The Tectonic Evolution of East Timor and the Banda Arc

Gillian Hamson, #74189

Honours Literature Review submitted as part of the B.Sc.(Hons) degree in the School of
Earth Sciences, University of Melbourne.

Submitted April 30th, 2004

I certify that this Literature Review contains less than 4,000 words.

Gillian Hamson

Table of Contents
1

Introduction............................................................................................................... 1

Overview of regional geology................................................................................... 3

Tectonic activity in the Banda Arc .......................................................................... 8

3.1
The Timor thrust: deformation in the Timor Trough.......................................... 8
3.2
The Wetar thrust: deformation in the back-arc thrust zone ................................ 9
3.3
Earthquakes......................................................................................................... 9
3.4
Volcanism ......................................................................................................... 11

Models of tectonic evolution.................................................................................. 12

4.1
Overthrust model .............................................................................................. 12
4.2
Imbricate model ................................................................................................ 13
4.3
Autochthon model............................................................................................. 14

Response to tectonism: uplift and exhumation of Timor .................................... 16

5.1
Thermochronological data ................................................................................ 16
5.2
Raised reef terraces ........................................................................................... 17
5.3
Uplift mechanisms ............................................................................................ 19

Discussion................................................................................................................. 20

Thesis Plan............................................................................................................... 22

References................................................................................................................ 23

Table of Figures
Figure 1.1 Map of the Banda Arc (adapted from Hinschberger et al., 2001) .................... 1
Figure 2.1 Simplified geology of East Timor (adapted from Charlton, 2002a)................. 4
Figure 2.2 Initial continental collision with subduction zone (from Charlton, 2000). ...... 5
Figure 2.3 Pliocene collision at the proto-Timor region (from Charlton, 2000). .............. 6
Figure 2.4 Position of oceanic and continental crust (from Keep et al., 2003)................. 7
Figure 2.5 Schematic cross section of the Banda Arc at Timor......................................... 7
Figure 3.1 Earthquake epicenters in the Banda Sea region (from Milsom, 2001).......... 10
Figure 3.2 Regions of active volcanism in the inner Banda Arc (from Harris, 1991)..... 11
Figure 4.1 Overthrust model (from Richardson and Blundell, 1996).............................. 12
Figure 4.2 Imbricate model (from Richardson and Blundell, 1996)................................ 13
Figure 4.3 Autochthon model (from Richardson and Blundell, 1996). ........................... 14
Figure 5.1 Locality map of East Timor............................................................................ 18
Figure 5.2 Digital elevation model of East Timor (from SRTM data set, USGS)... 18

The Tectonic Evolution of East Timor and the Banda Arc

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1 Introduction
East Timor lies at the point at which the leading edge of the Australian continental
margin impinged upon the Eurasian plate, giving a rare insight into the early stages of a
major orogenic event. Subduction of buoyant Australian continental lithosphere
effectively jammed northward subduction beneath the oceanic outer Banda Arc during
the Neogene, resulting in arc-continent collision. Timor, the emergent core of the
resulting Banda Orogen, comprises accretionary material of both Australian and Eurasian
provenance (Bowin et al., 1980; Breen et al., 1989; Keep et al., 2003). The modern Banda
Arc is today bound by an inner volcanic arc and an accretionary outer arc of which Timor
is the largest island (Fig. 1.1).

Figure 1.1 The Banda Arc lies at the intersection of the Pacific, Eurasian and Indo-Australian plates. This
map shows the position of the inner and outer Banda Arcs, the plates and their direction of movement
relative to the Eurasian plate (adapted from Hinschberger et al., 2001).

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East Timor, on the southern arm of the outer Banda Arc, is located approximately 640 km
northwest of Australia. It consists of the eastern part of Timor island, together with the
small enclave of Oecussi on the north coast of Western Timor, and the islands of Atauro
and Jaco (see Fig. 5.1, p.18). East and West Timor are divided along a 100 km northsouth political boundary located roughly in the centre of the island, and East Timor
extends 250 km to the east.
Geological knowledge of East Timor was acquired over three periods:

Pre-1975: before Indonesian occupation, foreign access possible: reconnaissance

mapping (e.g. Audley-Charles, 1968).

