Study
Workbook

FIGURE 16.1 
If the momentum of the
electrons were equal to
the Newtonian value mv,
the beam would follow the
dashed line. But because
the relativistic momentum, or inertia in motion,
is greater, the beam follows the stiffer trajectory
shown by the solid line.

What if v is much less than c? Then the denominator of the equation is nearly equal to 1 and p is nearly equal to mv. Newtons definition of momentum is valid at low speed.

At ordinary speeds,
an objects momentum
is simply its classical
value, mv. For example,
at 30 m/s (0.0000001c),
the relativistic momentum differs from the
classical value by less
than one trillionth of a
percent. Newtons definition of momentum is
valid at low speeds.

......

PresentationEXPRESS

CONCEPT How does an objects momentum change as it

Interactive Textbook

CHECK

Conceptual Physics Alive!

DVDs Special Relativity II

304

Trajectory of High-Speed Particles We often say that a particle pushed close to the speed of light acts as if its mass were increasing, because its momentumits inertia in motionincreases more
than its speed increases. The rest mass of an object, represented by
m in the equation on the previous page, is a true constant, a property
of the object no matter what speed it has.
Subatomic particles are routinely pushed to nearly the speed
of light. The momenta of such particles may be thousands of times
more than the Newton expression mv predicts. One way to look at
the momentum of a high-speed particle is in terms of the stiffness
of its trajectory. The more momentum it has, the harder it is
to deflect itthe stiffer is its trajectory. If it has a lot of momentum, it more greatly resists changing course.
This can be seen when a beam of electrons is directed into a
magnetic field, as shown in Figure 16.1. Charged particles moving
in a magnetic field experience a force that deflects them from their
normal paths. For a particle with a small momentum, the path curves
sharply. For a particle with a large momentum, the path curves only
a littleits trajectory is stiffer. Even though one particle may be
moving only a little faster than another onesay 99.9% of the speed
of light instead of 99% of the speed of lightits momentum will
be considerably greater and it will follow a straighter path in the
magnetic field. Through such experiments, physicists working with
subatomic particles at atomic accelerators verify every day the correctness of the relativistic definition of momentum and the speed
limit imposed by nature.

304

approaches the speed of light?

16.2 Equivalence of

16.2 Equivalence of Mass and Energy

A remarkable insight of Einsteins special theory of relativity is his
conclusion that mass is simply a form of energy. A piece of matter,
even if at rest and even if not interacting with anything else, has an
energy of being called its rest energy. Einstein concluded that it
takes energy to make mass and that energy is released when mass disappears. Rest mass is, in effect, a kind of potential energy. Mass stores
energy, just as a boulder rolled to the top of a hill stores energy. When
the mass of something decreases, as it can do in nuclear reactions,
energy is released, just as the boulder rolling to the bottom of the hill
releases energy.

E = mc 2 says that mass

is congealed energy.
Mass and energy are
two sides of the same
coin.

Common Misconception
E 5 mc2 means that energy is
mass traveling at the speed of
light squared.
FACT The equation gives the total
energy content of a piece of
stationary matter of mass m.

 Teaching Tip Write E 5 mc2

on the board. State that this is
the most celebrated equation of
the twentieth century. It relates
energy and mass. Every material
object is composed of energy
energy of being. This energy of
being is appropriately called rest
energy.

where c is again the speed of light. This equation gives the total energy
content of a piece of stationary matter of mass m. Mass and energy
are equivalentanything with mass also has energy.
In ordinary units of measurement, the speed of light c is a large
quantity and its square is even larger. This means that a small amount
of mass stores a large amount of energy. The quantity c2 is a conversion factor. It converts the measurement of mass to the measurement
of equivalent energy. It is the ratio of rest energy to mass: E/m  c 2.
Its appearance in either form of this equation has nothing to do
with light and nothing to do with motion. The magnitude of c2 is
90 quadrillion (9  1016) joules per kilogram. One kilogram of matter
has an energy of being equal to 90 quadrillion joules. Even a speck of
matter with a mass of only 1 milligram has a rest energy of 90 billion
joules. (This is equivalent to the kinetic energy of a 3-ton truck moving at over 20 times the speed of sound!)

CHAPTER 16

Key Term
rest energy

The massenergy equivalence is

important and usually generates
high interest.

Conversion of Mass to Energy The amount of rest energy E is

related to the mass m by the most celebrated equation of the twentieth century,
E  mc 2

Examples of Mass-Energy Conversions Rest energy, like any

form of energy, can be converted to other forms. When we strike a
match, for example, a chemical reaction occurs and heat is released.
Phosphorus atoms in the match head rearrange themselves and combine with oxygen in the air to form new molecules. The resulting
molecules have very slightly less mass than the separate phosphorus
and oxygen molecules. From a mass standpoint, the whole is slightly
less than the sum of its parts, but not by very muchby only about
one part in a billion. For all chemical reactions that give off energy,
there is a corresponding decrease in mass.

Mass and Energy

 Teaching Tip Stress that c2 is

a constant conversion factor and
is NOT the speed of the mass.
Also, stress that the equation
E 5 mc2 is NOT restricted to
chemical and nuclear reactions.
 Teaching Tip E 5 mc2 says
that mass is congealed energy.
Mass and energy are two sides of
the same coin.

think!
Can we look at the equation E  mc 2 in another
way and say that matter
transforms into pure
energy when it is traveling at the speed of light
squared?
Answer: 16.2

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305

 Teaching Tip State that the

mass of something is actually the
internal energy within it and that
this energy can be converted to
other forms of energy, such as
light.
 Teaching Tip Mention that
the 4.5 million tons of matter
that is converted to radiant
energy by the sun each second
is carried (as radiant energy)
through space, so when we speak
of matter being converted to
energy, we are merely converting
from one form to anotherfrom
a form with one set of units,
perhaps, to another. Because of
the mass energy equivalence,
in any reaction that takes into
account the whole system, the
total amount of mass 1 energy
does not change.

