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torque-slip relation is a straight line as in

the case of the normal induction motor,


with the rotor leakage reactance neglected. Neglecting the rotor leakage
reactance is justifiable at running speeds
only. The torque is zero when the slip
speed is zero. In the machine described,
the slip speed is given by the left-hand
side of equation 22.
It can be seen from equation 24 that
higher speeds can be obtained by increasing the number of middle rings.
With an infinite number of rings, the
maximum theoretical speed attained by
the rotor will be V,/cos9 and the slip speed
will be V.-V, cos 0.

A stronger air-gap flux results in a


higher torque and smaller slip, especially
at the larger stator angles. This is illustrated by the curve in Fig. 7, which shows
that when the motor is operated at 105
volts it is possible to obtain higher speeds

than when it is operated at 90 volts.


The motor was constructed to show that
a reasonable speed variation is possible
with a new type of rotor based on the
foregoing principles. However, due to
difficulties in construction, the air gap
of this model is rather large. Accordingly, the magnetizing current is comparatively high, the leakage reactance large,
and the efficiency very low.

A Basic Analysis of Synckronous


Maclines-Part I
W. A. LEWIS
FELLOW AIEE

MANY PAPERS have been written


concerning the analysis of synchronous machines since the revolutionary
concepts of Park in 1928 and 19291.2
rendered possible a straightforward and
rigorous analysis of many important
problems that previously had been solved,
if at all, only approximately. With the
wealth of papers already available, of
which some of the most significant are
listed in the references, there seems little
excuse for another paper at this time.
However, certain aspects of Park's work
have given rise to difficulties in the minds
not only of students and newcomers to
the field but also of users and contributors. Several of the subsequent papers
have sought to modify certain of Park's
assumptions or conventions to avoid these
difficulties. Nevertheless, the difficulties
and confusion have not been entirely
swept away, and this paper is therefore
offered in an attempt to show a possible
way in which some of the more serious
difficulties can be avoided.
Park's basic contribution to the problem of machine analysis was the introduction of direct-axis and quadrature-axis
variables of current, flux linkage, and
voltage, defined not only for steady-state
conditions but also for instantaneous conditions. These new variables transform
the basic simultaneous differential equations of synchronous-machine behavior, in
which the coefficients of several deriva-

436

tives are variable, into linear equations in


which the coefficients are constant for
many important cases. For these cases
the solutions can then be obtained by wellknown operational methods, although the
complexity of the equations often makes
the solution tedious and appear more difficult than it actually is.
Transient conditions in motors and
generators, starting of motors, hunting,
stability, and other problems of importance involve not only the analysis of the
currents in the phase windings and the
field, but also of the currents in the
amortisseur or damper windings (when
present) and in the solid rotors of nonsalient-pole machines. Since nearly
all salient-pole machines today are
equipped with partial or complete damper
windings, for valid reasons, the damper
circuits must be included in the analysis.
The resulting equations involve so many
circuits and variables that it is difficult
to keep all the important factors in mind.
One of the greatest aids in such difficulties
is the development of simplified equivalent circuits which present important
relationships in a way that can be visualized more easily than in the actual machines. These equivalent circuits, if advantageously chosen, are of assistance to
designers of machines in computing the
values of the machine parameters and
machine performance, and to analysts
in extending the knowledge of the ma-

Conclusions
1. It is possible to construct an adjustablespeed induction motor whose rotor has a
normal cage together with middle rings.

2. The maximum theoretical speed at


which the motor can run depends on the
ratio of stator width to pole pitch as well as
on the number of middle rings. Increasing
the ratio of pole width to pole pitch or increasing the number of middle rings raises
this maximum speed.

Reference
1. A BRUseLESS VARIABLR-SPEBD INDUCTION
MOTOR, P. C. WlHams, B. R. Lalthwalte. Proceedings, Institution of Electrical Engineers, London, England, vol. 102, pt. A, 1955, pp. 203-13.

chine obtained from studies of simple


systems to the application of machines to
more complex systems. If the circuits
obtained can be set up in miniature on
an analog computer, a valuable tool for
computation is made available, and the
techniques of circuit analysis can be
applied with a minimum of modification.
The introduction of digital computers
which can solve the differential equations
for specific conditions has led some engineers to maintain that the equivalent
circuits are no longer important, since the
digital computer can be set up to solve the
original equations from which the equivalent circuits are derived. However,
this view does not recognize the fact that
engineering progress requires the analysis
of ever more complex situations, and that
all devices which simplify portions of a
problem help in setting up the solution of
the more complex problems as they arise.
From this point of view, the development
of equivalent circuits to be as direct and
simple as possible is of major importance,
even though they may no longer be necessary in the solution of certain problems for which digital computers can
be programmed directly from the equations.
Paper 58-157, recommended by the AIEE Rotating
Machinery Committee and approved by the AIRE
Technical Operations Department for presentation
at the AIEE Winter General Meeting, New York,
N. Y., February 2-7, 1958. Manuscript submitted
October 14, 1957; made available for printing
November 12, 1957.
W. A. Lawis is with Illinois Institute of Tech-

nology, Chicago, Ill.

The author wishes to express his sincere appreciation to P. L. Alger and his associates of the General
Electric Company, Schenectady, N. Y., for their
encouragement, guidance, and help in the preparation of this paper. Particular mention should be
made of the help provided by J. R. M. Alger, G.
Angst, M. A. Bresler, J. T. Duane, Ivar Giaever,
D. B. Harrington, R. T. Smith, and J. C. White.

Le4Le i s-A Basic Analysis of Synchronous Machines-Part I

AUGUST 1958

There are three major areas in which


most of the troubles with Park's analysis
have been encountered. The definitions of the new variables which he introduced lead to equivalent circuits in which
the mutual inductances between some of
the circuits are not reciprocal, i.e., the
mutual inductance from the first circuit to
the second is not the same as the mutual
inductance from the second circuit to the
fist. Although this situation offers no
major mathematical difficulty, it is impossible to represent the resulting circuit
by simple miniature equivalents involving
only the parameters of resistance, inductance, and possibly capacitance, because
the mutual parameters of such circuits are
inherently reciprocal. Also, a designer
trying to use circuits with nonreciprocal
mutual inductances to visualize the magnetic fluxes which contribute to the various inductances is at a severe handicap
because there is no physical equivalent
he can rely upon. Thus the first source
of trouble is the fact that the basic equations introduced by Park lead to nonreciprocal mutual inductances in the
resulting equivalent circuits.
To overcome this limitation and to
render the equivalent circuits reciprocal,
various expedients have been proposed, but
those which have found acceptance correct
the difficulty by modifying the rotor circuits, i.e., the field and damper circuits.
If all subsequent analysis were carried on
in terms of Park's new variables, this
transformation, once made, could be retained and therefore would not become a
limitation. However, for some important
problems, such as the determination of
currents and voltages during unbalanced
faults, the transformed equations still
have variable coefficients, and therefore
cannot be solved by conventional methods. In such cases it is frequently desirable to use approximate methods suggested and developed by Doherty and
Nickle,"4 which start from the original
differential equations instead of those obtained by Park's transformations. If
now the rotor circuits have been modified
to render the equivalent circuits of Park's
analysis reciprocal, the circuits used in unbalanced-fault calculations will contain
nonreciprocal mutual inductances. This
becomes increasingly confusing when it is
remembered that the original physical
cicuits before transformation were inherently reciprocal, and they now appear
nonreciprocal as the result of an artifice
-used to make the derived circuits of Park's
analysis reciprocal. To avoid this ambiguity, it is necessary to use modified
rotor circuits in the rigorous analysis, in
terms of Park's variables, and to use un-

AUGUST 1958

modified rotor circuits in the approximate


analysis, following the Doherty-Nickle
methods. Keeping track of whether
modified or unmodified values should be
used is a source of confusion, particularly
to one who does not make such analyses
frequently. Thus the second source of
trouble is that the artifices used to overcome the first difficulty are likely to introduce a confusion of their own. The most
comprehensive treatments of these steps
have been given by Rankin5`9 and Concordia.10
Some further confusion has been introduced by the fact that Park as well as
Doherty and Nickle used per-unit quantities instead of physical quantities throtighout their work. That is, every physical
quantity such as voltage, current, power,
inductance, resistance, reactance, impedance, etc., were not expressed in their
normal phyiscal units, such as volts,
amperes, etc., but were expressed as a
decimal ratio to an arbitrarily selected
base or normal value. The decimal ratio
was called the per-unit value of the
quantity. With the base values of related quantities suitably selected, several
simplifications follow. For example, if
the base value of reactance is selected
as the base value of inductance multiplied
by 2r times the normal frequency, the
per-unit value of an inductance is the same
as the per-unit value of the corresponding
reactance at normal frequency. Therefore, the same symbol can be used for both
reactance and inductance, because their
numerical per-unit values are the same
(at normal frequency). Such simplifications are beneficial to the constant user,
but if equations are given only in perunit form in which such equivalences have
been used, verification of equations from
physical reasoning is unreliable, and the
checks provided by the methods of dimensional analysis are not trustworthy.
Furthermore, the modifications in the
rotor circuits needed to render the equivalent circuits reciprocal have been introduced as a part of the process of selecting
base quantities. Therefore all analysis
based upon the circuits derived must be
carried on in per-unit notation, with perunit values of the parameters. For many
purposes this is not unsatisfactory, but in
treating alternative machine designs of
the same rating, and problaby other problems, there are advantages to using physical values. If the equations and circuits
of analysis are valid only in per-unit form,
this is not possible. Thus the third source
of trouble is that the per-unit system of
notation used, while possessing many
advantages, also is subject to undesirable
limitations.

Objective

I.

It is a major objective of this paper to


show that a modification of the basic definitions of the variables introduced by
Park renders the derived equivalent circuits reciprocal initially, so that no modification of rotor-circuit quantities is
needed for that purpose. Accordingly no
change in rotor circuits is needed when
changing from the analysis of Park to that
of Doherty and Nickle. Therefore the
selection of per-unit base quantities can
be made entirely for the purpose of developing the most useful equivalent circuit, with the result that the sources of
confusion and error are minimized. It is
thus possible that the three difficulties
described may be substantially eliminated.
It is a secondary objective to develop
the basic equations of a synchronous
machine so that they are valid in both
physical terms and in a suitable per-unit
notation. Then they may be used either
way. When applied to a particular situation, the further simplifications resulting
from optimunm selection of base quantities
may be introduced, but only after this is
done will the relationship to physical laws
be obscured or the checks of dimensional
analysis be questionable. (See the Appendix for definitions of symbols and notations used.)
To satisfy this objective, it is desirable
that the equations be developed from
basic principles. It is hoped therefore
that this paper may also serve as an introduction to the subject of transient analysis
of synchronous machines for the engineer
who is already familiar with steady-state
machine analysis as treated in the conventional college course of the past but
who may have little familiarity with
transient analysis of machines.

Basic Requirements of a PerUnit System

II.

For a per-unit system to be useful, the


base values must be suitably chosen, and
the set of base values for related units
must be consistent. To establish consistency between base values, it is
desirable that the minimum number be
chosen arbitrarily, and all others be
derived from these in accordance with the
basic laws. This requirement may be
met by selecting two quantities as fundamental or basic and deriving all others.
There will still be some element of clioice
remaining, but the choice will not be
completely free, and the desirable choice
will usually be self-evident.
Universally, the first unit selected is the
value of base power. For consistency,

Lewis-A Basic Analysis of Synchronous Machines-Part I

437

this value must be the same for all circuits


entering any given analysis. It is a common practice in polyphase apparatus to
select a base power for the total machine,
including the sum of all phases, but to
interpret this in actual use as a base value
per phase, equal to the base value for the
machine, divided by the number of
phases. Thus the fundamental base is
actually the power per phase. This situation is taken care of by denoting the base
apparent power for a polyphase machine
by SNA and for one phase by SN, where

SN =Sm

(1)

in which m is the number of phases.