1975-1999: Indonesian occupation: political turmoil, limited foreign access:

studies included seismic surveys and mapping of nearby islands (e.g. Hughes et
al., 1996; Richardson & Blundell, 1996; Snyder & Barber, 1997)

Post-1999: Independent East Timor; foreign access again possible: studies include
computer modelling, thermochronology, stratigraphic and structural mapping (e.g.
Charlton, 2002a, b; Harris et al., 2000)

An evaluation of the present-day tectonic activity in the Banda Arc region will be
followed by a review of the three dominant tectonic evolution models for East Timor.
Finally, the continuing uplift of East Timor in response to collision will be discussed.
Landscape evolution as a consequence of this geodynamic change can be reconstructed
from the young, variably uplifted rocks in East Timor. My study will involve
constructing a tectonic geomorphological landscape history of East Timor based on the
most recent phase of uplift since arc-continent collision was initiated in the Neogene.

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2 Overview of regional geology

The geology of East Timor has long been recognised as highly complex, and many
theories have been proposed for the islands tectonic evolution (Audley-Charles, 1968;
Chamalaun & Grady, 1978; Barber, 1979; Hamilton, 1979; Harris, 1991; Charlton,
2000). Despite the conflict of ideas, some broad geological observations allow a
generalised model of the tectonic development of this region since the Neogene.
Gravity surveys have confirmed that the Australian continental crust extends as far as the
north coast of Timor (Chamalaun et al., 1976; Hamilton, 1977). Overlying this gently
deformed Australian basement are rocks derived from the distal Australian passive
margin (para-autochthonous units), formed in response to the Middle-Late Jurassic
breakup of eastern Gondwana and subsequent sea-floor spreading.

Passive margin

conditions prevailed until Neogene arc-continent collision, when rocks derived from the
pre-collisional Banda forearc (allochthonous units) were incorporated into the collision
complex. The rocks exposed in Timor (Fig. 2.1) include:

Early-Permian to Early-Pliocene variably deformed and metamorphosed deep

water sediments of the Australian passive margin (Gondwana and Kolbano
Sequences)

Late-Miocene-Early Pliocene Bobonaro Scaly Clay, an olistostrome thought to be

emplaced as a gravity slide in response to the southward tilting of Timor during
subduction (Johnston & Bowin, 1981).

Banda Allochthon: pre-Cretaceous metamorphic rocks overlain by sedimentary

deposits and ophiolites of upper Jurassic to Lower Pliocene age, all of which are
derived from the pre-collisional Banda fore-arc

Post-orogenic Upper-Miocene to Recent coral reefs, alluvial terraces and

turbidites, unconformably overlying all other lithotectonic units.

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Figure 2.1 Simplified map of geological units in East Timor (adapted from Charlton, 2002a).

The Tectonic Evolution of East Timor and the Banda Arc

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Australias northern convergent margin encompasses New Guinea, Irian, Papua and
Timor. This collision has been markedly diachronous, with collision beginning in the
Oligocene at New Guinea (Fig. 2.2) (Charlton, 2000; Keep & Moss, 2000; Hall, 2002).

Figure 2.2 Initial collision of the Australian continental margin with the Eurasian-Pacific subduction zone
(from Charlton, 2000).

The time at which subduction of continental lithosphere first began at proto-Timor

(Fig.2.3) has been an issue of much controversy. Three different scenarios have been
proposed:

Mid-Pliocene (Carter et al., 1976; Hamilton, 1979; Bowen et al., 1980; Johnston
& Bowin, 1981; Karig et al.,1987; Hall, 1996; Villeneuve et al., 1999).

Late Miocene (Berry & Grady, 1981; Berry & McDougall, 1986; Charlton, 2000;
Keep et al., 2003). This date coincides with the proposed incorporation of a
microcontinent into the collision complex, inferred to have been the cause of the
metamorphism in the Aileu Formation (Berry & McDougall, 1986).

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Early-Mid Miocene (Rutherford et al., 2001; M. Harrowfield, pers. comm., 2004)

Rutherford et al. based their early age of collision on the related tectonic escape of
Sumba into the forearc at this time (~16 Ma).

Diachronous collision of an oblique promontory on the Australian continental margin has

been suggested, implying that timing of collision across Timor might have varied by as
much as 5 Myr (Snyder et al., 1996a; Keep et al., 2003). This is further elaborated upon
by Charlton (2002a, b), who claimed that earlier collision in East Timor relative to West
Timor prompted greater uplift and denudation in the eastern half of the island.