FIGURE 16.2 
In one second, 4.5 million
tons of rest mass are converted to radiant energy in
the sun.

In nuclear reactions, the decrease in rest mass is considerably

more than in chemical reactionsabout one part in a thousand.
This decrease of mass in the sun by the process of thermonuclear
fusion bathes the solar system with radiant energy and nourishes
life. The sun is so massive that in a million years only one tenmillionth of the suns rest mass will have been converted to radiant energy. The present stage of thermonuclear fusion in the sun
has been going on for the past 5 billion years, and there is sufficient
hydrogen fuel for fusion to last another 5 billion years. It is nice to
have such a big sun! Nuclear power plants, such as the one shown in
Figure 16.3, make use of the equivalence of mass and energy to
produce enormous amounts of energy.

FIGURE 16.3 
Saying that a power plant
delivers 90 million megajoules
of energy to its consumers is
equivalent to saying that it
delivers 1 gram of energy to
its consumers, because mass
and energy are equivalent.

The equation E  mc2 is not restricted to chemical and nuclear

reactions. A change in energy of any object at rest is accompanied
by a change in its mass. The filament of a lightbulb has more mass
when it is energized with electricity than when it is turned off. A
hot cup of tea has more mass than the same cup of tea when cold.
A wound-up spring clock has more mass than the same clock when
unwound. But these examples involve incredibly small changes in
masstoo small to be measured by conventional methods. No wonder the fundamental relationship between mass and energy was not
discovered until the 1900s.
The equation E  mc2 is more than a formula for the conversion
of rest mass into other kinds of energy, or vice versa. It states that
energy and mass are the same thing. Mass is simply congealed energy.
If you want to know how much energy is in a system, measure its
mass. For an object at rest, its energy is its mass. Shake a massive
object back and forth; it is energy itself that is hard to shake.

......

Mass and energy are

equivalentanything
with mass also has energy.
CONCEPT

CHECK

Teaching Resources
Reading and Study
Workbook
Problem-Solving Exercises in
Physics 9-2

......

PresentationEXPRESS

CONCEPT

Interactive Textbook

306

CHECK
306

What is the relationship between mass and energy?

16.3 The

16.3 The Correspondence Principle

If a new theory is to be valid, it must account for the verified results
of the old theory. The correspondence principle states that new
theory and old must overlap and agree in the region where the results
of the old theory have been fully verified. It was advanced as a principle by the Danish physicist Niels Bohr earlier in this century when
Newtonian mechanics was being challenged by both quantum theory
and relativity. According to the correspondence principle, if the
equations of special relativity (or any other new theory) are to be
valid, they must correspond to those of Newtonian mechanics
classical mechanicswhen speeds much less than the speed of light
are considered.
The relativity equations for time dilation, length contraction, and
momentum are
t0
t
2
1  v2
c

Correspondence
Principle
Equations remind us
that you can never
change only one thing.
Change a term on one
side of an equation and
you change something
on the other side.

2
L  L0 1  v2
c
mv
p
2
1  v2
c

The correspondence principle is

one of the neater principles of
physics and is a guide to clear
and rational thinkingnot only
about the ideas of physics,
but for all good theoryeven
in areas as far removed from
science as government, religion,
and ethics. Simply put, if a new
idea is valid, then it ought to be
in harmony with ideas that are
valid in the region it overlaps.

L  L0
1  0  L0
mv
p
 mv

1  0
So for everyday speeds, the time scales and length scales of moving
objects are essentially unchanged. Also, the Newtonian equation
for momentum holds true (and so does the Newtonian equation
for kinetic energy). But when the speed of light is approached,
things change dramatically. Near the speed of light Newtonian
mechanics change completely. The equations of special relativity
hold for all speeds, although they are significant only for speeds
near the speed of light.
CHAPTER 16

 Teaching Tip The equations

in this section serve only to
illustrate the correspondence
principle. It is not necessary that
your students memorize them.
 Teaching Tip Show your
students that when small speeds
are involved, the relativity
formulas reduce to the everyday
observation that time, length,
and the momenta of things do
not appear any different when
moving. This is because the
differences are too tiny to detect.

We can see that each of these equations reduces to a Newtonian value

for speeds that are very small compared with c. Then, the ratio (v/c)2
is very small, and for everyday speeds may be taken to be zero. The
relativity equations become
t0
 t0
t

1  0

Key Terms
correspondence principle,
general theory of relativity

Much of nature is built

on patterns, and looking for those patterns
is the primary preoccupation of both artists
and scientists. We connect things that were
always there but never
put together in our
thinking.

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......

According to the
correspondence
principle, if the equations of
special relativity (or any other
new theory) are to be valid, they
must correspond to those of
Newtonian mechanicsclassical
mechanicswhen speeds much
less than the speed of light are
considered.
CONCEPT

CHECK

So we see that advances in science take place not by discarding

the current ideas and techniques, but by extending them to reveal
new implications. Einstein never claimed that accepted laws of physics were wrong, but instead showed that the laws of physics implied
something that hadnt before been appreciated.
The special theory of relativity is about motion observed in uniformly moving frames of reference, which is why it is called special.
Einsteins conviction that the laws of nature should be expressed
in the same form in every frame of reference, accelerated as well as
non-accelerated, was the primary motivation that led him to develop
the general theory of relativity a new theory of gravitation, in
which gravity causes space to become curved and time to slow down.