Thus, for analytic purposes SN is the basic
quantity, although SNA& may actually be
specified.
The second quantity specified is usually
the base rms voltage. For polyphase
apparatus this is usually the line-to-line
voltage, but it is the line-to-neutral voltage that is the actual basis of reference in
analysis. Thus ENA is used to denote the
base line-to-line rms voltage and EN the
base line-to-neutral rms voltage that is
used in the analysis. The relations between ENa and EN depend upon the number of phases, but for the usual 3-phase

system

pressed in kiloamperes, which is not a


common unit. Of course the same base
quantities are applicable to active power,
reactive power, and apparent power.
Since, in effect, a star connection has
been assumed by using line-to-neutral
voltage as the primary base, IN is the
base rms current per line or phase, also
on a line-to-neutral basis.
Obviously the admittance base must be
the reciprocal of the impedance base, so
that it becomes

unit. In per-unit equations of transient


conditions, time and the decrement factor
or the time constant, when entering the
exponent, may be in physical units or in
per unit, provided both are the same, but
if either the decrement factor or the time
IN SN SNA
YN = E =2 = -2
~~~~(6) constant appear elsewhere than in the
EN EN2 ENA"
exponent, as they do when differentiation
the last fraction being limited to 3-phase and integration are involved, per-unit
values must be used in per-unit equations.
systems.
The same impedance base should of If t enters only in trigonometric and excourse be applicable to both resistance ponential functions, it is not essential to
and reactance components of impedance, express it in per unit, provided the preand the same admittance base should be cautions just described are followed.
If m with appropriate subscript deapplicable to both conductance and
notes the decrement factor, it is evident
suseeptance.
Unit inductance and unit capacitance that the base value for decrement factor
should produce unit impedance at base MN must be the same as base angular
frequency QN, because mt in an exponent
angular frequency, so it is desirable that
is a numeric and must have the same value
Z.N=QNLN
(7)
in both physical units and in per unit.
Therefore
and
ZN =

(8)

For consistency, unit voltage and unit


current at unity power factor should produce unit power. Therefore base rms
current is taken as

where flN is the base value of co, the


angular frequency.
Actually, the choice of base frequency
is arbitrary, but for apparatus designed
for operation at a specified frequency it is
entirely logical to select normal frequency
to be the base frequency and

INS

QN=27rFN

ENA

(2)

(3)

EN
Unit current through unit impedance
should produce unit voltage drop.
Therefore
Z

EN EN2 SN

ZNIN

SN

IN2

(4)
(4

For a 3-phase system, substitution from

equations 1 and 2 gives


ZN =

2EN(
-A(5)

SNA

so that the base impedance can be derived


either from the base quantities per phase
or the total base quantities by the same
process.
Consistent units must be used in
determining base quantities. If voltage
is expressed in volts, power quantities
must be in volt-amperes (not kilovoltamperes). However, power quantities
can be expressed in megavolt-amperes and
voltage in kilovolts, but consistency is
maintained then only if current is ex-

438

In equations of steady-state conditions

t enters usually only in such expressions as


sin cwt and cos wt, so that if t and co are
both expressed in physical units, or both
in per unit, the result will be the same.
However, care must be used elsewhere in
per-unit equations to see that co is in per-

(9)

where FN is the base value of f, the frequency.


Alternating currents involve trigonometric functions of such angles as cwt. In
order that an alternating wave shall go
through the same alternations when expressed both in physical units and in perunit, the angle for corresponding points
on the wave, when expressed in either
system, must be the same. Thus time
must also be expressed in per-unit notation, and per-unit angular frequency
co/1lN and per-unit time /TN must be so
related that
cot
cot =
ON TN

(10)

Accordingly, base angular frequency and


base time should be reciprocal, or
QNTNv= 1

(11)

Thus the base value of time TN is the


time to traverse 1 radian at normal frequency.

mt

(12)

MN1 N

so that

(13)
Comparison with equation 11 shows that
(14)
MN = ON
MN TN = 1

Magnetic flux linkage, used extensively


in machine analysis, is represented by
the symbol A. In many machinery papers
it is used for this quantity, but it does not
have extensive use in other fields of
analysis, and the work on international
standardization through the International
Electrotechnical Commission indicates
that A has greater possibility of final adoption. The base value of flux linkage is
therefore AN which is related to the other
base quantities by the relation
AN = LNIN e-= EN TN

QN

(15)

since
QNLNIN = ZNIN =EN
In termns of base power

(16)

(17)
= = SN TN
RV _OlN
By similar processes, the base value for
each physical entity entering the basic
equations may be set up on a consistent
basis.
Actually, it is not essential or even
ANIN = LNIN2 =

Lewis-A Basic Analysis of Synchronous Machines-Part I

AUGUST 1958

Li2
Fig. 1. Two simple coupled circuits

desirable for inductively coupled circuits


to have the same base voltage. However,
if different values are selected, certain
relations among the other base quantities,
derived from the base voltage, must be
used if consistent per-unit equations are
to result.

III. Equivalent Circuits


To provide an adequate basis for the
general analysis of machines, it is desirable
to begin with simple static circuits. If
two circuits, as shown in Fig. 1, are inductively coupled, with self-inductances L11
and Lf respectively, and mutual inductance L12 (assumed positive for the circuits of the figure), the flux linkage of
these circuits may be written

xI = Li1il +L12i2
(18)

X2-L21i1 +L22i2

These equations are understood to represent instantaneous values in physical


terms, with current in amperes, inductance in henrys, and flux linkage in
weber-turns, all in units of the meterkilogram-second rationalized system.
Since every inductive circuit inherently
has some resistance, the resistance of each
circuit must also be considered in the
analysis. With the reference polarities
of voltage and reference directions of current shown in the figure, the voltage drops
in circuits I and 2 are
el = R1i

e2=R2i2

dt

(9
(19)

+dXdA2

These equations are of course valid during


both transient and steady-state conditions.
Equations such as the preceding are
transformed to per-unit equations by
dividing each term by its base value.
Thus equations 18 are translated to perunit fonn as
X1 Li, il
AN, LN1 IN,

X2

L21 is

AN2 LN21 I'N

L12 i2
LN12 IN2

L22

i2

LN2 IN2

AUGUST 1958

Since these circuits are not conducti


coupled, they may have different
values for some quantities, and w
different bases can be used, they have
identified by additional subscripts
show the circuit involved.
For these equations to be valid at tthe
same time and for the same phy sical
values as represented by equations 1 8, it
is necessary that the denominators of each
term in any one equation be the s,ame.
Thus
AN1 = LNIINI = LN12IN2
AN2= LN2IN2 = LN21IN1

(21)

Now in any physical system the miatual


inductances are reciprocal, i.e.,
(22)
L12 = L21

For the same requirement to be


fied in per-unit notation
L12 L21 L12
LN12 LN21 LN21

satis-

or

(23)
LN12 =LN21
i.e., the base mutual inductance mu St be
the same in either direction.
If the center and right-hand fort ns of
equations 21 are multiplied together, if the
current terms are cancelled, and i
second of equations 23 is substitutec
result is

LN1LN2 = LN12La21 = LN12'2

LN212

or
LN12 = LN21 = A/LN1LN2

(24)

Equations 24 show that equation


18, valid in physical units, can be
also in per-unit only if the base
for the mutual inductance betwee,
two circuits is equal to the square rn
the product of the two self-induc

like
ralid
alue
the
At of

bases.
If now the quotient of the cente
right-hand forms of equations 21 is t
and if the second of equations 23 is
duced, the result after rearrangemer

LN1INI2 = LN2JN22
It is difficult to consider a situat
which the base value of time TN
the same for every circuit in an ant
If TN is chosen the same for both ci
1 and 2, and equation 25 is divid
TN, equation 17 requires that

SNi = SN2

ance

and

ken,

itro-

is
(25)
(25)
,n in
not
ysis.
cuits
I by

(26)

which states that if the basic ph sical


laws are to be valid when express d in
per-unit terms, the same value ol
power must be used for each of ti

ii R1 Lit-Lu2

Fig.

L2-L2 R2 i2
i

I1

4.

+4+ ';4

2.

Equivalent circuit

(Li+i

L12

e2
to

represent the

simple circuit of Fig. I

ductively coupled circuits. It has been


assumed initially that the same power
base was required if two circuits were
conductively connected, and equation 26
simply shows that the same requirement
applies when inductive coupling is involved.
To simplify the circuit of Fig. 1, one
of the devices regularly used is to represent the mutual inductance by a common
self-inductance. Where the circuits are
not otherwise conductively connected at
any point, this can be done by using the
circuit of Fig. 2. In that diagram, L12 is
now a self-inductance in a location that is
common to both circuits 1 and 2, but it
has the same value as the mutual inductance of Fig. 1.
For the circuit of Fig. 2, equation 18 are

rearranged

to

give

XI = (L, - L2)1 +LI2(il +i


\2

=Li2(iitt) +(L22-L12)i2

(27)

The last term of the first equation and


the first term on the right of the second
equation now represent the flux linkages
of the self-inductance L,2 common to both
circuits, rather than a mutual inductance,
and the individual self-inductances must
therefore each be reduced by L12, as represented by the remaining terms of the
equations and shown in Fig. 2.
For most purposes, including miniaturecircuit or analog-computer representation,
the arrangement of Fig. 2 is usually
simpler and more convenient than the
use of a mutual inductance, as in the
original Fig. 1. However, there are
conditions in which the circuit of Fig. 2
cannot be physically realized. These
occur whenever L12 is greater than either
Li, or Le. Such a condition may occur
when the numbers of turns of the two coils
are

if

substantially different, particularly


are closely coupled.

they

To study this question assume that the

two coils consist of

closely packed turns,

so that substantially all the magnetic

flux produced by each coil links each


turn of its own coil. Let (P1 and (PG denote
the permeances of coils 1 and 2 respectively. Then the flux produced by coil 1
is
vi1 = nsiilT

(28)

Lewis-A Basic Analysis of Synchronous Machines-Part I

439

La) Sief Si2

is_W(41- ak)
a

J_

Fig. 3. ModiRed equivalent circuit to represent the simple circuit of Fig. I

and the flux linkages with its own coil become


(29)
Xu = nilt = n til61
With inductance defined as the flux linkages per ampere,

Lu = "iiLi, = nl'<T,

(30)

Similarly
L22--.it2 = n2262

(31)

A fraction of pi, links coil 2, so that the


mutual linkages resulting from ii become
(32)
Xan =kun, v1 =-kn2nhiii
where k2i is the fraction of the flux that
links coil 2, or the coupling factor. The
mutual inductance is
L21 = xft kn?h?T
Si

(33)

As viewed from coil 2, by similar reasoning,

(34)
L12 i2. kl:n2nlT2
where k1, is the coupling factor with coil
1. As previously pointed out, and as
required by energy considerations,
Ln=LU

and

(35)
Now if k21n2> ni, Ln> Li,; and if
k12aZ> n2, Ll2>Lz. Both conditions cannot occur simultaneously since both k2,
and k1, are less than unity. If the coils
are coaxial and quite close together, k2i
and kl2 are nearly unity, and the mutual
inductance may be larger than one of the
self-inductances unless the number of
turns ni and n2 are very nearly equal.
Conversely, if the coupling is loose, then
k1, and k2i are small, and there is considerable latitude in the turns ratios that
can be tolerated without either selfinductance Li,-L1, or Lft-Lu becoming
negative.
At a single frequency, negative inductance can be represented by a capacitance that has the same impedance at the
specified frequency as the desired negative inductance. However, for operation
variable frequency or for transient

ku(Pi = knT2

440

conditions, there is no direct means of


physical representation of negative inductance.
To avoid the difficulty just described, a
device widely used has been to replace
one (or perhaps both) of the actual coils
by hypothetical coils having different
numbers of turns such that the relative
ratio of turns falls within the range that
makes all inductances of the circuit of
Fig. 2 positive. To illustrate, it is
assumed that coil 2 is to be modified.
Without invalidating the equations, an
arbitrary constant a can be introduced
and arrang,ned so that equations 18 and 19
become
=
(Ll -)
)\l
il1t(il
+ai2)
a
a

X2 L12
a
a =-(

ii+aai2) +

L22 L12\
a 2 a/

ait

ei = R1ii + dL
d

Qa
e2 R2 .
+
a =-(ai2)
dt
a2
-

These equations apply to a circuit in


which the resistance and self-inductance of
circuit 2 are decreased in the ratio a', the
voltage is decreased in the ratio a, the
current is increased in the ratio a, and the
mutual inductance is decreased in the
ratio a. This circuit is shown in Fig. 3.
Now the self-inductances will all be
positive if (L1i-LI2/a) and (Ll/alL12/a) are both positive. It can be shown,
with the aid of equations 30, 31, 33, and
34, that this condition is satisfied if a lies
between n2k2i/n, and n2/njk12. Since the
product of kw and k1,2 is less than one, the
two fractions must have different values,
and a can always be assigned a value
between. For concentrated windings, a =