Figure 2.3 Initial collision of the Australian continental margin with the subduction zone at the protoTimor region (from Charlton, 2000).

Since 3 Ma, Timor progressively emerged from north to south, with southern Timor
becoming fully emergent in the late Pleistocene (Veevers, 2000; Johnston & Bowin,
1981). Oceanic lithosphere to the west of Timor continues to subduct northward beneath
the Eurasian plate (Fig. 2.4) (Audley-Charles, 1975; Chamalaun & Grady, 1978;
McCaffrey & Nabelek, 1986; Lorenzo et al., 1998; Charlton, 2000). The island of Sumba,
to the west of Timor is composed entirely of non-Australian-affinity rocks and marks the
transition from subduction to oceanic lithosphere (Charlton, 2000).

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Figure 2.4 Position of oceanic crust (blue) and continental crust (green) south of the subduction zone.
Subduction no longer occurs south of Timor but continues at either end of the Timor Trough (from Keep et
al., 2003).

It is clear that subduction and accretion are the driving mechanisms for tectonic activity
in the Timor region. The regional structure is dominated by a divergent thrust style (Fig.
2.5). The surface expression of the south-directed Timor thrust is coincident with a
bathymetric trough south of Timor (Johnston and Bowin, 1981), whereas the Wetar thrust
is north-directed and outcrops north of the inner Banda Arc north of Timor (Richardson
& Blundell, 1996; Harris et al., 2000). A dearth of deep earthquakes beneath East Timor
suggests the presence of a seismic gap in the region, which coincides with the inactive
segment of the inner Banda Arc. Elevated coral reefs of Quaternary age illustrate that
uplift continues today, possibly as a response to thrust formation or isostatic rebound
(Chappell and Veeh, 1978).

Figure 2.5 Schematic cross section of the Banda Arc at Timor.

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3 Tectonic activity in the Banda Arc

3.1 The Timor thrust: deformation in the Timor Trough
Accretion of collision material to the Australian continent is thought by some to have
resulted in formation of the Timor thrust, with its surface expression located south of
Timor in the Timor Trough (Hamilton, 1979; von der Bosch, 1979; Karig et al., 1987;
Masson et al., 1991). Seismic records show that the thrust dips northwards and stepped
south during collision, suggesting that it may have been related to the former interface
between the two plates ( Fig. 2.5) (Richardson & Blundell, 1996). However, this is
inconsistent with evidence that Australian crust underlies the Timor Trough and Timor
itself. The Timor thrust may instead represent a splay emanating from the main
subduction-related thrust structure (M. Sandiford, pers. comm., 2004).

While some authors claim that plate convergence is accommodated on the Timor thrust,
recent work using Global Positioning System geodetic measurements established that
Timor and the inner Banda Arc are moving northward at the same rate as the Australian
continent (Genrich et al., 1996). Thus, convergence may be transferred from the Timor
thrust to the back arc region by cross-arc faulting zones (Masson et al., 1991), which
account for the paucity of large thrust earthquakes concentrated at the Timor thrust
(Johnston & Bowin, 1981; McCaffrey, 1988; McCaffrey, 1996). It is thus probable that
movement on the Timor thrust ceased or at least slowed in the recent past. As such, the
Timor Trough, despite its developmental link with a subduction trench, may now be
regarded as an intracontinental feature (Johnston & Bowin, 1981).

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3.2 The Wetar thrust: deformation in the back-arc thrust zone

North of Timor, the Wetar back-arc thrust zone evolved in order to accommodate
convergence between Australia and the Banda Sea, through a combination of back-arc
thrust faulting and strike-slip cross-arc faulting (Breen et al., 1989; McCaffrey & Abers,
1991; Snyder et al., 1996b; Snyder & Barber, 1997; Lorenzo et al., 1998; Veevers, 2000;
Rutherford et al., 2001). Lateral shortening and crustal thickening have taken place along
thrust structures dipping antithetic to subduction (Richardson & Blundell, 1996). Such
north-directed thrusting is opposite to that occurring in the Java Trench and previously in
the Timor Trough (Hamilton, 1979; McCaffrey, 1988; Rutherford et al., 2001). The small
degree of shortening along the Wetar thrust suggests that it is a young feature, formed
possibly as recently as 0.15 Ma (McCaffrey, 1996). The transference of convergence
from the Timor thrust to the Wetar thrust is thought by some to represent the early stages
of subduction polarity reversal (Silver et al., 1983; McCaffrey & Nabelek, 1986;
McCaffrey, 1988; Breen et al., 1989; Snyder & Barber, 1997; Harris et al., 1998;
Rutherford et al., 2001).