Teaching Resources
Reading and Study
Workbook

......

Concept-Development
Practice Book 16-1

CONCEPT How does the correspondence principle apply to

CHECK

PresentationEXPRESS

special relativity?

Interactive Textbook

16.4 General Relativity

16.4 General
Relativity
Key Term
principle of equivalence

Einstein actually imagined himself in elevators, certainly more

common at the time
than spaceships.

FIGURE 16.4 
Imagine being on a spaceship
far away from gravitational
influences. a. Everything
inside is weightless when the
spaceship isnt accelerating.
b. When the spaceship accelerates, an occupant inside
feels gravity.

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308

Einstein was led to a new theory of gravity by thinking about observers in accelerated motion. He imagined himself in a spaceship far
away from gravitational influences, as shown in Figure 16.4. In such
a spaceship at rest or in uniform motion relative to the distant stars,
Einstein and everything within the ship would float freely; there
would be no up and no down. But if rocket motors were activated
to accelerate the ship, things would be different; phenomena similar
to gravity would be observed. The wall adjacent to the rocket motors
(the floor) would push up against any occupants and give them the
sensation of weight. If the acceleration of the spaceship were equal
to g, the occupants could well be convinced the ship was not accelerating, but was at rest on the surface of Earth.

 Teaching Tidbit Space

elevator: Satellites in synchronous
orbit can drop vertical cables
to the surface of Earth where
they can be attached. Rather
than rocketing material to the
satellite, material can be lifted in
elevator fashion!

The Principle of Equivalence Einstein concluded, in what is

now called the principle of equivalence, that gravity and accelerated
motion through space-time are related. The principle of equivalence states that local observations made in an accelerated frame
of reference cannot be distinguished from observations made in
a Newtonian gravitational field. There is no way you can tell whether
you are being pulled by gravity or being accelerated. The effects of
gravity and the effects of acceleration are equivalent.
To examine this new gravity in the accelerating spaceship,
Einstein considered the consequence of dropping two balls, say one
of wood and the other of lead. Figure 16.5 shows that when released,
the balls would continue to move upward side by side with the velocity that the ship had at the moment of release. If the ship were moving at constant velocity (zero acceleration), the balls would appear to
remain suspended in the same place since both the ship and the balls
move the same amount. But if the ship were accelerating, the floor
would move upward faster than the balls, which would soon be intercepted by the floor. Both balls, regardless of their masses, would meet
the floor at the same time. Occupants of the spaceship might attribute their observations to the force of gravity.
 FIGURE 16.5
To an observer inside
the accelerating ship, a
lead ball and a wood ball
accelerate downward
together when released,
just as they would if
pulled by gravity.

Both interpretations of the falling balls are equally valid. Einstein

incorporated this equivalence, or impossibility of distinguishing between gravitation and acceleration, in the foundation of his
general theory of relativity. The principle of equivalence would be
interesting but not revolutionary if it applied only to mechanical
phenomena. But Einstein went further and stated that the principle
holds for all natural phenomena, including optical, electromagnetic,
and mechanical phenomena.
CHAPTER 16

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 Teaching Tip Tell your

students that the three most
important theories of physics
in the twentieth century are
the special theory of relativity
(1905), the general theory of
relativity (1915), and the theory
of quantum mechanics (1926).
The first and third theories have
been focal points of interest and
research since their inceptions,
yet the second, general relativity,
has been largely ignored by
physicistsuntil recently. New
interest stems from the interest
of pulsars, quasars, compact
X-ray sources, and black holes.
All these indicate the existence
of very strong gravitational
fields described only by general
relativity. The move is now on to
a quantum theory of gravitation
that will agree with general
relativity for macroscopic objects.

FIGURE 16.6 
A ball is thrown sideways
in an accelerating spaceship
in the absence of gravity.
a. An outside observer sees
the ball travel in a straight
line. b. To an inside
observer, the ball follows
a parabolic path as if in a
gravitational field.

Bending of Light by Gravity Just as a tossed ball curves in a

gravitational field, so does a light beam. Consider a ball thrown sideways in a stationary spaceship in the absence of gravity. The ball will
follow a straight-line path relative to both an observer inside the ship
and to a stationary observer outside the spaceship. But if the ship is
accelerating, the floor overtakes the ball and it hits the wall below the
level at which it was thrown. An observer outside the ship still sees
a straight-line path, as illustrated in Figure 16.6a, but to an observer
in the accelerating ship, the path is curved; it is a parabola, as shown
in Figure 16.6b. Figure 16.7 illustrates that the same holds true for a
beam of light. The only difference is in the amount of path curvature.
As shown in Figure 16.8, if a ball were thrown at nearly the speed of
light, the curvature of its path would be nearly the same as that of the
light beam.

FIGURE 16.7 
A light ray enters the spaceship horizontally through a side
window. a. Like the ball in Figure 16.6, light appears, to an
outside observer, to be travelling horizontally in a straight
line. b. To an inside observer, the light appears to bend.

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310

......

The principle of
equivalence states
that local observations made in
an accelerated frame of
reference cannot be
distinguished from observations
made in a Newtonian
gravitational field.
CONCEPT

......