n2/ni always satisfies the requirements and
is usually the preferred value, but it may
be either smaller or larger, the limits depending on the coupling factors. The
latitude is small when coupling is close,
but is quite large when coupling is loose.
In representing transformers by equivalent circuits, it is customary practice
to select a = n2/ni.
In the preceding situation it may be
considered that the flux of coil 1 is divided
into two parts, k2l(PIi which links both coils
1 and 2, and (1 -kul)(p, which links only
coil 1. The flux which is common to
both produces linkages k2ln2.pl2 with circuit
2 and linkages k2in1fon with circuit 1.
Replacing circuit 2 by a hypothetical
circuit having 1/a=nl/n2 times as many
turns makes the linkages of circuit 2
caused by the mutual flux equal to the

linkages of circuit 1 caused by the same

flux. Therefore the modified mutual


inductance is equal to part of the selfinductance, and Li- L12/a is always positive. Similar treatment for circuit 2
shows that the tums ratio n2/ni causes
the mutual linkages of circuit 1 arising
from the part of the flux linking both circuits to be equal to only a part of the selfflux linkages, and therefore Ln/a2-L,2/a
is always positive.
When one or both coils are distributed,
not all the flux links either coil, and so the
self-flux linkages may be less than the
product of total flux and total turns.
However, it is always possible to divide
the flux produced by either winding into
two parts, one which links any part of
both windings and the other which links
all or part of its own winding only, and to
determine the linkages of the exciting
winding which are produced by the two
parts. Then if the turns ratio is selected
so that the flux linkages of the hypothetical second winding, replacing the actual second winding, resulting from flux
caused by excitation of the first, are equal
to the linkages of the first winding caused
by this part of its total flux, the desired
relation of self- and mutual inductances
are always obtained. The ratio of turns
determined in this way is usually the preferred ratio a for the equivalent circuit
and corresponds to the actual ratio n2/n,
usually used when the windings are concentrated.
In the circuit of Fig. 3 e2 is replaced by
e2/a and i2 is replaced by ai2, so that
both voltage and current are modified
from their actual values. Hov ever, theinstantaneous power, given by pa=
(1/a)e2ai2=e2i2, and therefore also theactive and reactive powers, applicable in
steady-state conditions, are the same as in(
the actual circuit. Thus the modified cir-cuit of Fig. 3 has the same power in each
circuit as does the actual circuit. Ac-cordingly, use of the modified circuit has.
relatively few disadvantages and often
has distinct advantages. In describingthe circuit of Fig. 3, it is said that circuit
2 has been referred to circuit 1 as a baseby the use of the nominal turns ratio a.
Equations 27 may be expressed in perunit form by dividing each term by its
base quantity, so that
AN,
X2

L12 0l + L12 / i+ $2
LN, LN12/ INI LNI2 INI IN2/

= iLi,

L12

AN2 LN12 \'N1I

$2

\+ L22
LN2

IN2

i2

42

LN12/ INI

(37)

If now the base quantities are so


selected that

Lewis-A Basic Analysis of Synchronous Machines-Part I

AUGUST 1958.;

LN2 - aLN12 "a2LN1

aINI2=INi
equations 37 may be written

FL

L12\ iL+-(i +ai2)

ANl-= LNIINL

X2

[Li2

(38

(L22 L12\.1
ai2

-(i1 + 6s2) + a2 aANS Lj2IN2 L a

(39)

If the relations between ANi, LN1, and


IN1, and between AN2, LN2, and IN2 are
given by equations 21, all the base quantities in equations 37 may be factored out,
leaving the first two of equations 36.
Thus equations 27, and equations 18 from
which they are derived, are also valid
directly in per-unit quantities if the base
quantities are chosen in accordance with
equations 38.
Equations 19 may also be expressed in
per-unit form by dividing each term by its
base quantity. Thus
et

RI il4

10

AN!

ENI ZNI INI d( #


\TN/

-v2 d( )

EN2 ZN2 IN2 d(#

(40)

For these equations to be valid, it is


necessary that
ENI = ZN1IN1 ATN

EN2 =

ZN2IAS=TN

(41)

Then, because of equations 26 and 38,


it is also necessary that
EN2 = aENm
ZN= a2ZN,

ANI#=GaANj

(42)

If these relations are substituted in the


second of equations 40, and then the base
quantities are all cancelled out of both
equations 40, by the use of the first of
equations 41, the third and fourth ofr
equations 36 result. Thus equations 19
are directly valid in per-unit form, as
well as for physical values, if the base
quantities of the two circuits are related
by equations 26, 38, and 41.
The statements that equations 18 andI
19 are directly valid in per-unit notationI
means that the numerical values off
known quantities, expressed in per-unitt
values instead of in physical values, may7
be substituted directly in the equations,

AUGUST 1958

and the values of the unknowns found by


solving the equations will be expressed
in corresponding per-unit quantities.
Now the equivalent circuits of Figs. 1 and
2 are denrved directly from equations
18 and 19, and so they also are valid if the
circuit elements are expressed in per-unit
values instead of physical values. A network analyzer or analog computer can be
set up with its physical values proportional to the per-unit values of equations
18 and 19, and thus obtain per-unit results. However, if the ratio a is introduced in setting up the base quantities,
the physical circuit is actually that of Fig.
3. In effect, selecting base quantities related by the ratio a makes the per-unit circuit of Fig. 2 give the same results as the
physical circuit of Fig. 3. If a is properly
chosen, the per-unit circuit of Fig. 2 will
be physically realizable, i.e., all inductances will always be positive.
Thus the use of per-unit bases related
by a suitable turns ratio a gives all the
advantages of the equivalent circuit of
Fig 3, but without the necessity of the
ratio a appearing explicitly in any diagrams or in any equations except those
used to establish the base quantities.
The same simplifications can be realized in
physical terms if it is anticipated from
the beginning that modification of one
circuit will be needed, and all quantities
are immediately and automatically referred to the other circuit as a base from
the beginning. When all quantities have
been thus transformed, the actual circuit
has been replaced, for purposes of analysis,
by a modified circtut, and the latter
symbols can be thought of as applying to
the modified circuit instead of the original
circuit. Thereafter a becomes 1 in the
equations and the modified equations become the same as the unmodified equations. It must of course be remembered
that the current and voltage, but not the
power, have been modified, so that actual
values are found by referring the values
of the modified circuit back to the physical
circuit.

The ideal machine includes three


physically identical armature phase circuits a, b, and c displaced 120 electrical de-

grees from each other, as indicated in Fig.


4. On the rotor there will be a field circuit symmetrical about the direct axis of
the rotor and one or more damper circuits,
some of which are symmetrical about
the direct axis and some are symmetrical
about the quadrature axis, displaced 90
electrical degrees from the direct axis, as
shown.
The rotor is assumed to rotate
in the clockwise direction, as shown, and
its position is specified by the angle a
between the direct axis and the center
line of the a-phase winding.
Each circuit has a self-inductance and a
mutual inductance with every other winding, except that circtiits symmetrical
about the direct axis of the rotor have no
inductive coupling (and therefore no
mutual inductance) with circuits symmetrical about the quadrature axis of the
rotor. Changes in saturation of the magnetic circuits are neglected in the analysis,
although Saturation may be allowed for
approximately by assigning inductance
values based upon the expected degree of
saturation. The self-inductances of the
rotor circuits are assumed constant. The
self-inductances of the stator armature
circuits and the mutual inductances between them are affected by rotor position,
as defined later. The mutual inductances
between any stator phase circuit and any
rotor circuit are assumed to be cosine functions of the angle between the center line
of the phase and the axis of the rotor cir-

cuit.

For preliminary purposes the flux linkages of the field circuit are established
when only the stator phase circuits and
the field carry current, as for steady-state
balanced polyphase operation. The selfand mutual inductances are identified by
appropriate subscripts a, b, and c for the

IV. Direct-Axis and QuadratureAxis Equivalent Circuits for


Synchronous Machines
The principles developed in the preceding sections are now applied to the analysis of the ideal 3-phase synchronous
machine, in all essential respects as
defined by Park, 2 except that the basic
equations are developed in physical terms
so that the physical concepts will be retained. The per-unit bases are so chosen
that the equations will be valid in both
physical and per-unit systems.

Fig. 4. Circuit diagram of synchronous


senerator. Reference directions of !., ib, and
ia should be revened for motor conditions

Lewis-A Basic Agalysis of Synchronous Machines-Part I

441

phases, and f for the field. Then the


flux linkages of the field circuit Xf, for
these conditions, become
Xf = Laa +Lbfib +Lcfic +Lfif
(43)
where Laf, Lbf, and Lef are mutual inductances betweeen the phase indicated
and the field, and Lffis the self-inductance
of the field. It is assumed that positive
current produces positive flux linkages in
its own circuit.
The mutual inductances, varying as a
cosine function of the angle between the
direct axis of the field and the axis of the
phase, are represented by

Laf=LafM cos a

Laf= Lafm cos

2a(44)

The sign of the first three terms on the


right of equation 43 is a matter of convention, whether positive armature current tends to increase or decrease the
flux linkages of the field produced by positive field currents. As written, it is
assumed that positive currents aid the
field, which corresponds to leading powerfactor operation as a generator.
If equations 44 are substituted in
equation 43, the field flux linkages become
X-La
LfMia cos +ib cos(S --

)+

Xb = Labib + Lm4 + Lbcic + Lbif

'c = Lcaia +Lbcib +Lccic +Lcfif

Park"j2 defined a current proportional to

the expression in brackets as the directaxis current id. For the moment the
constant of proportionality is left unspecified, and the direct-axis armature
current is defined as
-

)+

ic cos (a,-3 )] (46)

Substitution gives
X= La

Kd

id +Lffif

(47)

By analogy, the direct-axis armature


flux linkages may be defined as

Xd=KdXa cos

J+Xb cos (o 2
Nc cos (a--

J (48)

For the same conditions of operations


as equation 43, the flux linkages of the
phases are

442

(49)

The stator self- and mutual inductances


depend upoIn rotor position. They are
represented quite accurately by a constant
term plus a term which varies as a secondharmonic function of -. For the ideal
machine the coefficient of the secondharmonic term is the same for all of the
self- and nlutual inductances, but the
angle has a phase shift that is different
for each term. When these conditions
are taken into account, the inductances
are given by

Lbb=L8a+LLvv cos (2oa-

LccL=a+Lsv cos (2a-3 )


Labo-Lm +Ls,

cos

/2r\

(2u-3)

Lbc= -Lm,&+Lsv cos 2a

Lca -Lma+Lsv

cos

(2o -j )

(50)

When these equations and equations 44


are substituted in equation 49, and these
in turn are substituted in equation 48, the
direct-axis armature flux linkages become
(id= a +Lma +2 Lsv)id+
KdLafMi/ (51)

14wr

i" cos ( c-3) +Lffif (45)

id= Kd[ia cos + ib cos (

Kd2 23

Laa=Lsa+Lsv cos 2a

4w)

Lf=Lafm cos

a = Laaia +Labib +Leaic +Latit

If, to simplify the equations, the directaxis inductance is defined as


3

Ld =La +Lma +.22 Ls

(52)

equation 51 becomes
Xd =Ldid+3 KdLafMif
2

(53)

When equations 53 and 47 are compared with equations 18, it is evident that
equations 53 and 47 may be considered as
the expressions for the flux linkages of two
coupled circuits, the field circuit and a
direct-axis armature circuit, having a
fixed coupling with the field circuit, in
which the currrent is id. The mutual inductance from the field to the direct-axis
circuit, from equation 53, is (3/2) KdLa,M
and from the direct-axis circuit to the
field, from equation 47, is LafM/Kd. For
the mutual inductance to be reciprocal,
these two values must be the same, or
3
2

K L2

Larm

from which

Kd

(54)

Kd = -I2

(55)

If Kd is given the value V2/3, the


direct-axis circuit and the field have a
reciprocal mutual inductance of the value
Ldf,2

3LafM

(56)

When Park introduced the term id, he


did not select Kd as V2/3 but as 2/3. As
a result, the direct-axis circuit derived by
him and the field circuit do not have a
reciprocal mutual inductance. To correct this difficulty, it has been advocated
that the field current and all rotor currents
be replaced by currents having two thirds
of the actual values.'0 By this process
the system is made reciprocal. In effect
the actual field winding is replaced by a
hypothetical field winding in order to obtain a reciprocal system. It is also
necessary to modify the inductance values
to correspond.
If K4 is given the value 2/3 and if is replaced by 3/2 If, equations 47 and 53 may
be written

X\= 2 Laf.U)id+(2 Lf) If


Xd =Ldid+(2 La f) If

(57)

For this system the mutual inductance


becomes (3/2)LaNf in both directions, so
that the system is reciprocal, but the
self-inductance becomes (3/2)Lrr. Similarly, the inductances of all other rotor
circuits must be modified to 3/2 their
natural values.
Such modifications are troublesome,
particularly when a physical system is