The degree of convergence located in the Wetar thrust zone is a matter of dispute.
Masson et al. (1991) mapped shallow subsurface tectonic activity around the island of
Timor, and found little evidence for major thrusting north of the Timor Trough. M.
Norvick (pers. comm., 2004) believes that significant shortening is accommodated
northward of the Wetar thrust, in the South Banda Sea. These contrary views suggest that
more work is required to constrain the current convergent activity at the Wetar thrust and
its effects.

3.3 Earthquakes
Shallow thrust and strike-slip earthquakes accommodate some of the collision-induced
convergence, which is distributed throughout the forearc, island arc and backarc basin
(McCaffrey, 1988). Convergence is transferred across the arc via zones of strike-slip
faults such as the left-lateral transcurrent Wetar Fault. This particular fault is thought to
offset the island arc north of Timor by ~50km (Masson et al., 1991). While earthquakes
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show evidence of north-south convergence, normal faulting mechanisms also reveal that
slow east-west extension is occurring in the forearc region (McCaffrey, 1988). This is
supported by evidence of Plio-Pliestocene normal faulting in Timor (Audley-Charles,
1968).

Changes in seismicity are evident along the Banda Arc. Shallow earthquakes have
occurred throughout the region, but deeper seismic activity is concentrated to the east and
west of East Timor (Chamalaun & Grady, 1978). Shallow earthquakes in the vicinity of
East Timor cannot corroborate the reversal of subduction polarity, despite evidence of
northward thrusting in an opposite sense to that of the Timor thrust (McCaffrey, 1988).

Further studies of earthquakes at all depths in the region indicate that a notable seismic
gap exists beneath East Timor (Fig. 3.1) (Milsom, 2001). The seismic gap may be a result
of the detachment of the oceanic lithosphere at the former subduction zone beneath East
Timor (Milsom, 2001). This zone coincides with the inactive section of the volcanic arc,
as discussed below.

Figure 3.1 Earthquake epicenters in the Banda Sea region at depths of less than 100km and 100-125km
(from Milsom, 2001).

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3.4 Volcanism
The Alor/Wetar area of the inner arc directly north of East Timor has been volcanically
inactive during the last 3 Myr (Abbott & Chamalaun, 1978). The severing of the
connection between the magma chamber and the surface during the detachment of the
subducting oceanic lithosphere in this region is a likely explanation for the absence of
volcanism (Chamalaun & Grady, 1978; Johnston & Bowin, 1981). M. Norvick (pers.
comm., 2004) suggested that the disparity in active volcanism along the inner arc is
possibly due to a locking of the collision zone at East Timor, a result of its proximity to
the rigid Sahul Platform to the south (Fig.3.2). Locking of the collision zone has caused
subduction to step northward into the Banda Sea, indicated by isolated active volcanism
at Gunung Api, well north of Wetar (Fig. 3.2). According to Johnston and Bowin (1981),
the Banda Sea thus remains an active subduction zone despite the lack of volcanism in
the inner Banda Arc north of Timor,

Figure 3.2 Regions of active volcanism (shaded) in the inner Banda Arc (from Harris, 1991).

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4 Models of tectonic evolution

Timor has been the focus of numerous geological studies since the early 20th Century.
The seminal work on Timor is that of Audley-Charles (1968) who, despite describing the
close geological ties between Timor and Australia, maintained a completely
allochthonous origin for the material emplaced within the thrust sheets. Hamilton (1979)
labeled the collision complex tectonic chaos due to the complexity of the rock
assemblage. Many workers have attempted to unravel the complex geology of Timor, and
a variety of models concerning the islands tectonic evolution have been proposed.

4.1 Overthrust model

North

South

Figure 4.1 Schematic cross-section of the overthrust model for Timor. Allochthonous units are overthrust
onto the folded Australian continental margin (from Richardson and Blundell, 1996).