Using his principle of equivalence, Einstein took another giant

step that led him to the general theory of relativity. He reasoned that
since acceleration (a space-time effect) can mimic gravity (a force),
perhaps gravity is not a separate force after all; perhaps it is nothing
but a manifestation of space-time. From this bold idea he derived the
mathematics of gravity as being a result of curved space-time.
According to Newton, tossed balls curve because of a force of gravity. According to Einstein, tossed balls and light dont curve because of
any force, but because the space-time in which they travel is curved.
CONCEPT

CHECK

CHECK

FIGURE 16.8 
The trajectory of a baseball
tossed at nearly the speed
of light closely follows the
trajectory of a light beam.

What does the principle of equivalence state?

Teaching Resources
Reading and Study
Workbook
PresentationEXPRESS
Interactive Textbook

16.5 Gravity, Space, and a New

Geometry

16.5 Gravity, Space,

and a New Geometry

Space-time has four dimensionsthree space dimensions (such as

length, width, and height) and one time dimension (past to future).
Einstein perceived a gravitational field as a geometrical warping of
four-dimensional space-time. Four-dimensional geometry is altogether different from the three-dimensional geometry introduced by
Euclid centuries earlier. Euclidean geometry (the ordinary geometry
taught in school) is no longer valid when applied to objects in the
presence of strong gravitational fields.

Key Terms
geodesic, gravitational wave

Four-Dimensional Geometry The familiar rules of Euclidean

geometry pertain to various figures that can be drawn on a flat surface. In Euclidean geometry, the ratio of the circumference of a circle
to its diameter is equal to ; all the angles in a triangle add up to 180;
and the shortest distance between two points is a straight line. The
rules of Euclidean geometry are valid in flat space, but if you draw
circles or triangles on a curved surface like a sphere or a saddle-shaped
object, as shown in Figure 16.9, the Euclidean rules no longer hold. If
you measure the sum of the angles for a triangle drawn on the outside
of a ball (positive curvature), the sum of the angles is greater than
180. For a triangle drawn on a saddle (negative curvature), the
sum is less than 180.
 FIGURE 16.9
The sum of the angles of a
triangle is not always 180.
a. On a flat surface, the sum
is 180. b. On a spherical
surface, the sum is greater
than 180. c. On a saddleshaped surface, the sum is
less than 180.
CHAPTER 16

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 Teaching Tip One important

point to make is that relativity
doesnt mean that everything
is relative, but rather that no
matter how you view a situation,
the physical outcome is the same.
There is a general misconception
about this. Point out that in
special and general relativity the
fundamental truths of nature
look the same from every point
of viewnot different from
different points of view!

FIGURE 16.10 
The geometry of Earths
two-dimensional curved
surface differs from the
Euclidean geometry of a
flat plane.

Look at an airplanes
flight path drawn on
a flat map and youll
see that the line is
curved. The same line
drawn on the surface
of a globe would be a
geodesica straight
(shortest-distancebetween-two-points)
line on Earths curved
surface.

Similarly, the geometry of Earths two-dimensional curved surface differs from the Euclidean geometry of a flat plane. As shown in
Figure 16.10a, the sum of the angles for an equilateral triangle (the
1
one here has the sides equal 4 Earths circumference) is greater than
180. Earths circumference is only twice its diameter, as illustrated in
Figure 16.10b, instead of 3.14 times its diameter.
Of course, the lines forming the triangles in Figures 16.9 and
16.10 are not straight from the three-dimensional view, but are
the straightest or shortest distances between two points if we are
confined to the curved surface. These lines of shortest distance are
called geodesics.
The path of a light beam follows a geodesic. Suppose three experimenters on planets Earth, Venus, and Mars measure the angles of
a triangle formed by light beams traveling between them. The light
beams bend when passing the sun, resulting in the sum of the three
angles being larger than 180, as illustrated in Figure 16.11. So the
three-dimensional space around the sun is positively curved. The
planets that orbit the sun travel along four-dimensional geodesics in
this positively curved space-time. Freely falling objects, satellites, and
light rays all travel along geodesics in four-dimensional space-time.

FIGURE 16.11 
The light rays joining the
three planets form a triangle. Since the suns gravity bends the light rays, the
sum of the angles of the
resulting triangle is greater
than 180.

The Shape of the Universe Although space-time is curved

locally (within a solar system or within a galaxy), recent evidence
shows that the universe as a whole is flat. This is a striking knifeedge condition. There are an infinite number of possible positive
curvatures to space-time, and an infinite number of possible negative
curvatures, but only one condition of zero curvature. A universe of
zero or negative curvature is open-ended and extends without limit.
312

312

If the universe had positive curvature, it would close in on itself,

just as the surface of Earth closes in on itself. If you march straight
ahead on Earth, never turning, you will eventually return to your
starting point. And if you shine a flashlight into a space of positive
curvature, the light will eventually illuminate the back of your head
(if you wait long enough!). No one knows why the universe is actually flat or nearly flat. The leading theory is that this is the result of
an incredibly large and near-instantaneous inflation that took place
as part of the Big Bang some 13.7 billion years ago.
General relativity, then, calls for a new geometry: a geometry
not only of curved space but of curved time as wella geometry of
curved four-dimensional space-time.16.5.1 Even if the universe at large
has no average curvature, theres very much curvature near massive
bodies. The presence of mass produces a curvature or warping
of space-time; conversely, a curvature of space-time reveals the
presence of mass. Instead of visualizing gravitational forces between
masses, we abandon altogether the idea of force and think of masses
responding in their motion to the curvature or warping of the spacetime they inhabit. General relativity tells us that the bumps, depressions, and warpings of geometrical space-time are gravity.16.5.2
We cannot visualize the four-dimensional bumps and depressions
in space-time because we are three-dimensional beings. We can get
a glimpse of this warping by considering a simplified analogy in two
dimensions: a heavy ball resting on the middle of a waterbed, which
is illustrated in Figure 16.12. The more massive the ball, the more it
dents or warps the two-dimensional surface. A marble rolled across
such a surface may trace an oval curve and orbit the ball. The planets
that orbit the sun similarly travel along four-dimensional geodesics in
the warped space-time about the sun.