used. It would seem far better simply to
modify id in the beginning, so that no
change in the physical system will be required, and this is the recommendation of this paper.
The reason for selecting Kd as 2/3
originally was that, if the armature
carried balanced sinusoidal currents of
normal frequency and zero power factor,
having a crest magnitude of unity, the
value of id would also be unity. While
this choice has a seeming advantage, it
is not an unmixed blessing. If unit or
base current is thought of as an alternating current having unit crest value,
and the same choice is made for voltage,
then unit current and unit voltage will result in an average apparent power of 0.5,
rather than unity, since average apparent
power is

Lewis-A Basic Analysis of Synchronous Machines-Part I

AUGUST 1958

S= El'= EmIsf

(58)

This is inconsistent with the desirable


feature that unit current per phase and
unit voltage per phase correspond to unit
apparent power, i.e., unit power at unity
power factor. This difficulty arises from
the fact that the armature currents are
alternating, so that the rms value is the
crest value divided by V/2, but under the
conditions of normal operation, id is a
steady current, for which the rms value
is equal to the crest value.
In most system analysis performed with
phasor and rms quantities, unit current is
selected as a current having unit rms
value. It therefore would have a crest
of V2 per unit instead of unity. To an
engineer regularly using rms quantities for
his work, this seems a more reasonable
choice than that base current have a crest
of unity, or that two base currents be
used in the same analysis, one for rms
currents and another for instantaneous
currents.
To complete the picture, the directaxis armature voltage is defined similarly
as

Fig. 5. Damper-circuit notation

special voltage properties resulting from


the fact that circuits having relative
motion are replaced by circuits maintaining fixed relative positions, so that the
hypothetical circuit is not as simple as it
might at first appear. Nevertheless the
resulting simplification has substantial advantages, and therefore the concept of
hypothetical windings should be more
fully developed.
The situation described for the field
circuit also applies to interlinkages
between the armature phases and any
ed =Kd[ea cos a++eb cos a+
damper circuit symmetrical about the
direct axis. For such circuits Kd also
and may be given the same value
enters,
e oso
( -47r) (59)
that is suitable for magnetic coupling
with the field circuit. Detailed treatment
For consistency, the value of Kd here is therefore omitted at this time, but is
should also be taken the same as for cur- included later. When there is a damper
rent and flux linkage, or V/2/3, instead of circuit symmetrical about the quad2/3, as originally suggested by Park.
rature axis, a similar situation occurs with
An alternative suggestion has been regard to flux relations about the quadmade by Kirschbaum"' that Kd be given rature axis.
the value 2/3 for the current id, but a
A damper circuit in either axis exists
different value for Xd and still a different whenever there is a pair of damper bars
value for ed, in order to achieve the desired or other conductors symmetrically located
reciprocal relations. This suggestion has on the two sides of the axis which are
the awkward feature that the transforma- capable of carrying current that will
tion equations of current, flux linkage, produce magnetization symmetrical about
and voltage are not the same, and it ap- the axis referred to. In most machines
pears to offer no compensating ad- there will be two or more sets of bars that
vantages. Therefore, it is recommended will constitute such circuits, so that it
here that Kd have the same value, namely becomes desirable to number the circuits,
V2/3, in all three equations.
as shown in Fig. 5. Thus circuit 1 symIt should be noted that the use of id, Xd, metrical about the direct axis is numand ed has the effect of replacing the three bered ld, and its self-inductance is Llld.
armature circuits on the stator by a Its mutual inductance with armature
single direct-axis circuit which has con- phase a is Laid, with the field it is LfJd,
stant self-inductance and constant mutual and with damper circuit 2 in the direct
inductance with the field circuit. This axis it is Li2d. Similarly, circuit 1 symof course is not a complete representation metrical about the quadrature axis is
of the machine, but it has the advantage made up of bars in position 1 on adjacent
that the variable mutual inductances sides of adjacent poles and is numbered
between armature circuits and the field lq. Its self-inductance is L11Q. Its
have been replaced by a constant mutual mutual inductance with armature phase a
inductance. It is developed later that is L.,q and with circuit 2 in the quadrature
this hypothetical direct-axis circuit has axis it is L12q. As previously mentioned,

AUGIJST 1958

there is no mutual inductance between any


quadrature-axis circuit and any direct-axis
circuit, because of the 90-degree relation
assumed and the symmetry of the circuits.
From here on, all mutual inductances are
reciprocal so there is no need to indicate
whether the effect is that of the first
circuit on the second or vice versa.
In Rankin's analysis8 the damper bar
closest to the axis considered was numbered 1, the next 2, etc., from the axis
out in both directions, but the bars were
numbered separately for the direct and
quadrature axes. Actually, each bar is a
part of both a direct-axis and a quadratureaxis damper circuit. With his system a
single bar must have two numbers, in
general, one for its position in relation to
the direct axis and the other in relation
to the quadrature axis, and at most only
one pair of bars per pole can have the
same number in relation to both axes.
Although this system has certain advantages of generalization in developing
the parameters of the damper circuits, it
also introduces some confusion regarding
the identity of the bar. In this paper the
dual notation is not used, but each bar is
permanently numbered in its relation to
the direct axis only, and any one bar
has the same number when considered in
relation to the quadrature axis.
A bar in the center of the pole forms no
circuit with relation to the direct axis, except possibly for eddy currents in the bar,
but half of the bar forms a quadratureaxis circuit with the adjacent half of the
corresponding bar in the adjacent pole on
each side. Bars in this position are
numbered 0.
To develop the flux-linkage relationships in the quadrature axis, assume that
only the armature phases and damper
circuit 1 in the quadrature axis are carrying currents. As previously stated, the
self-inductance of the damper circuit L11Q,
being a rotor circuit, is assumed constant.
The mutual inductance between this circuit and phase a is assumed to be a cosine
function of the angle between their axes.
From Fig. 4 the angle is a+ r/2, the sign
depending upon whether the positive

reference direction of magnetization along


the quadrature axis is chosen ahead of or
behind the direction for the direct axis, in
the direction of rotation. As selected by
Park, the reference direction in the quadrature axis leads the direct axis, and that
choice may somewhat simplify analyses
confined to machines only. However, it
introduces some awkward conventions
with regard to the use of machines in complete electric systems, and therefore the
opposite choice is believed to be preferable. The choice is not a matter of great

Lewis-A Basic Analysis of Synchronous Machines-Part I

443

significance, but to produce the most advantageous analysis, in the opinion of the
author, the opposite choice is made here.
With this convention, the minus sign in
the expression for the angle is chosen, and

LalzgLaigw cos (cr-)

=Lagwu sin a

(60)
Here, Lal, is the maximum value of the
variable mutual inductance. By analogy,
the mutual inductances for the other
phases are

field current are now replaced by terms


involving the damper current, since the
field current is now assumed to be zero
and the quadrature-axis damper current
is assumed to be ilig.
When these flux linkages are substituted in the first of equations 65, then
the inductance values are substituted
from equations 50, and finally the trigonometric reductions are made, the result
is

,a=(Laa+Lm4a- Ls) igs+


3

2 KqLalgMilg

Lbit=Lalim Sin (a,-3 )

LciQ Logm SiM (.- 4)

(61)

Then, in the same way as for equation


45, the flux linkages of damper circuit 1,
in the quadrature axis, become

),ugLaitm[ia

sin o+ib sin (-

)t

when only the circuits included carry


current.
In the same way as for the direct axis,
the quadrature-axis armature current is
defined proportional to the expression in
brackets as

Kq[ia sin a,+ib sin

ig

a-3

ic sin

+
3 )] (63)

(-

Substitution gives
Xiig La
X

Kff

-96+L

(64)

By analogy, the quadrature-axis armature


flux linkages and voltage are defined by
si o+Xa, Sin ('
XC=K[q Sm

sin ~

en

e.=Kfg[ea

Sin

23 )

-L
sin

4S_

V+cjb Sinl(-3)

C,c sin

3 )](65)

For the conditions of operation assumed


here, the flux linkages of the armature
phases become
a-Laaia +Labib LcaiC+LaqiC1gw
)lb = Labia+Lbbib +Ibcic +Lblaillg
Xc

Lcaia +Lcib+Lccic+Lclaiig

(66)

These equations are the same as equations 49 except that the terms involving
444

Lg=Lsa +Lma

3
Lgw
2

(68)

equation 67 becomes
(69)

It is to be noted that the quadratureaxis inductance, given by equation 68,


differs from the direct-axis inductance
given by equation 52, because the sign of
the last term is minus instead of plus.
The difference between the two quantities
is 3L,0, three times the magnitude of the
variable component of the self-inductance
of each phase.
When equations 69 and 64 are compared
with equations 18, it is again evident that
the equations may be applied to two
coupled circuits, one the quadrature-axis
damper circuit 1, and the other a quadrature-axis armature circuit, having a fixed
coupling with the quadrature-axis damper
circuit, in which the current i,r appears.
The mutual inductance from the quadrature-axis damper circuit to the hypothetical quadrature-axis circuit, from equation
69, is (3/2)KgLalgm and from the quadrature axis circuit to the damper circuit,
from equation64, is La41g/Kq. For the
mutual inductance to be reciprocal, these
two values must be the same, or
3

a, -

If the quadrature-axis inductance is


defined as

A)g =Lgig+2 KqLaIxgUiig

ic sin (a-4 ) +Lngqingj (62)

(67)

KgLal

Laigm

qm-Kg

(70)

from which

2
3

K
471)
Kg =:s

If Kf is assigned the value V/2/3, the


quadrature-axis circuit and the quadrature-axis damper circuit have reciprocal
mutual inductances of the value

LQx

I3Laiem

(72)

When Park"2 introduced the term ig,


he selected the positive direction for the
quadrature axis as 90 degrees ahead of the
direct axis instead of 90 degrees behind.
He also selected the numerical value as
2/3, the same as he had selected for ig.
The two choices together have the effect
of making Kg in this analysis-2/3, instead of v2/3. To obtain reciprocal
mutual inductances with this choice of Kg,
it would be necessary to modify the
damper circuits as was described for the
field circuit. However, if Kg is given
either the value 3 or - VIT3, no
modification of the damper circuits is required to produce reciprocal mutual inductances. Whether Kg is /213 or
- V/23 is a matter of minor importance,
but the plus sign is recommended by this
author as giving rise to a preferable set of
equations and is used in this paper. Thus,
in this paper, Kd=Kg= V12/3, and the
same values are used in the equations for
current, flux linkage, and voltage.
The result of the analysis of this section
has been to show that when only selected
circuits carry current, the effects of the
armature on the field and damper circuits can be represented by assuming that
the armature phases may be replaced by
two hypothetical windings: one, having a
fixed mutual inductance with any winding
in the direct axis, called the direct-axis
circuit; and the other, a winding having
a fixed mutual inductance with any of the
quadrature-axis damper circuits, called
the quadrature-axis circuiit. In the analysis only one rotor circuit at a time was
considered to be carrying current, in one
case the field winding, symmetrical about
the direct axis, and in the other case one of
the quadrature-axis damper. circuits.
Permitting current in only one rotor circuit at a time was done to simplify the
equations, but there is nothing about the
steps of the analysis that would be altered
if another direct-axis circuit, say a directaxis damper circuit, had been used in
place of the field circuit, or any other
quadrature-axis damper circuit instead of
the one chosen, except that the identification of the rotor circuit would have been
different and the numerical values of the
inductances, when introduced, must have
the proper values for the circuit actually
used. It remains to verify that the same
hypothetical circuits to represent the
actual armature circuits will be satisfactory when all the rotor circuits are carrying current simultaneously. This is done
by using these concepts in the general

Lewis-A Basic Analysis of Synchronous Machines-Part I

AUGUST 1958

analysis of a complete machine in sections


V and VI.
The two hypothetical circuits used
suffice when the armature currents add to
zero at every instant, but do not take care
of all conditions when there is an unbalance that requires current to enter or
leave the neutral connection of the three
phase windings. This too is studied in a
later section.

V. General Current and ]FluxLinkage Equations of a


Synchronous Machine
In the preceding section, equations were
written for the 3-phase synchronous machine when only selected circuits were
permitted to carry current. In this section all circuits are permitted to carry