The overthrust model was developed from early work on the surface geology where
overthrust sheets of allochthonous material are well exposed. Its proponents suggested an
almost completely allochthonous origin for the thrust sheets on Timor (Audley-Charles,
1968; Audley-Charles & Carter, 1972; Carter et al., 1976; Barber et al., 1977). They
argued that allochthonous strata derived from the Eurasian plate to the north was thrust
onto the Australian crust during the collision process. Large-scale folding and erosion of
Australian continental margin sediments occurred before emplacement of the thrust
sheets, which were not affected by folding.

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The traditional justification for the overthrust model was the close juxtaposition of rocks
of very different types and origins, often of the same age (Bowin et al., 1980). These
rocks must have been widely separated at the time of deposition, then juxtaposed by
compression and overthrusting at the time of collision (Barber et al., 1977). However,
Grady and Berry (1977) amongst others, questioned the validity of the overthrust model
due to the lack of field evidence for basal thrust planes: what should have been nearhorizontal thrust faults were in fact steeply dipping faults. Grady and Berry (1977) also
stated that in some areas, allochthonous and autochthonous material were in normal
stratigraphic relationship, and had experienced similar deformation.

4.2 Imbricate model

Figure 4.2 Schematic cross section of the imbricate model for Timor. Imbricated sheets of Australian and
Eurasian affinity are thrust on top of one another during collision (from Richardson and Blundell, 1996).

Thrust sheets overlying the Australian basement are of both allochthonous and paraautochthonous origin and were pervasively imbricated during emplacement (Fitch &
Hamilton, 1974; Hamilton, 1979; Charlton et al., 1991; Charlton, 2000). Rocks of
distinctly different provenance were thrust together as a series of slices and are now
juxtaposed in Timor, forming a chaotic complex of imbricated rocks and mlange.

Chamalaun and Grady (1978) disputed this model as their field observations did not
support pervasive imbrication of units. Furthermore, there is little mixing of paraautochthonous and allochthonous material as would have been expected in the imbricate
model. The incoherent chaotic mlange theory is too simplified a model for the tectonic
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evolution of East Timor (Chamalaun, 1977). Bowin et al. (1980) also disputed the
imbricate model, claiming that any Australian-affinity rocks on Timor were already
present in the Outer Banda Arc prior to collision. However, they did not suggest how
these rocks came to be in this present location: the manner in which these continental
blocks became detached from the Australian continent and incorporated into the frontal
arc of the southern part of the Banda Arc is not well defined.

A micro-continent of Eurasian affinity may form some of the crustal material within the
collision complex (Carter et al., 1976; Karig et al., 1987; Whittam et al., 1996;
Richardson & Blundell, 1996; Linthout et al., 1997; Hall, 2002). The proposed microcontinent lay to the north of the North West Shelf and was incorporated into the collision
complex at around 8 Ma, coinciding with and causing the retrograde metamorphism of
the Aileu Formation on the north coast of East Timor (Berry & Grady, 1981; Berry &
McDougall, 1986). However, palaeomagnetic evidence suggests otherwise, showing
Timor to be part of the Australian allochthon at least during the Upper Permian and
Triassic (Chamalaun, 1977).

4.3 Autochthon model

Figure 4.3 Schematic cross section for the autochthon model. Timor represents the uplifted Australian
continental margin. Uplift caused south-directed gravity sliding and decoupling of the oceanic slab (from
Richardson and Blundell, 1996).

The autochthon model opposes both the overthrust and imbricate models. In this model,
the accretionary wedge sediments were almost entirely derived from the cratonic
sequence of the uplifted Australian plate (Grady, 1975; Grady & Berry, 1977; Chamalaun

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& Grady, 1978). Material transfer across the plate boundary was limited to olistostrome
mass transport, resulting in a single unit known as the Bobonaro Scaly Clay (Chamalaun
& Grady, 1978; Harris et al., 1998). Proponents of the autochthon model cited a lack of
field evidence for the overthrust and imbricate models. These authors suggested that the
debate could be resolved if evidence for the basal thrust sheets was discovered through
more detailed fieldwork on Timor.