think!
Whoa! We learned
previously that the pull of
gravity is an interaction
between masses. And we
learned that light has no
mass. Now we say that
light can be bent
by gravity. Isnt this a
contradiction?
Answer: 16.5

 Teaching Tidbit Gravity

bends around lumps of matter
like light bends in lenses. Light
emitted from a source travels
along multiple geodesic paths to
an observer who sees multiple
distorted images of the source
projected onto the sky. So like
a light lens, a gravitational lens
can produce multiple images
the way a fun-house mirror
does with light. The amount of
gravitational bending depends
on the mass.
 Teaching Tidbit Planets
in our solar system dont crash
into the sun only because their
tangential velocities are sufficient
for orbit. Likewise for stars in
galaxies: Stars with sufficient
tangential velocities orbit about
the galactic center. But slower
stars are pulled into and gobbled
up by the galactic nucleus, which,
if massive enough, is usually a
black hole.

 FIGURE 16.12
Space-time near a star is
curved in a way similar to
the surface of a waterbed
when a heavy ball rests
on it.

Gravitational Waves Every object has mass, and therefore

makes a bump or depression in the surrounding space-time. When
an object moves, the surrounding warp of space and time moves to
readjust to the new position. These readjustments produce ripples in
the overall geometry of space-time, similar to moving a ball that rests
on the surface of a waterbed. A disturbance ripples across the waterbed surface in waves; if we move a more massive ball, then we get a
greater disturbance and the production of even stronger waves. The
ripples that travel outward from the gravitational sources at the speed
of light are gravitational waves.
CHAPTER 16

RELATIVITYMOMENTUM, MASS, ENERGY, AND GRAVITY

313

313

......

The presence of mass

produces a curvature
or warping of space-time;
conversely, a curvature of
space-time reveals the presence
of mass.
CONCEPT

CHECK

PresentationEXPRESS

Any accelerating object produces a gravitational wave. In general, the more massive the object and the greater its acceleration, the
stronger the resulting gravitational wave. But even the strongest waves
produced by ordinary astronomical events are the weakest known in
nature. For example, the gravitational waves emitted by a vibrating
electric charge are a trillion-trillion-trillion times weaker than the
electromagnetic waves emitted by the same charge. Detecting gravitational waves is enormously difficult, but physicists think they may be
able to do it, and searches are under way at present.

Interactive Textbook

CONCEPT What is the relationship between the presence

Teaching Resources

......

Reading and Study

Workbook

CHECK

16.6 Tests of

16.6 Tests of General Relativity

General Relativity

Upon developing the general theory of relativity, Einstein predicted that the elliptical orbits of the planets precess about the
sun, starlight passing close to the sun is deflected, and gravitation
causes time to slow down. Later, his predictions were successfully
tested and confirmed.

Key Term
gravitational red shift

FIGURE 16.13 
Einsteins theory predicted
that elliptical orbits of the
planets should precess.

314

of mass and the curvature of space-time?

314

Precession of the Planetary Orbits Using four-dimensional

field equations, Einstein recalculated the orbits of the planets about
the sun. Planets and comets travel along curved paths because of the
curvature of space-time. With only one minor exception, his theory
gave almost exactly the same results as Newtons law of gravity. The
exception was that Einsteins theory predicted that the elliptical
orbits of the planets should precess independent of the Newtonian
influence of other planets, as shown in Figure 16.13. This precession
would be very slight for distant planets and more pronounced close
to the sun. Mercury is the only planet close enough to the sun for the
curvature of space to produce an effect big enough to measure.
Precession in the orbits of planets caused by perturbations of
other planets was well known. Since the early 1800s astronomers
measured a precession of Mercurys orbitabout 574 seconds of
arc per century. Perturbations by the other planets were found to
account for the precessionexcept for 43 seconds of arc per century.
Even after all known corrections due to possible perturbations by
other planets had been applied, the calculations of scientists failed to
account for the extra 43 seconds of arc. Either Venus was extra massive or a never-discovered other planet (called Vulcan) was pulling on
Mercury. And then came the explanation of Einstein, whose general
relativity equations applied to Mercurys orbit predict the extra 43
seconds of arc per century!

Deflection of Starlight As a second test of his theory, Einstein

predicted that starlight passing close to the sun would be deflected by
an angle of 1.75 seconds of arclarge enough to be measured. This
deflection of starlight can be observed during an eclipse of the sun.
(Measuring this deflection has become a standard practice at every
total eclipse since the first measurements were made during the total
eclipse of 1919.) A photograph taken of the darkened sky around
the eclipsed sun reveals the presence of the nearby bright stars. The
positions of the stars are compared with those in other photographs
of the same part of the sky taken at night with the same telescope.
In every instance, the deflection of starlight, which is illustrated in
Figure 16.14, has supported Einsteins prediction. More support is
provided by gravitational lensing, a phenomenon in which light
from a distant galaxy is bent as it passes by a nearer galaxy in such a
way that multiple images of the distant galaxy appear.
Gravitational Red Shift Einstein made a
third predictionthat gravity causes clocks to
run slow. He predicted that clocks on the first
floor of a building should tick slightly more
slowly than clocks on the top floor, which are
farther from Earth and at a higher gravitation
potential energy. As shown in Figure 16.15, if
you move from a distant point down to the
surface of Earth, you move in the direction
that the gravitational force actstoward lower
potential energy, where clocks run more slowly.
From the top to the bottom of the tallest skyscraper, the difference is very smallonly a few
millionths of a second per decadebecause
the difference in Earths gravitation at the bottom and top of the skyscraper is very small.
For larger differences, like those at the surface
of the sun compared with the surface of Earth,
the clock-slowing effect is more pronounced. A
clock in the deeper potential well at the surface of the sun should run measurably slower
than a clock at the surface of Earth. Einstein
suggested a way to measure this.