current, so that general equations are
established. The number of damper circuits varies from one machine to another,
so that provision must be made to adjust
the equations to meet the individual requirements. As here written two damper
circuits in each axis are included, sufficient
to show the form whenever more than two
circuits occur in either axis. If only one
or no damper circuits are present, this may
be taken care of by setting the currents of
the circuits omitted equal to zero, and
ignoring the equations of flux linkage and
voltage for those circuits. Thus the equations given can be adapted to all cases
except perhaps nonsalient-pole machines
in which the damper circuits consist of
eddy-current paths in the rotor. In such
cases the damper circuits are not clearly
defined, so that the resistances and inductances cannot be readily specified.
However, even such cases must be
approximated by definite circuits having
spec4ied parameters if circuit analysis is
to be used to calculate performance.
For most purposes approximate circuit
equivalents may be established, even
though the parameters assigned to these
circuits may change from one operating
condition to another. Therefore the
equations given will often be applicable to
nonsalient-pole machines as well as to
salient-pole machines.
For the assumptions described, each
machine has eight circuits, the three
phase circuits of the stator, the field circuit in the direct axis, two direct-axis
damper circuits, and two quadrature-axis
damper circuits. Thus there is a total of
eight flux-linkage equations. If every
circui't had mutual inductance with every
other, each of these equations would include eight terms involving the currents,
one for each current. However, as previously discussed, circuits symmetrical

AUGUST 1958

about the direct axis have no mutual


coupling with circuits symmetrical about
the quadrature axis, and vice versa, so
that five of the equations have fewer than
eight terms, these being the equations for
the field circuit and for the four damper
circuits. The system of subscripts already used is adequate to indicate the
circuit and term involved. The phase
circuits are identified by the subscripts a,
b, and c respectively, the field by f, and
the damper circuits are numbered 1, 2,
etc., followed by d if the circuit is in the
direct axis, and by q if the circuit is in the
quadrature axis. Self-inductances have
the subscript repeated and mutual inductances have the two subscripts, letters
or numbers, followed by a third subscript
d or q to denote direct axis or quadrature axis, as needed. The dampercircuit currents, flux linkages, and voltages have the numerical subscript repeated, to distinguish from symmetrical
component quantities also regularly
identified by the numbers 1, 2, and 0 for a
3-phase circuit.
Then the flux-linkage equations become
Xa = Laaia +Labib Lcaic +Lafif+
Laldilld +La2d,i22d +Lalqillq +La2gi22Q
=
Xb Labia +Lbbib+Lbeic +Lbfit+

the phases are given for circuit 1 by equations 60 and 61. For circuit 2 the only
difference is the substitution of the coefficient La2q, instead of Lalq.m The
variations of the self-inductances of the
armature phases and of the mutual inductances between armature phases are
given by equations 50.
When all these quantities are substituted, equations 73 are considerably
modified. If Kd and Kf have the value
v'273, id and iq become
id =

i cos a+ib cos (a-

i Cos

ij'-I [ia sin a +ia sin (

4xr\_

47r

ic sin ( -3

(74)

If the same methods of combination


are used as were illustrated in section IV,
and if id and if are substituted whenever

applicable, the five flux-linkage equations


for the field and the four damper circuits
become

Xf

32 Lafmid+Lffif+Ljdild +Lfui2ms

LbldilId +Lb2di22d +Lblqillq +Lb2qi22q

Xucz =

Xc = Lcaia +Lbeib +Lccic+Lcrir+

Lcldilid +Lcui22d +Lclqillq +Lc2Qi22q


Xf=Lajfia +Lbfib +LcfiC+Lffif+

LfWiud +Lf2di22d

Xiid = Laxdia +Lbldib Leldic +Lfrdifi

Lild ilid +Li2di22d

X22d =iLa2dia +Lbib+Lc2d ic LfdiJ+


L1j2diid +LL22di22

X11q = La4 Qia +LQib +Lciqic +Llitiliq +

L,42i22q

)A22Q = La2qai +Lb2Qib LC25iC +Ll25ill +


L22gi22q

(73)
The values of most of the inductance
terms, as a function of the angle a, have
already been indicated. The self-inductances of the rotor circuits and the
mutual inductances between rotor circuits
are all constant, independent of u,. The
variations of the mutual inductances between the armature circuits and the field
are indicated by equations 44. The
mutual inductances between the armature
circuits and the direct-axis damper
circuits have the same form, but the
coefficients are LaidM and LauJM, for circuits 1 and 2 respectively, instead of
LafM. For the quadrature axis, the
variations of the mutual inductances with

L11d 1l4d+L1sS22
2La1dM id+LjteJ+

X22d =

LaidMid+Lfwif+LjS1d+L2di22d

1Xii = 2 LaliMmi
X22Q =

+Ljqijj +Ll2qi22q

La2qMiq +Ll2qillq +L22gi22q

(75)

If Xt and X, are defined by equations 48


and 65 respectively, they become, under
the same conditions,

Xd= Ldid+

Lafmif+
2

Xg = Laiq +

LaidMilid +43 La2dMi22d

Lalqmillq +

La2qMi22q (76)

where Ld and LQ are the direct-axis and


quadrature-axis inductances, as defined
by equations 52 and 68 respectively.
To complete the analysis, and to allow
for the condition where, during unbalance, there is current flow in the neutral
of the armature, it is necessary to define
zero-sequence current, flux linkage, and
voltage, as in symmetrical components,
by

Lewis-A Basic Analysis of Synchronous Machines-Part I

4L45

1
3

equation 56, the mutual inductances between the hypothetical direct-axis circuit
and the field circuit, and the two directaxis damper circuits, respectively, may be
defined by

io =-(ia+ib+ic)

XO = 3(Aa +X)b
+Xc)

1
eo= (ea+eb+ec)

(77)

If XA, Xb, and Xc from equations 73 are


substituted in the second of equations 77,
and the same values of self-inductance
and mutual inductance are introduced as
were used in equations 73 to derive equations 75, the result is
Xo= 1(Lsa-2Lma) (ia +i4 +ic)
3

(78)

This equation is independent of the


currents in the field circuit and all the
damper circuits and depends solely on the
current io. Thus, if the zero-sequence
inductance is defined as
Lo = Lsa-2Lma

(80)

32 LadM
3

Ld2d

La2dM

(81)

In the same way, following the precedent of equation 72, the mutual inductances between the hypothetical quadrature-axis circuit and the two quadrature-axis damper circuits may be defined by
2LaqM

Lqlq

LQ2q =

Now in reviewing equations 75, 76, and


80 it is important to notice that the eight
flux-linkage equations divide into three
groups. In the first three of equations 75
and the first of equations 76, the flux
linkages XJ, Xlld, X22, and Xd contain the
currents id, if, ilid, and i22d, but no others.
Thus these four equations, all referring to
circuits symmetrical about the direct axis,
contain only currents in their own four
circuits. These four circuits, including
the hypothetical direct-axis stator circuit
and the three direct-axis rotor circuits, are
muitually inductively coupled but are not
coupled with any of the other circuits.
Furthermore the mutual inductances are
all constants and, for the value of Kd
selected, are all reciprocal.
Similarly, the last two of equations 75
and the second of equations 76 constitute
a group of mutually coupled circuits
grouped about the quadrature axis. The
flux linkages are X1l9, X22ne, and XA, each
depending on the currents iq, ille, and ianq.
The group includes the hypothetical
quadrature-axis circuit and the two
quadrature-axis damper circuits, and all
the inductances are constant.
Finally, the zero-sequence circuit, represented by equation 80, depends only on
the zero-sequence current and is independent of the hypothetical direct-axis
and quadrature-axis circuits and of the
field and all the damper circuits.
To simplify the equations as much as
possible, it is desirable to define new
mutual inductances between the coupled
circuits. Following the precedent of

446

Ldld =

(79)

equation 78 reduces to
o =Loio

Ldf= lsLaf m

13_

La2qM

(82)

Then, finally, the flux-linkage expressions for the circuits coupled about the
direct axis become, with the conventions
appropriate for generator operation,
Xd=Ldid +Ldif+Ldidiud +L2dii22

Xf=Ldfid+Lffif+Lndi1ld+Lfsdi22d
Xlld= 1dIdid +Lfldif+Lj!dilld +Lldi2d
X24

Ldwid +Lfdif+Ll2ijd L22di22

(83)

La3, would be used in the place of L,.


Also, an additional equation would be required for XA, like that for X2M, except
that 3 would replace 2 in each appearance
in all but the term L2m which would become Lad. The final added term, corresponding to the terms added to the existing equations, would be L3wi3M. The
added inductances would be defined in a
similar manner to those already defined,
except of course they would relate to the
new damper circuit. In the same way
the equations can be extended to four or
more circuits. The modification in the
quadrature-axis group can be handled
in a similar manner, and no change is
needed in the zero-sequence circuit.
It is also desirable and useful to express
the phase currents and flux linkages in
terms of the direct-axis, quadrature-axis,
and zero-sequence quantities. Equations 74 and the first of equations 77 expressed id, if, and io in terms of ia, ib, and
ic. If these three equations are consistent, they may be solved for i, ib, and i,.
The determinant of the system of equations is not zero, so that the equations
are consistent and the solution is valid and
unique for all values of current. The
result is
ia =

id cos d,+

i=

id COS

For analysis of motors instead of generators, the reference directions of armature currents may be reversed, as suggested in Fig. 4. This change would
reverse the signs of i and X4 in these four

equations.
The flux linkages for the circuits
coupled about the quadrature axis become
Xq = Lqi1 +LqIqiulQ +LQ2ai22g
Xiig = Lqlqiq Lllillq +L2Qi22q
X22q = Lq2qiq +Ll2illq+L22qi22g (84)
If the reference directions of armature
currents are reversed, for motor conditions, the signs of XA and i4 would be
negative in these three equations.
For the zero-sequence circuit, equation

80 applies. For motor conditions, no net


change would occur.
It is now evident by analogy what
changes would be needed if more than two
damper circuits were present in either

axis. If an additional circuit is introduced in the direct axis, each of equations


83 would acquire an additional term like
its last one except that 3 would replace 2
in each subscript appearance in all but
the last equation, where Lutz, instead of

q sin

a+io

(.- )

2-

+X

ie sin (a3)+i0

(85)

2 ia sin

ii3d cos

( ^

A similar result is obtained for the flux


linkages. With Kd= K = V23, the flux
linkages, defined originally by equations 48, the first of equations 65, and the
second of equations 77, become
COS (a,
Nd= -Ba cOs T+Xb cs+

/ 4w\1
XI=

2[Xa sin

(Xa+Xb+Xc)

+1Xb sin

a-

)+

X'C sin

(86)

These equations too may be solved for


Xa, Xb, and Xc, to give

Lewis-A Basic Analysis of Synchronous Machines-Part I

AUGUST 1958

=
Aa /2
dcos 0f+

Xb/=\2

'X

cos
(Cf-

tions here developed are more often


applied to generators than to motors, it
is appropriate to assign source-circuit
conventions to the equations for the

sin a +X0

)+

12
l
47r\
-c8 Xd cos tv-+

i2 Xq4 sin (a--)7r+

(87)

Because of the differences in the values


assigned Kd and K., these equations differ
from those of Park in the coefficients of
the first two terms and in some of the
signs. With the conventions chosen, it
is important to notice that all terms of
both the defining equations for direct-axis
quadrature-axis, and zero-sequence
quantities and the inverse equations for
expressing phase quantities in terms of
the new variables have positive signs.
Such a situation is preferable to a sprinkling of minus signs through these equations unless there are important reasons
for some different choice. In the opinion
of the author, the best correlation with the
conventions used in system analysis is
obtained by selecting Ka so that all the
signs are plus.

phase windings, with reference directions


and polarities as shown in Fig. 4. The
field circuit is treated as a load circuit, a
load on the exciter. All the damper
circuits are considered short-circuited,
so that the voltages are zero. With these
conventions, the voltage equations of the
eight circuits treated in section V may be
written
ea=-ean= -Rata-

dt

eb=ebn =Raib-d t
dt

ec=ecn=-Raic-dc
dt1

ef ~efq Rfif +4X

For machine circuits having the properties of resistance and self- and mutual inductance, the voltage drops in each circuit
are given by equations like 19, even if
some of the circuits undergo relative
motion with respect to others, provided
the configuration of the circuits is not
changed by switching or commutators.
Of course the flux-linkage expressions
must include variable terms which represent the effects of the changes in inductance which are caused by the relative
motion.
The signs are as shown in equations 19
if the circuit is treated as a load, with
relative polarity and relative current direction such that the reference current
is directed from the positive reference
terminal to the negative. However, if
the circuit is being treated as a source, it
is preferable to reverse the reference
polarity so that the sign of the voltage
is reversed. Since a single closed circuit,
examined at any two terminals, must consist of a source portion and a load portion,
both conditions arise whenever a closed
circuit is studied with the same reference
conditions throughout. Since the equa-

AWuGUST 1958

here. Therefore, the resistances to be


included are Ra for each stator phase;
Rf for the field; Rlld and R2w, the selfresistances of the direct-axis damper
circuits; Rl2d, the mutual resistance between direct-axis dampers; and R11q, R222,