Inherent in the autochthon model is the assumption that the oceanic and continental
portions of the Indo-Australian crust became detached at the collision zone. The
buoyancy of the continental slab caused it to rise rapidly, uplifting northern Timor and
possibly causing reactivation of pre-existing faults, while the detached down-going slab
was absorbed into the mantle (Milsom, 2001). Coupled with this uplift, the Bobonaro
Scaly Clay became a gravity slide, moving southward across the continental margin. This
model suggests a very steep contact between the oceanic crust of the island arc and
continental crust to the south, which has been confirmed by an unusually steep positive
northward gravity gradient on Timors north coast (Chamalaun et al., 1976).

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5 Response to tectonism: uplift and exhumation of

Timor
5.1 Thermochronological data
Rapid vertical uplift of Timor since the late Neogene has been well documented (De
Smet et al., 1990; Harris et al., 2000; Veevers, 2000). Thermal histories of young
orogenic belts can be reconstructed using apatite fission track analysis. This technique
documents the post-orogenic cooling history below ~110C, and can provide estimates of
the timing, magnitude and rates of tectonic uplift and denudation (Gleadow et al., 2002).
Harris et al. (2000) used fission track data to analyse the amount of heating that occurred
since the initial collision process. They determined that there was little or no heating
within the collision complex during Neogene uplift and exhumation, most probably due
to the lack of long-term burial suffered by the individual thrust units. Accreted
Australian-margin material on Timor recorded peak palaeotemperatures very similar to
unaccreted material in northwest Australia.

Harris et al. (2000) also concluded that the inversion of apatite fission track ages recorded
(younger over older) was representative of rapid uplift and exhumation due to the
emplacement of thrust sheets during collision. Stacking of thrust sheets of various origins
within the collision complex created an inverted thermal profile with peak
palaeotemperatures decreasing discontinuously downward. One example in a vertical
section from East Timor yielded an abrupt change in fission track age from 280 Ma to 52
Ma over only 25 metres. Such a change is most likely due to the juxtaposition of rocks
which have undergone different thermal histories, rather than due to steep thermal
gradients.

Overall, measurements show a general but discontinuous (due to local disruption by

faults) increase in palaeotemperatures northwards across the island, implying greater
uplift and denudation in the north. This is corroborated by the observations of Price and
Audley-Charles (1987), who observed the exposure of progressively deeper stratigraphic

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intervals towards the north, suggesting that uplift is differential both temporally and
spatially.

Analysis of apatite fission track data indicates rapid cooling and exhumation of the thrust
sheets, which has preserved newly formed fission tracks. This is interpreted as implying
the removal of between 1.2 - 4 km of overburden over the last 2 Myr, with a denudation
rate of 0.6 2mm/yr (Harris et al., 2000). Similar denudation rates are derived from
palaeobathymetry and chronostratigraphy of foraminifera (5-10 mm/yr) (de Smet et al.,
1990) and

40

Ar/39Ar dating of the Aileu Complex (~3mm/yr) (Berry & McDougall,

1986).

5.2 Raised reef terraces

Numerous authors have documented the raised reef limestone platforms which exist on
Timor (Fig 5.1 and 5.2) and surrounding Banda Arc islands (Chappell & Veeh 1978;
Hamilton, 1979; Vita-Finzi & Hidayat, 1991; Richardson & Blundell, 1996). Chappell
and Veeh (1978) claimed that the uplift rate of these reef terraces averaged 0.5 mm/yr
over the past 120,000 years, and continues today. The rates of uplift of Quaternary reef
terraces are slower than those of the older rocks of the collision complex, suggesting that
the earlier rapid uplift was a geomorphic response of the landscape to arc-continent
collision. According to Carter et al. (1976), uplifted reef limestones on Timor become
younger from north to south. This may be related to the possible gentle tilting of reefs
observed by Hall and Wilson (2000), with northern Timor experiencing fast uplift than
southern Timor. Extensional deformation may result in terraces of similar age being
vertically offset. Further inquiry into the differential uplift rates and deformation history
of coral reefs across Timor is necessary to correlate the ages of the reefs and establish
their uplift history.

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Figure 5.1 Locality map of East Timor showing towns of Baucau and Lautem on north the coast.

Figure 5.2 Digital elevation model of East Timor showing locations of Baucau and Lautem. The horizontal
nature of elevated coral reef terraces can be seen at the front and rear of the model (derived from SRTM
data set, United States Geological Survey).