CHAPTER 16

FIGURE 16.14 
Starlight bends as it grazes
the sun. Point A shows the
apparent position; point B
shows the true position. (The
deflection is exaggerated.)

 FIGURE 16.15
Gravity causes clocks to run
slow. A clock at the surface
of Earth runs slower than a
clock farther away.

RELATIVITYMOMENTUM, MASS, ENERGY, AND GRAVITY

315

 Teaching Tip Explain to

your students that gravitational
lensing is a consequence of
general relativity. The gravity
of massive objects distorts the
fabric of space-time and thereby
the paths of light rays passing
the objects. How much bending
depends on the mass of the
object. By measuring the bending
and having a measure of how
much visible matter the object
possesses, investigators can infer
how much dark matter must also
be present in the object.
 Teaching Tidbit Gravitational
lensing was first noticed with the
famed solar eclipse of May 29,
1919, off the west coast of Africa.
In 1979 the second example of
gravitational lensing was found
around a massive foreground
cluster galaxy.
Special and general relativity
are my favorite parts of physics
I dont understand. your
honest students!

315

 Teaching Tidbit A doublepulsar system of two radio pulsars

that orbit one another quickly
and with high acceleration
has recently been identified
for tests of general relativity.
Research reports precision
timing observations for a 3-year
period. With mass measurements
possible, four independent tests
confirm the validity of general
relativity at the 0.05% level in
the strong-field regime.

Link to SPACE SCIENCE

Newtons and Einsteins Gravity Compared From Newtons law,

one can calculate the orbits of comets and asteroids and even predict
the existence of undiscovered planets. Even today, when computing
the trajectories of space probes throughout the solar system and
beyond, only ordinary Newtonian theory is used. This is because
the gravitational fields of these bodies are very weak, and from the
viewpoint of general relativity, the surrounding space-time is essentially
flat. But for regions of more intense gravitation, where space-time is
more appreciably curved, Newtonian theory cannot adequately account
for various phenomenalike the precession of Mercurys orbit close to
the sun and, in the case of stronger fields, the gravitational red shift and
other apparent distortions of space and time. These distortions reach
their limit in the case of a star that collapses to a black hole, where
space-time completely folds over on itself. Only Einsteinian gravitation
reaches into this domain.

think!
Why do we not notice
the bending of light by
gravity in our everyday
environment?
Answer: 16.6

......

Upon developing the

general theory of
relativity, Einstein predicted that
the elliptical orbits of the planets
precess about the sun, starlight
passing close to the sun is
deflected, and gravitation
causes time to slow down.
CONCEPT

CHECK

Teaching Resources
Reading and Study
Workbook

The medieval philosopher William of Occam

said that when deciding between two competing theories, choose
the simpler explanationdont make more
assumptions than
are necessary when
describing phenomena.

PresentationEXPRESS
Interactive Textbook

316

......

Next-Time Questions 16-1,

16-2

Light traveling against gravity is observed to have a slightly

lower frequency due to an effect called the gravitational red shift.
Because red light is at the low-frequency end of the visible spectrum,
a lowering of frequency shifts the color of the emitted light toward
the red. Although this effect is weak in the gravitational field of the
sun, it is stronger in more compact stars with greater surface gravity. An experiment confirming Einsteins prediction was performed
in 1960 with high-frequency gamma rays sent between the top and
bottom floors of a laboratory building at Harvard University.16.6
Incredibly precise measurements confirmed the gravitational slowing
of time.
So measurements of time depend not only on relative motion,
as we learned in special relativity, but also on gravity. In special relativity, time dilation depends on the speed of one frame of reference
relative to another one. In general relativity, the gravitational red shift
depends on the location of one point in a gravitational field relative to another one. It is important to note the relativistic nature of
time in both special relativity and general relativity. In both theories,
however, there is no way that you can extend the duration of your
own experience. Others moving at different speeds or in different
gravitational fields may see you aging slowly, but your aging is seen
from their frame of referencenever your own. As mentioned earlier,
changes in time and other relativistic effects are always attributed to
the other guy.
CONCEPT What three predictions did Einstein make based on

CHECK
316

his general theory of relativity?

16

REVIEW

REVIEW

Teaching Resources
TeacherEXPRESS
Conceptual Physics Alive!
DVDs Special Relativity II

Concept Summary

For: Self-Assessment
Visit: PHSchool.com
Web Code: csa 1600

Key Terms

As an object approaches the speed of light,

its momentum increases dramatically.
Mass and energy are equivalentanything
with mass also has energy.
According to the correspondence principle,
if the equations of special relativity (or any
other new theory) are to be valid, they must
correspond to those of Newtonian mechanicswhen speeds much less than the speed
of light are considered.
The principle of equivalence states that local
observations made in an accelerated frame
of reference cannot be distinguished from
observations made in a Newtonian gravitational field.