and R12,, the corresponding resistances in
the quadrature-axis damper circuits, all
as included in equations 88.
If the dampers are not connected between poles, the quadrature-axis damper
circuits are open and their equations
should not be set equal to zero, but to
the open-circuit voltage, ell., etc. However, the two or more damper circuits are
interconnected, so that the voltages
across the break must be the same for all
the quadrature-axis circuits. Because of
this interconnection, currents may circulate among the damper circuits, and
having the circuit open does not imply
that the quadrature-axis damper currents
are zero.

O-=Rlldilid + R12di22d + dxil


d
0 = Rl2dilid +R22d i22d +-dt

The direct-axis, quadrature-axis, and


zero-sequence voltages are given, when
Kd= Kq V2/3, by

O=Rllill+RR2qi22q+ d-t

ed

0 = R12Sill q+R22Qi22q+-dX

dt

VI. General Voltage Equations of


Synchronous Machine

the same axis, so long as all the damper


circuits maintain symmetry, as assumed

ea cos aT+eb cos (a-3

ec cos

(88)

If the reference directions of armature


currents are reversed, for motor conditions, the signs of the terms on the right

of the first three equations would all become plus.


In each case the armature circuits and
the field are not conductively coupled to
any other circuits except at their terminals, so that each contains a resistance
drop resulting onlyfrom itsown resistance.
However, the damper circuits are usually
interconnected more or less completely
by common end rings, highly conducting
laminations at the ends of the poles, or
other means, even though continuous end
rings are not always used to provide
low-resistance connections for the quadrature-axis damper circuits. If the
damper circuits are all symmetrical about
either the direct axis or the quadrature
axis, there will be no mutual resistance
drop between any direct-axis circuit and
any quadrature axis circuit. This is true
because any voltage drop that would occur
in either circuit on one side of the pole because of mutual use of some part of the
damper bars or end connections is exactly
counter-balanced by anequal voltage drop
of opposite sign on the other side of the
pole. Thus mutual resistance drop is
confined to circuits symmetrical about

2=
i[ea sin

sin

/' a 4xr\1
)
)

e, sin

or

47r
-3

(89)

eo =-(ea +eb +eC)

These equations also may be solved for


the phase quantities in terms of the new
variables to give
ea=

12

12

ed cos 0+

eQ sin

Y+eo

3= 3edcos(-3)+

i3eq sin(a3)O

e= - ed cosa-

eq sin (i-n )+eo

(90)

If the first three of equations 88 are


substituted in equations 89, the results
cannot immediately be expressed in
terms of Xd, )X,, Xo, and jg, iq, and io. As a
preliminary step it is therefore desirable
to differentiate Ad and A~. Differentiating
the first of equations 86 gives

Lewis-A Basic Analysis of Synchronous Machines-Part I

447

dAd

ddb

J2Fd)

-g=11-

d:

cos

3Ldt

a+dt

2ir\

cos

--

3/

di

-4

1+

3i
-

X3

do

)Jdt

Recognizing that the second bracketed


expression contains XB makes it possible
to rearrange this equation to give

+d+dt

os

dA

dt cos

Cos

/-2

47r\1 dXd

do
3dt3di t(

Similarly, if A. is differentiated, the result


is

*3

3J

+dt

dt

Q
dtc sino
(-43 dt=
dig
d

(93)

If these expressions are utilized, substitution of the values of ea, be, and ec
from the first three of equations 88 in
equations 89 leads to the general relations

Cq

dXd

da

dt

dt

=-Raiq dt +Xe dot


-

co=-Raio-dXo
dt

(94)

If reference polarities of armature currents are reversed, as for motor conditions,


the signs of all terms on the right would

be reversed.
The original equations 88 are the basic
differential equations of the machine for
any terminal conditions in which ea, eb,
ec, and ef are specified, either directly or in
terms of each other and the resulting currents. The relations between the flux
linkages and the currents are given by
equations 73 for a machine having two
damper circuits in each axis, and the modifications to include a different number
of damper circuits have been indicated.
As has been mentioned earlier, the
greatest difficulty which has arisen in
attempting to solve these equations in
terms of the original variables, for particular conditions, comes from the fact
that many of the inductance coefficients
are functions of time, so that the equations obtained by substituting the fluxlinkage expressions in the voltage equations have variable coefficients. The

448

Lo

Fig. 6. Zero-sequence circuit


si

2d ca

Rao

co

l 4X\
dXc
-tcost t-- ji-

3L dt

t+

io

general solution of such equations involves great difficulties and can be obtained only in special cases. The introduction of the direct-axis, quadratureaxis, and zero-sequence variables replaces ea, eb, and eC by ed, e<, and eC. In
that case, equations 94 replace the first
three of equations 88. The corresponding flux-linkage relations, given by equations 83, 84, and 80, are much simpler
and all the coefficients are constants.
Thus if the terminal conditions, when
expressed in terms of the new variables,
do not themselves introduce variable coefficieilts, the equations become linear differential equations with constant
coefficients, for which general methods
of solution are available. Because the
method involves the solution of algebraic
equations of higher degree than the third,
there is in general no completely algebraic
solution, but well-known numerical
methods can be extended to give any
desired precision in a numerical case.
The last of equations 94 and equation
80 for the zero-sequence quantities are
independent of the others, and may be
represented by the simple circuit of Fig.
6. If the reference polarities of armature
currents are reversed, for motor conditions, the reference direction of io in the
figure also reverses. The other equations
are interrelated, requiring more complex
circuits which depend, at least to some
degree, on the application. Thus no
attempt is made to establish these circuits
in general, but they are illustrated for a
particular application in section VII.
Because of the selection of KQ asV2/3
instead of -2/3, the signs of the last term
in the first and second of equations 94 are
reversed from those given by Park.',"
Particular attention is called to the
first two of equations 94. With changes
of reference directions of the currents,
to represent the load portion instead of
the source portion of the circuit, they
would become directly analogous to equations 19, the voltage equations of two
static coupled circuits, except for the last
term vhich has no counterpart in equations 19. Thus the direct-axis and quadrature -axis circuits have voltage equations
that are just like those of static circuits except they each contain an additional term
which is a function of dy/dt to represent

the effects of rotation. Since the static


circuits do not have such a term, it follows
that static equivalent circuits to represent the machine completely may not be
available, unless some artifice to represent
the last term can be provided. Sometimes it is possible to represent the added
term by some form of coupling between
the direct-axis and the quadrature-axis
circuits and sometimes it is not. In any
case, the additional term is equivalent to
a generated voltage and therefore can be
introduced into the equivalent circuit as
an electromotive force. However, its
magnitude depends upon the flux linkages
of the companion circuit, and there may
be practical difficulties in controlling
the voltage magnitudes as needed. The
presence of these terms places some restriction on the usefulness of physically
realizable equivalent circuits, because of
the artifices or manipulation needed to
represent the rotating machine completely.
The equations given in this section and
the preceding are the general equations of
3-phase synchronous generators. They
may be applied to many problems concerning machine behavior for both generators and motors, such as short-circuit
transients, hunting, and the starting performance of synchronous motors. For
particular applications, restrictions or
simplifications appropriate to the application produce important modifications in
these equations which can only be determined by a study of the application.
The use of these equations in the calculation of the starting performance of synchronous motors serves as an illustration.
All of these equations as derived are in
physical units. However, as illustrated
in the simple case of two coupled ciruts,
the equations are also valid in any consistent per-unit notation and also in a
modified physical form in which each circuit is referred to a common circuit as a
base, by m aking use of a more or less
arbitrary turns ratio. Each circuit that
is altered is replaced by one in which the
voltage and flux linkages are divided by
the selected turns ratio, the current is
multiplied by the ratio, and inductance
and resistance are divided by the ratio
squared. Mutual inductance and mutual
resistance between any two circuits are
divided by the product of the ratios relating each of the circuits coupled by the
mutual inductance to the reference circuit. If all the quantities involved are
transferred to the modified base, the equations given may be used directly, the
modified values being inserted in the given
equations. These statements can be

Lewis-A Basic Analysis of Synchronous Machines-Part IA

AUGUST 1958

readily verified for the usual c hanges as


shown in the following.
Since the armature circuits are connected to the external system, the armature circuits are usually not modified.
However, in order to develop equivalent
circuits having physical existe nce, it is
usually necessary to modify tlhe circuits
of the field and damper circe uits. One
ratio for the field circuits and . one ratio
for all the damper circuits aire usually
desirable. Let the ratio by whicch the field
winding turns are redtuced be cl. and the
corresponding ratio for the doamper circuits be a,, although a,, will usu-ally be less
than unitv.
Then the first three of eqtuati ons 88 and
all of equations 94 require no modification. If the fourth of equatiions 88 is
divided by a r and the last four aire divided
by a, they may be written
efg Rrf(a
af af

if)++

(af)

R12d
=
2

an2

0=

R22d

+
(a,il-d)
2
an

-9(aninlq)

(ani22d+)

a,:d)
a,,

dRd

dt

1\22d
an:

(ani22d) +-

+R2-(ani22q) +

dt

d(-

an/

dt

X292\

O=R12Q(
Ri)
+R22q(
a,,'
an,2

d(a

(95)

The corresponding flux-link:age equa-

tions are 80, 83, and 84. Equa tion 80 involves no terms that are modiified under
the assumptions made. Equatiions 83 and
84 are expressed in modified fc rm as
)d =Ldid +-(afiI) +

arf

an

(a,illd) +

Ld2d(ani,,d)
an

Xf Ldf Id+ L,t2 (af1i) +Lfid (a.ill,


af2
afan

af af

an

a,

Sd + Lfid

Lild
(aif) +an2
afan
.

)
I,d

(a Inilid) +

)A22d Ld2d . L12,


L,2d
.
=
?d + (a-ir) + (anilid) +
an

afan

an2

L22d(ani.,2d)
an2

AUGUST 1958

X'lq Lqlq

(ani,Iq) +

Lq2q
a.

Lliq

(ani22q)

Ll2q

a,=a,Lq+
(anillu) 2-(ani22q)
an
an 2
an

an

L
X22q
Lq2q
+
A2=(an
(96)
q2.LI2q
(ani1iq) ++L22q
a
a
an2
an2 i22q)

It is readily recognized that equations


95 and 96 give the same information as
the original equations from which they
are derived, but each is now expressed
in terms of the quantities modified by the
turns ratios selected. It is clear that the
ratios af and an may have arbitrary values
without affecting the validity of equations
95 and 96, so that the choice of af and an
is made by finding the values which will
make the equivalent circuits the most
useful.

VII. Starting of Synchronous


Motors

not needed.
Since the machine is being operated as
a motor, rather than a generator, the
appropriate change in the armaturecurrent reference directions is desirable,
so that power input rather than output
will be positive. Making this change
results simply in reversing the signs on
the right of the first three of equations 88
and all three of equations 94. With these
changes, equations 94, and the last five
of equations 88, arranged in direct-axis,
quadrature-axis, and zero-sequence
groups, become

R,2Rqitlq+R22qi22q+ d-

eo = Raio

+dt

As discussed in section VI, if the

of zero, the open-circuit voltage will


appear on the left of the sixth and seventh
equations, and because the damper bars
of each pole are connected together, these
two voltages must be equal. For the
same reason, the sum of the currents in
the quadrature-axis damper circuits must
be zero, although this does not require
that the currents individuallv are zero.
Adding an equation to represent this
condition makes possible a solution including the additional variable represented by the total voltage across the two
breaks in the damper circuits.
Actually the rotor accelerates from
standstill in a time that is long by comparison with the time constants of the
transient components of current, so that
a very good approximation of the starting
performance can be obtained by calculating the steady-state currents at several
different constant values of rotor speed,
neglecting the current transients. Then
the torque based upon these steady-state
currents is determined and plotted as a
function of rotor speed or rotor slip.
From this information plus data regarding the mechanical characteristics of the
motor and its load, the mechanical
transient of acceleration can be worked
out. For these conditions the steadystate solutions of equations 97 are desired,
for anv selected value of da/dt.
When the terninal voltages are sinusoidal balanced 3-phase voltages, they
may be represented by
ea =

|2 Ea| sin ct = x/Re[t-jIEIJ"ul

eb=V\jEai| sin

R,1di,,d+R,2di22d d

dt

dt

dXRaq+dcvdr
d
-t
e-=Rai.q+ dX"7
dt
dt
0 =R,,,in,,

wt-

da

()-RI2ditd +R22di22d
0=

(97)

damper bars are not connected between


poles, the quadrature-axis damper-circuit
equations require modification. Instead