The presence of mass produces a curvature

or warping of space-time; conversely, a curvature of space-time reveals the presence of
mass.
Upon developing the general theory of relativity, Einstein predicted that the elliptical
orbits of the planets precess about the sun,
starlight passing close to the sun is deflected,
and gravitation causes time to slow down.
CHAPTER 16

relativistic
momentum (p. 303)
rest mass (p. 304)
rest energy (p. 305)
correspondence
principle (p. 307)
general theory of
relativity (p. 308)

principle of
equivalence (p. 309)
geodesic (p. 312)
gravitational
wave (p. 313)
gravitational red
shift (p. 316)

think! Answers
16.2

No, no, no! Matter cannot be made to move

at the speed of light, let alone the speed of
light squared (which is not a speed!). The
equation E  mc 2 simply means that energy
and mass are two sides of the same coin.

16.5

There is no contradiction when the massenergy equivalence is understood. Its true

that light is massless, but it is not energyless. The fact that gravity deflects light is
evidence that gravity pulls on the energy of
light. Energy indeed is equivalent to mass!

16.6

Earths gravity is too weak to produce a

measurable bending. Even the sun produces
only a tiny deflection. It takes a whole galaxy to bend light appreciably.

RELATIVITYMOMENTUM, MASS, ENERGY, AND GRAVITY

317

317

ASSESS
Check Concepts
1. Infinite
2. The mass of an object or
particle at rest
3. It doesnt bend as much. It has
a stiffer trajectory.
4. Mass and energy are two
sides of the same coin.
5.

c2,

or 9 3

1016

J/kg

6. No; it is universal.
7. Solar, chemical, and nuclear
power (Check students work
for other examples.)

16 ASSESS
Check Concepts

Section 16.1

10. Old and new laws agree in

the region of overlap.
11. The same results as with the
simpler classical formulas
12. Overlap smoothly
13. Local observations made
in an accelerated frame
of reference cannot
be distinguished from
observations made in a
Newtonian gravitational field.
14. Both are attracted by gravity.
Baseballs are noticeably
deflected only because they
travel with less speed than
photons.
15. A line of shortest distance
between two points
16. Planets travel along
4-dimensional geodesics
in warped space-time about
the sun.

11. What results when low everyday speeds

are used in the relativistic equations for time
and length?

2. What is meant by rest mass?

12. Do the equations of Newton and Einstein overlap, or is there a sharp break
between them?

3. What relativistic effect is evident when a

beam of high-speed charged particles bends
in a magnetic field?
Section 16.2

4. What is meant by the equivalence of

mass and energy? That is, what does the
equation E  mc2 mean?

Section 16.4

13. State the principle of equivalence.

14. Compare the bending of the paths of baseballs and of photons by a gravitational field.

5. What is the numerical quantity of the

ratio rest energy/rest mass?
6. Does the equation E  mc2 apply only to
reactions that involve the atomic nucleus?
Explain.

Section 16.5

7. What evidence is there for the equivalence of mass and energy?

16. According to general relativity, in what

paths do planets travel as they orbit the sun?

8. When the mass of something decreases,

does it emit or absorb energy?

Section 16.6

9. Compare the relative amounts of mass

lost in nuclear reactions and in chemical
reactions.

17. Displacement of stars whose

light grazes the sun during a
solar eclipse
18. The higher clock; the one at
the top of the skyscraper runs
faster.

318

10. What is the correspondence principle?

1. What would be the momentum of an

object if it were pushed to the speed of
light?

8. It emits energy.
9. For nuclear reactions, about
one part per thousand; for
chemical reactions, about one
part per billion

Section 16.3

318

15. What is a geodesic?

17. What is the evidence for light bending near

the sun?
18. Which runs faster, a clock at
the top of the Sears Tower
in Chicago or a clock on the
shore of Lake Michigan?

19. Frequency is reduced by a

phenomenon known as the
gravitational red shift.
20. No; Einstein showed that
his equation reduced to the
Newtonian equation for
gravitation in the weak-field
limit.

ASSESS
19. Moving downhill
in a gravitational
field
Concept
Summary

has what effect on the frequency of light?

20. Does Einsteins theory of gravitation

invalidate Newtons theory of gravitation?
Explain.

22. To an Earth observer, metersticks on three

spaceships are seen to have these lengths.
Rank the speeds of the spaceships relative to
Earth from highest to lowest.

Think and Rank

21. C, B, A
22. C, B, A

Think and Explain

23. Its momentum gets larger and
larger, approaching infinity.

Think and Explain

23. What happens to the momentum of a massive object as its speed gets closer and closer
to the speed of light?
24. When a charged particle moves through a
magnetic field, what is the evidence that its
momentum is greater than the value mv?

Think and Rank

Rank each of the following sets of scenarios in

order of the quantity or property involved. List
them from left to right. If scenarios have equal
rankings, then separate them with an equal sign.
(e.g., A  B)
21. Electrons are fired at different speeds
through a magnetic field and are bent from
their straight-line paths to hit the detector
at the points shown. Rank the speeds of the
electrons from highest to lowest.

25. According to E  mc2, how does the amount

of energy in a kilogram of feathers compare
with the amount of energy in a kilogram of
iron?
26. Does a fully charged flashlight battery weigh
more than the same battery when dead?
Defend your answer.

24. It is deflected less than it

would be if its momentum
were the Newtonian mv.
25. The energy is the same.
Energy depends only on mass.
26. The charged battery weighs
more because it has more
energy.
27. The bath with the latched
pin would be slightly warmer
because it has the energy of
the pin.
28. E 5 mc2 refers to all changes
in energy, whether in a fossil
fuel or a nuclear power plant,
or even in the process of
striking a match.

27. Two safety pins, identical except that one is

latched and one is unlatched, are placed in
identical acid baths. After the pins are dissolved, what, if anything, is different about
the two acid baths?
28. A friend says that the equation E  mc2
has relevance to nuclear power plants, but
not to fossil-fuel power plants. Another
friend looks to see if you agree. What do
you say?

CHAPTER
CHAPTER 16
16

RELATIVITYMOMENTUM, MASS, ENERGY, AND GRAVITY

319

319

29. No, it is simply a statement of

massenergy equivalence.
30. Without other clues, she
cannot tell the difference.
31. A person in a rotating
habitat is provided gravity by
centripetal force.
32. Their separation distance
decreases. At the pole, it
becomes zero.
33. Yes; at the North Pole every
step is in the southern
direction.
34. Mainly because Earths gravity
is too weak and the speed of
light is too fast
35. Bending is negligible for short
distances.
36. Agree; the eclipse simply
offers a good way to see the
bending.
37. Mercurys mass is too small for
noticeable deflection.
38. It is the same drop for both!
In 2 s, both a bullet and a
beam of light would drop
19.6 m (with g 5 9.8 m/s2).
39. A change in frequency,
wavelength, and momentum
40. You age very slightly faster at
the top of a mountain.

16 ASSESS

(continued)

29. Is this label Summary

on a consumer product
Concept

cause for alarm? CAUTION: The mass of

this product contains the energy equivalent
of 3 million tons of TNT per gram.

30. An astronaut awakes in her closed capsule,

which actually sits on the moon. Can she tell
whether her weight is the result of gravitation or of accelerated motion? Explain.
31. An astronaut is provided gravity when
the ships engines are activated to accelerate the ship. This requires the use of fuel. Is
there a way to accelerate and provide gravity without the sustained use of fuel? (Hint:
Recall simulated gravity in Chapter 12.)
32. What happens to the separation distance between two people if they both walk north at
the same rate from two locations on Earths
equator?
33. Your friend whimsically says that at the
North Pole, a step in any direction is a step
south. Do you agree?
34. We readily note the bending of light by
reflection and refraction, but why are we not
aware of the bending of light by gravity?
35. Light does bend in a gravitational field. Why
is this bending not taken into consideration
by surveyors who use laser beams as straight
lines?
36. Your friend says that light passing the sun
is bent whether or not Earth experiences a
solar eclipse. Do you agree or disagree, and
why?

320

37. In 2004 when Mercury passed between the

sun and Earth, light was not appreciably
bent as it passed Mercury. Why?

320

38. During the first second of its flight, a bullet

fired horizontally drops a vertical distance
of 4.9 m from its otherwise straight-line
path in a gravitational field of 1 g. By what
distance would a beam of light drop from its
otherwise straight-line path if it traveled in
a uniform field of 1 g for 1 s? For 2 s?
39. A photon changes its energy when it falls
in a gravitational field. This change in energy is not evidenced by a change in speed,
however. What is the evidence for this
change in energy?
40. Do you age faster at the top of a mountain
or at sea level?

41. They should live on the

ground floor to age very very
slightly more slowly.
42. Red-shifted; gravity takes
energy away from light.

ASSESS

43. Far infrared

44. Long wavelengths and low
energy

41. Should a person

who worries
about growing
Concept
Summary
old live at the top or at the bottom of a tall
apartment building?

42. Is light emitted from the surface of a

massive star red-shifted or blue-shifted
by gravity?
43. From our frame of reference on Earth,
objects slow to a stop as they approach black
holes in space because time gets infinitely
stretched by the strong gravity near the
black hole. If astronauts accidentally falling into a black hole tried to signal back to
Earth by flashing a light, what kind of wavelengths of light would best be looked for in
Earth-based telescopes?

46. The fractional change of mass to energy in a

fission reactor is about 0.1 percent, or 1 part
in a thousand.
a. For each kilogram of uranium that undergoes fission, how much energy is released?
b. If energy costs three cents per megajoule,
how much is this energy worth in dollars?

Activity

47. Write a letter to your grandparents explaining how Einsteins theories of relativity
concern the fast and the bigthat relativity
is not only out there, but affects this world.
Tell them how these ideas stimulate your
quest for more knowledge.

44. Gravitational waves are difficult to detect. Is

this due to having long wavelengths or short
ones? High energy or low energy?

Think and Solve

Think and Solve

45. E 5 mc2 5 (0.003 kg) 3
(3 3 108 m/s)2 5 2.7 3 1014 J;
(2.7 3 1014 J)/(100 J/s) 5
2.7 3 1012 s (almost
86,000 years!)
46. a. E 5 mc2 5 (0.001 kg) 3
(3 3 108 m/s)2 5 9 3 1013 J, or
9 3 107 MJ.
b. Multiply by $0.03 per MJ
and the amount of energy in
1 gram is worth $2.7 million!

Activity
47. Letters will vary, but the main
idea is to say how relativity
is an everyday phenomenon,
even though its effects are
normally too small to be
sensed. Relativity, sensed or
not, does affect the everyday
world. If it intrigues the
student and helps to focus
on a wider view of things,
wonderful.

45. A 100-watt light bulb consumes

100 joules of energy every second. How
long could you burn that light bulb from
the energy in one penny, which has a mass
of 0.003 kg? (Assume all the pennys mass is
converted to energy.)

Teaching Resources
Computer Test Bank
Chapter and Unit Tests

CHAPTER
CHAPTER 16
16

RELATIVITYMOMENTUM, MASS, ENERGY, AND GRAVITY

321

321