= Rrif + dxf
d

2d(afni2d)

an2

an

an

dAd

(afi2d)

Alid Ld,d

Lqiq

One very important problem is the


determination of the starting performance
of synchronous motors. This is now
investigated.
During the starting period, the field
terminals are usually short-circuited either
directly or through an external resistance.
In the latter case, Rf can be increased by
the amount of external resistance, so that
ef can then be zero in eitlher case. In
some instances the field circuit may be
opened, in which case if is zero, and the
corresponding equations for ef and A, are

dt

+- 2
=-(anin,d)
an2
an

Xq = Lqiq +

Rl2qi22q d?1l,q
di

[-j Ea

(98)
where |Eal is the rms scalar amplitude of
the voltage, and (Re denotes" take the real
part of" the expression that follows. For
convenience t has been chosen arbitrarily
to be zero when ea is passing through zero
in an increasing direction.
At a steady speed less than svnchronous, the velocity of the rotor is dcr/dt=

Le-wis-A Basic Analysis of Synchronous Machines-Part I

449

(1 -s)w where s is the per-unit slip, zero


for synchronous speed and unity for
standstill. Then at any time a = (1-s) X
wt+ao, where aO is the position of the
direct axis of the rotor, measured from
the center line of phase a, at I= 0.
For these values, equations 89 give
ed-=V3EsI sin (swt-ao)
ea-= V3 E^ Icos (swt-ao)
(99)
eo =O
These equations indicate that application of balanced sinusoidal voltages of
normal frequency to the armature circuits has the same effect as the application of two sinusoidal voltages of slip
frequency, differing in phase by 90 degrees
at slip frequency, to the hypothetical
direct- and quadrature-axis circuits respectively, and no voltage to the zerosequence circuit.
Trial shows that all except the last
of equations 97 for the voltages, and equations 83 and 84 for the flux linkages are
satisfied if all the currents are sinusoidal
currents of slip frequency. For the last
of equations 97, both the zero-sequence
voltage and current are zero. Then all
the other currents, voltages, and flux
linkages can be represented by phasors.
For convenience, each phasor is so chosen
that, if it is multiplied by -V2efs"", the
real part of the result is the corresponding instantaneous quantity for the directaxis, quadrature-axis, and all rotor circuits. Then equations 97 in phasor
form, except the last which may now be
omitted, become
Ed RaId+jSwA4+(1 -s)wAq
0

RrIr+jswAf

+jswAuod
O= Rl2dIoll+RRI,Im +jswA22d
EQ = RaIg +jsAq- (1 -s)wAd
ORI1011Q +RnqI22Q +jSciIAjq
0 = RbodI1d+Ro2I22

0 -RI2JIIq
+Rn2q+jswA22q

(100)

Dividing by (1 -2s) and usingequations


101 to eliminate E, gives
iEd = 2

Ea
1E'e -

1-(I
RId2s2s-1

1EaGIt

Eg = 32

(1

450

jId) -wAd

(103)

O=

-s) RISq-sRa.jId

|(1-s)2-s2l^Ad (102)

-jX02qr+(!-+jX1l2

+jX,lq)io!q

)Illq+

(104)

(-22Q+jX22qf)Itf(106)

Equations 83 and 84 in phasor form,


with the reference direction of the armature currents reversed, as assumed for
motor conditions, become

In these equations all currents and


voltages are rms values and all reactances
are determined at normal frequency of
operation, the frequency of the applied
voltage. If there are more than two
damper circuits in either axis, the additional equations and the additional terms
in each of the existing equations can be
added bv analogy. Because the reactances that appear in equations 103 and
104, when the values of Ad and Ax are

-1

wAd =

Ra(I-Id) +jwAg

XdfIf - XdldIl d - Xd2dI22


Ajr= XdfId +XffIr+X+dXllld +Xf2dI22d
-

Aild = -XdldId +XfrldId +XlldIld +

X12d122d

wAg2 = - Xd2dId +XdJ+X12dIlnd +X2dI22d

wAq = X0Il -XQqI12-Xq222wA11q = -- XQ10I +X1101j1j +Xi2qI22g


wA22n0 -X020Iq +Xl2Iq12 +X22QI220

(105)

in which each X is the reactance of the


corresponding inductance at normal frequency, since in general X = wL.
These expressions may be substituted
in equations 100, 103, and 104 to obtain
equations relating currents and voltages
directly. In the steady state, at slip
greater than zero, ao may be chosen
arbitrarily, and is taken as zero. If the
equations of 100 that are equal to zero
are first divided by s, and Xo is zero,
the process gives

jEd =

|Ea

= (Ra +jXd)ild

(101)

0 a-jXf gI+
zRiiq+jXllgX llf +

(Ris

2,s- 1

Ra (I-jId)-

jXddlIf-jXdldJIrd-jXddJ1nd

For greater convenience the first and


fifth of equations 100 can be manipulated
so that Ad and A each appear in only one
equation. If Ed is multiplied by -js and
E, by (1-s), and the products added,
the reslt is

(Ra+jX)Iqf+ 1-S Ra(rc-jIdq)-

jX1QoIzq -jXoqsqih

|E41 e- Jor

RaI +2_1-s
2s

=-jEa

J=jEd

s) Eq -jsEd = (1

Similarly, by eliminating A.,

Ee-2

RI0
112
2ss

and equations 99 in phasor form become


Ed-=-i

Eal4 -go15

-jXddId+ (-+ j_I+


iXfndjIlld +jXfjI2d

O-=-jXd1-diId +jXndlfjI+
Ril

+jX11d jI11d+

L1d
(

jX12d jIlU

0 = -jXd2djId +jXf2djIf+

jX+2d)+jI,d +

substituted, are normal-frequency reactances, all the other equations have been
placed on the same basis by dividing
them by s. The effect of the slip has
been taken care of by dividing all the
rotor-circuit resistances by s, as shown
in the equations. The modifications
needed for nonconnected dampers can be
readily made as explained earlier.
To eliminate Ad from one equation and
A. from the other, it was necessary to
rotate the voltages and currents of either
the direct-axis or the quadrature-axis
circuit by 90 degrees. Since, for synchronous operation at no load, Ed is zero,
and the terminal voltage therefore gives
rise only to Eq, it seems best to retain Ea
as the phasor of reference and rotate
the direct-axis quantities, as has been
done. As a result, all the rotor-circuit
currents in the direct-axis equations are
not the actual phasor values, but the
phasor values rotated by 90 degrees, as

indicated by the j in front of each such


term.
Equations 106 may be represented by
an equivalent circuit. Of the possible
circuits that can be used, the one selected
is shown in Fig. 7, and its validity may be
verified by showing that the voltage-drop
equations for the circuit agree with equations 106. To render all reactances positive, if possible, the outer damper circuits
are represented first, beginning at the
top for the direct-axis circuit and the
bottom for the quadrature-axis circuit.
The type of circuit shown for the direct-

Lewis-A Basic Analysis of Synchronous Machines-Part I

AUGUST 1958

Fig. 7. Equivalent

d+X2)

circuit for starting a


synchronous motor

having four dmper


bafs

XfW-XI2d)

Xdid)

CTORPLNG
FORMER

t1t

per

pol.

Damper switch Is
open if damper circuits are not connected
between
poles

FIELD
SWITCH

t DAMPER
SWITCH

12q)

+Xq2q)
J1TJ

axis and quadrature-axis portions of the


complete circuit was first presented by
Linville"2 and further developments have
been given by Rankin." The combination of the circuits of the direct axis and
quadrature axis into a single circuit, with
a mutual resistance to include the coupling
effect of dissymmetry, was first shown by
Kron.13
The portion of the circuit from d2 to dc
represents the direct-axis rotor circuits
and the portion from qg to q2 the quadrature-axis rotor circuits. Since these
portions of the circuit are not connected
to any external circuits, they may be
reduced to single equivalent impedances,
one connected between d1 and d3 to represent the direct axis and the other connected between qi and q2 to represent the
quadrature axis. Because some of the
circuit elements depend upon s, the slip,
these equivalent impedances will have
different values for each value of slip.
So far as possible mutual resistances
and reactances between circuits have been
represented by using self-impedances connected to be common to the circuits
coupled together. However, with two
or more damper circuits in the direct axis,
this is not completely possible because the
field circuit is inductively coupled with
each damper circuit, but has no conductive coupling with any damper circuit,
whereas the damper circuits, being connected together at the end rings, have
some conductive coupling, involving
mutual resistance. It is not possible to
provide coupling by the use of a common
inductive branch between the field and
more than one damper circuit that does

AUGUST 1958

not also include an undesired common resistance branch representing the coupling
between two damper circuits. Accordingly one coupling transformer, assumed
to be ideal, having at 1-to-i ratio, is
included in the circuit to provide coupling
between the field and the second directaxis damper circuit, while maintaining
the circuits electrically separate at that
point. If the machine has more than
two damper circuits, a minimum of one
such coupling transformer is required
for each two dawnper circuits after the
first, provided, of course, that the field
circuit is closed.
As derived, the equivalent circuit is
valid in physical units as well as in any
suitably chosen per-unit system. However, for the reasons indicated in section
III, when the circuit is set up in physical
terms, it probably cannot be physically
realized using inductive elements because
several of the branches include negative
reactances. In the present section the
circuit has been established for steadystate conditions at each desired value of
slip, and therefore negative reactances
may be represented by capacitive reactances. However, in some cases the negative reactances may be small, thus requiring very large capacitances or the use
of a capacitive reactance in series with a
slightly smaller inductive reactance. The
latter arrangement in practice may introduce unduly large losses because of the
resistance inherent in the inductive reactance elements. Therefore in any miniature representation of the circuit, negative reactances should be eliminated
whenever possible.

As previously explained for a simple


circuit, this can usually be done by using
a suitably chosen per-unit representation
or by selecting a suitable turns ratio for
each inductively coupled circuit, except
those kept as the reference circuits, and
by modifying the impedances to an
equivalent 1-to-i ratio basis. The circuit
of Fig. 7 is also valid if the modified values
are used consistently throughout. Of
course the currents and voltages must also
be replaced by their modified values, i.e.,
stepped up or down in proportion to the
turns assigned, directly or inversely as
required.

It should be noted that the portion of


the circuit representing the quadratureaxis circuit and the portion representing
the direct-axis circuit have a mutual resistance (1-s) Ra/(2s-1), as shown in the
circuit diagram. This mutual resistance
is positive for 0.5<s<1, becomes infinite
at s=0.5, is negative if O<s<0.5, and is
zero for s= 1. When the mutual resistance is zero, for s= 1, the circuiuts become
independent of each other. When the
mutual resistance is infinite, for s=0.5, or
half speed, 10-jId=0, which requires that
the direct-axis current and the quadrature-axis current shall be equal in magnitude but 90 degrees out of phase. If the
direct-axis portion of the circuit and the
quadrature-axis portion of the circwut were
identical, symmetry would require that
this condition be satisfied not only at
half speed but at every speed, and there
would be no current in the mutual resistance at any time. Thus if the methods
used here were applied to an induction
motor, which normally has uniform windings on the rotor and a uniform air gap,
the resulting circuits in the two axes would
be duplicates, and Iqf-jId=O would always be true. It follows that the mutual
resistance (1-s)R0/(2s-1) is a consequence of the fact that the quadratureaxis and direct-axis circuits are dissimilar.
Since the mutual, or common, resistance is negative for values of slip less
than 0.5, it cannot be represented by a
passive resistance in a miniature network
or analog computer in this range. Therefore, in any case, unless the miniature circuit has active elements capable of representing negative resistances, the complete
solution of the equivalent circuit cannot
be obtained for the lower values of slip.
However, the greatest difficulty in an
analytic solution is the reduction of the
rotor-circuit portions, from d2 to ds, and
from qi to q2, to simple impedances.
With suitable bases selected for a perunit representation, or with the circuit
modified by suitable turns ratios, these

Lewis-A Basic Analysis of Synchronous Machines-Part I

451

steps can normally be handled by a network analyzer, or analog computer, so


that the remaining steps can be worked
out analytically with little difficulty, involving only two simultaneous equations.
Thus even in the range where analog
methods will not give the complete solution unless there are special elements
available, the analog devices can still
be useful in the motor-starting analysis.
Rankin,8 in setting up the equivalent
circuits, rotated the impedance elements
by 90 degrees, so that actual resistances
were represented by capacitances and
reactances by resistances. The resulting
currents are of course also displaced by 90
degrees, but, in the steady state, compensation for this modification is readily
made. The advantage of this procedure
is that the capacitor elements of network
analyzers or analog computers are relatively free from resistance losses, whereas
the reactors available in most such devices have inherent resistances that
usually cannot be ignored. Thus considerably better accuracv can be expected in most cases. If this is not done,
the resistance errors with some network
analyzers may be so large that the method
is not suitable for practical use.
The circuit of Fig. 7 contains two
switches. WVhen the field switch is
opened, the circuit satisfies the equations
for open field. When the other switch
is opened, the circuit satisfies the equations modified for the use of nonconnected
damper circuits.

Summary and Conclusions


The equivalent circuits presented here
differ from those previously presented in
two principal respects:
1. By a different choice of coefficient in the
defining equations for id and i,, the equivalent circuits have been made reciprocal inherently, so that a special choice of base or
turns ratio is not required to accomplish
this desirable result.
2. The circuits have been so developed
that they may be easily established either
in a per-unit system, as has been the practice
heretofore, or in a physical system, as may
be more convenient. These two features
should make circuits of this type easier to
use and more convenient for practical
calculation. The programming of the solution of the corresponding equations on a
digital computer should make possible the
routine use of these methods for computation of the starting performance of synchronous motors in design work. Since
many variations can be tried easily and
rapidly, it would now be possible to achieve
optimum design proportions for specified

needs.

The further development of these


circuits and their specific application to

4 "'2

the calculation of starting performance of


synchronous motors is treated in a
paper by Giaever.'4
It has been shown that the turns ratios
used to modify the field and damper circuits are arbitrary, but that there is a
definite range of ratios which will ensure
that e ach branch of an equivalent circuit
used to represent the relations between
any two windings will be positive.
Whenl the equivalent circuits for several
pairs of windings are superimposed to
produce a composite circuit such as shown
in Fig. 7, the branches represent differences of the branches of circuits for individual pairs, and some of these branches
may be negative, depending upon the
characteristics of the individual machine.
However, there are optimum ratios that
are most likely to keep all branches positive, as is most desirable. The selection
of the optimum ratios, in terms of the
physical characteristics of individual machines, will be included in a subsequent
paper.
It may also be shown that the output
power and torque may be expressed
directly and simply in terms of quantities
measured in the equivalent circuit of the
type of Fig. 7 or easily calculated from the
solution of the corresponding equations.
This subject will also be presented in the
subsequent paper.
It was shown that the equivalent circuit of the type of Fig. 7 is simplified when
the direct-axis and quadrature-axis eircuits have identical characteristies. This
would be true for an induction motor
which exhibits no saliency effects. The
application of this type of analysis to
induction motors is treated bv Ku and
Shen.15 The resulting equivalent circuit,
as viewed from the armature, is essentially
the same as that obtained by other methods of analysis, but the treatment of the
rotor circuits follows different lines.
The analysis of this paper has resulted
in the following recommendations:
1. The coefficients in the definitions of
direct-axis and quadrature-axis quantities
of current, flux linkage, and voltage should
be changed from 2/3 and -2/3 respectively, as used by Park, to V/2/3 for both
axes.

2. Base values of armature current and


voltage should be rms instead of crest
values, so that the resulting analysis will be
more self-consistent and more consistent
with other phases of system analysis.
3. The reference direction of the quadrature axis should lag the reference direction
of the direct axis, so that the results will
agree more closely with customary and
well-established analysis of the system
external to the machine.
4. The equations and equivalent circuits

used for analysis anid performance calculations should be in such a form that either
per-unit or physical quantities could be used
throughout, as may be more convenient for
the particular use.

Appendix. Notation
Symbols for Physical Quantities
a=turns ratio
af =turns ratio for field winding
a=turns ratio for damper circuit

C = capacitance

E, e=voltage

F, f = frequency

gc=corrected air gap


I, i=current
Kd =coefficient used in defining direct-axis

quantities

Kq =coefficient used in defining quadrature-

axis quantities
k =coupling factor
L =inductance (with first two circuit subscripts the same, self-inductance;
with first two subscripts different,
mutual inductance)
m =number of phases
M, m-decrement factor
n =number of turns
= permeance
P =active power
R = resistance (with first two circuit subscripts the same, self-resistance;
with first two circuit subscripts

different, mutual resistance)


S =apparent power
s = slip (per unit of rated speed)
T, t=time
T =time constant
X = reactance (with first two circuit subscripts the same, self-reactance;
with first two circuit subscripts
different, mutual reactance)
Y = admittance
y =fractional pitch
Z impedance (with first two circuit subscripts the same, self-impedance;
with first two circuit subscripts different, mutual impedance)

Greek Letter Symbols


a =ratio of pole arc to pole pitch
A, X=flux linkage

4, so=flux

a=angle between center line of rotor and


center line of phase a
r =pole pitch
Q, w =angular frequency

Subscripts and Identification Symbols


a=armature (in general)
a, b, c = phases of 3-phase armature circuit

d=direct axis
f=field circuit
g =reference terminal for field circuit
m = mutual
M= maximum value
n = general symbol for identifying damper
bar
N =base quantity for per-unit svstem
n = neutral
q = quadrature axis
s = self
v =variable component
A= line to line or three phase (for 3-phase
system only)

Lewis-A Basic Analysis of Synchronous Alachines- -Part I

AUGUST 1958

Notes
For periodic quantities, such as alternating currents, voltages, etc., instantaneous
values are denoted by lower-case italic type,
rms phasor values by italic capitals, maximum or crest values by italic capitals
followed by final subscript M.
For variable circuit parameters, such as
inductance between armature phase and
field, maximum value is denoted by final
subscript M.
Parallel bars surrounding symbol for
phasor value denote amplitude of phasor.
Italic capitals are also used to denote all
base values: e.g., FN, base value of frequency; QN, base value of angular frequency; TN, base value of time, etc.
Numerals (0, 1, 2, etc.) identify individual
circuits. As applied to synchronous machines, they identify damper bars or damper
circuits. To identify a specific quantity or
to denote a self-quantity, the number is
For mutual quantities, two
repeated.
different numbers, or a number and a
letter are used.
Zero sequence is denoted by 0, used alone.
Reference or initial value is denoted by 0,
used alone. Direct-axis damper circuits are
denoted by ld, 2d, etc. Quadrature-axis
damper circuits are denoted by Oq, lq, 2q,
etc.

Examples of Inductance Notation


The same subscripts apply to reactance X.

La,M maximum value of mutual inductance

Ld =self-inductance of direct-axis armature


circuit (exception to general rule of
repeated subscripts)
Ldf = mutual inductance between directaxis armature circuit and field circuit
Ldld =mutual inductance between directaxis armature circuit and damper
circuit 1 in direct axis
Lff =self-inductance of field
Lfd =mutual inductance between field and
damper circuit 1 in direct axis
Lma = constant component of mutual inductance between any two armature
phases
Lq= self-inductance of quadrature-axis armature circuit (exception to general
rule of repeated subscripts)
Lqiq =tmutual inductance between quadrature-axis armature circuit and damper circuit 1 in quadrature axis
Lo= zero-sequence inductance
Llld =self-inductance of damper circuit 1 in
direct axis
Lj2d=mutual inductance between damper
circuit 1 and damper circuit 2 in
direct axis
ltlq=self-inductance of damper circuit 1 in
quadrature axis
Li2q =mutual inductance betweenl damper
circuit 1 and damper circuit 2 in
quadrature axis
Lsa =constant component of self-inductance
of any armature phase
L=, variable component of self-inductance
of any armature phase (equals variable component of mutual induct-

ance)

La,f between phase a and field

LaldM=maximum value of mutual induct-

ance Laid between phase a and damper circuit 1 in direct axis


Lalqm =same as La1dm except for quadrature
axis

Discussion
C. Concordia and R. T. Smith (General
Electric Company, Schenectady, N. Y.):
Professor Lewis has made a very clear
presentation of synchronous-machine fundamentals, reflecting the careful treatment and
attention to details which characterize his
lectures and papers.
When transforming the various machine
equations by the use of matrix or tensor
methods, several desired features of the
transformations indicate choices which may
be made for various coefficients.' Thus,
we may want: 1. both voltage and current
to have the same transformation matrix, 2.
the power formula to be invariant, and 3.
the inductance matrix of the stator to be
diagonalized. These conditions are satisfied by equation 74 and the io quantity
defined as (ia+ib i+)/N/3 rather than by
equation 77. A number of writers have
used these transformations. 1 -4
If 2/3 be chosen for Kd and Kq, then the
expression for ia becomes (using the author's
notation)

ia=id cos

iq sin

o+

During steady-state balanced operation this


relationship enables one to regard the phasor

AUGUST 1958

References
1. DEFINITION OF AN IDEAL SYNCHRONOUS
MACHINE AND FORMULA FOR THE ARMATURE FLUUX

current as consisting of a d-axis component


id, and a q-axis component iz, which components may be treated in the same way as
is done with complex-number representation

of alternating current.5

As an introduction to the use of transformations in machine analysis, it may be


desirable to start with a 2-phase machine,
for which the transformation matrix needs
no special coefficients and for which a
physical picture of the transformation may
be drawn quite clearly. After these ideas
have been presented the step of transforming from three phase to d and q may be
taken and the analysis carried forward.

REFERENCES
1. RELATIONS AMONG TRANSFORMATIONS USED
ELECTRICAL ENGINEERRINC PROBLEMS. C.
Concordia. General Electric Review, Schenectady,
N. V., vol. 41, 1938, pp. 323-25.
2. THE APPLICATION OF TENSORS TO THE ANALYsis Op ROTATINo ELECTRICAL MACHINBRY-PART
II, G. Kron. Ibid., vol. 38, May 1935, p. 230.
3. TRANSIENT ANALYSIS OF SYNCHRONOUS MAcHINES, R. E. Vowels. Monograph no. 33, Institution of Electrical Engineers, London, England, 1952.
4. BEHANDLUNO DEE AU8GLEICHSVORGANGE IN

IN

DRERHSTROM-AS4NCHONMOTOREN MIT HILFE VON


PARK-TRANSFORMATION, LAPLACE TRANSFORMATION UND MATRIZENRECHUNG, A. Akhunilar.
Archiv far Elektrotechnik, Berlin-Charlottenburg,
Germany, vol. 42, pt. 4, 1956, p. 223.

5. See reference 10 of the paper, pp. 33-34.

LINKAGES, R. H. Park. General Electric Review


Schenectady, N. Y., vol. 31, 1928, pp. 332-34.
2. Two-REACTION THEORY oF SYNCHRONOUS

MACHINBS, GENERALIZED METHOD OF ANALYsisPART I, R. H. Park. ArEE Transactions, vol. 48,


July 1929, pp. 716-30.
3. SYNCHRONOUS MACHINEs-IV, R. E. Doherty,
C. A. Nickle. Ibid., vol. 47, Apr. 1928, pp. 45792.
4. THREE-PHASE SHORT CIRCUIT SYNCHRONOUS

MACHINEs-V, R. E. Doherty, C. A. Nickle. Ibid.,


vol. 49, Apr. 1930, pp. 700-14.
5. THE EQUATIONS OF THE IDEALIZED SYNCHRONOUS MACHINE, A. W. Rankin. General Electric
Review, vol. 47, June 1944, pp. 31-36.
6. PER-UNIT IMPEDANCES OF SYNCERONOUS
MACHINEs, A. W. Rankin. AIEE Transactions,
vol. 64, Aug. 1945, pp. 569-73.
7. PER-UNIT IMPEDANCES OP SYNCHRONOUS
MACHINES-Il, A. W. Rtankin. Ibid., Dec., pp.
839-41.
8. THE: DIRECT- AND QUADRATURE-AXIS EQUIVALENT CIRCUITS OF THE SYNCHRONOUS MACHINE,
A. W. Rankin. Ibid., pp. 861-68.
9. ASYNCHRONOUS AND SINGLE-PHAS9E OPERATION
OF SYNCHRONOUS MACHNRS, A. W. Rankin.
Ibid., vol. 65, 1946, pp. 1092-1102.
10. SYNCHRONOUS MACHINES (book), C. Concordia. John Wiley & Sons, Inc., New York,
N. Y., 1951.
11. PBR-UNIT INDUCTANCES OP SYNCHRONOUS
MACHINES, H. S. Kirschbaum. AIEE Transacgions, vol. 69, pt. 1, 1950, pp. 231-34.
12. THE STARTING PERFORMANCE OF SALIENTPOLE SYNCHRONOUS MOTORS, T. M. Linville.
Ibid., vol. 49, 1930, pp. 531-47.
13. EQUIVALENT ClICUITS OF ELECTRIC MACHINERY (book), G. Kron. John Wiley & Sons,
Inc., 1951.
14. A COMPLETE EQUIVALENT CIRCUIT OF A
SYNCHRONOUS MACHINE, I. Giaever. AIEE
Transactions, vol. 77, pt. III, June 1958, pp.
204-0.
15. TWO-REACTION THEORY OF A GENERAL
INDUCTION MACHINE AND ITS EQUIVALBNT ClRCUIT, Y. H. Ku, D. W. C. Shen. Ibid., vol. 76,
pt. III, Oct. 1957, pp. 729-34.

Y. H. Ku and D. W. C. Shen (Moore School


of Electrical Engineering, University of
Pennsylvania, Philadelphia, Pa.): The
author is to be complimented for presenting
an important and interesting paper which
not only avoids some of the difficulties but
also clarifies the confusion arising from the
original work of Park in the analysis of synchronous machines. To the machine designers, this paper is very useful because by
redefining the variables, the author has,
derived equivalent circuits having reciprocal
mutual inductances. This offers an easy
physical equivalent that the designer can
rely upon to visualize the magnetic fluxes.
To the teachers and students, this paper
offers a concise exposition of a teachable
and unified theory.
The discussers wish to point out that the
new variables chosen by the author are
equivalent to a tensor transformation.1'"
The same transformation is used for either
current or voltage and yet the expression of
power remains both invariant in form and
in magnitude.'4 No extra numerical factor
occurs.

Recall that in 1929, when Heaviside's


operational calculus was first applied to the
transient analysis of synchronous machines,5 as a parallel development to Park's
transformation, the 0, f, b components were
introduced. They are related to the nor-

Lewis-A Basic Analysis of Synchronous Machines-Part I

453

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