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Age-height data collected from Quaternary uplifted coral reefs on the Huon Peninsula,
Papua New Guinea could be used as an analogue for coral reefs on Timor (Ota &
Chappell, 1999). The emergence of coral reefs on the Huon Peninsula during periods of
Holocene sea level change and variable tectonic uplift was studied by Ota and Chappell
(1999). They found that the age of reef emergence was dependent on the nature of uplift
(stepwise vs. uniform) and the rate of reef growth. Such research has not yet been
conducted on the reef terraces in East Timor.

5.3 Uplift mechanisms

The uplift of Timor may be due to a variety of mechanisms. The emplacement of thick
thrust sheets on the Australian continental margin must have caused major isostatic
disequilibrium, prompting rebound-related uplift on steep faults (Grady & Berry, 1977;
Chamalaun & Grady, 1978; Norvick, 1979; Snyder et al., 1996b). Additionally, uplift
may be a response of the landscape to the formation of thrust faults during the collision
process (the Wetar and Timor thrusts). A significant thickening of the collision complex
and crust underlying Timor and the Banda Arc has been indicated by seismic reflection
profiles (Snyder et al., 1996b). This horizontal shortening would also account for the
uplift of Timor and associated downwarping of the Timor Trough to the south (Johnston
& Bowin, 1981).

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6 Discussion
Little is known about the details of early stage orogenesis and the role it plays in ensuing
evolution of orogenic systems, as much of the evidence of these processes is destroyed by
subsequent erosion or deformation. Such information can only be gleaned by studying
young systems such as Timor. As a result of the end of the Indonesian occupation of East
Timor in 1999, the country is once again accessible to foreign scientists. Studying East
Timor and islands of the outer Banda Arc has important implications for understanding
fundamentals of tectonic collision, including (e.g. Bowin et al., 1980; Karig et al., 1987;
McCaffrey & Abers, 1991; Huang et al., 2000):

early stage processes of collision

jamming of subduction zones

terminal stages of arc evolution

the role of changes in subduction polarity

Australias northern margin is its only convergent margin. The present tectonic activity at
this margin bears the marks of vigorous tectonism, through its high relief (3 km in
Timor), volcanicity, seismicity, rapid uplift and exhumation, as distinct from most other
Australian margins which have long been inactive (McCaffrey & Nabelek, 1986; Hughes
et al.,1996; Veevers, 2000).Many aspects of this young, evolving arc-continent collision
remain poorly constrained: (e.g. Audley-Charles, 1968; Grady & Berry, 1977;
Chamalaun, 1978; Barber, 1979; Hamilton, 1979; Harris, 1991; Charlton, 2000):

the timing of initial collision in the proto-Timor region

the origins of the rocks exposed on Timor

the mechanisms by which ongoing convergence is accommodated

the lack of volcanism north of East Timor and related paucity of deep seismic
activity in the same region

the evolution of the position of the plate boundary

the role of thrusts, normal faults and strike-slip faults in the Banda Arc

how the geomorphic expressions of this orogenic event manifested in the

landscape today

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Gill Hamson #74189

Present-day tectonic activity in the Banda Arc includes deformation along divergent
thrusts, earthquakes, volcanism and significant uplift. Three main models have been
proposed for the tectonic evolution of East Timor: the overthrust, imbricate and
autochthon models. These have been described on the basis of local structural,
stratigraphic and geochemical evidence. The diversity of hypotheses raised suggests that
a broader view of the tectonic process needs to be developed, possibly accommodating a
variety of models of evolution at different stages of the collision process, in order to
constrain models of Neogene collision.

The uplift of East Timor since onset of collision is clearly a response to tectonic
processes including isostasy acting on thickened crust, deformation, erosion, and crustal
underplating. What little is known suggests that uplift occurred in two major phases:
rapid uplift related to emplacement of thrust sheets, followed by slower but continued
uplift until the present day. To date, limited work has been carried out on this aspect of
collision, however, the near-surface uplift history may hold the key to reconciling rival
ideas and providing larger-scale constraints on collisional models. It is this most recent
geodynamic manifestation of the landscape during the second phase of uplift which will
form the basis of my project.

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Gill Hamson #74189

7 Thesis Plan
The aim of my work is to constrain the more recent uplift history of East Timor. First,
aspects of the geology of East Timor which provide evidence of uplift will be identified.
Using both existing fission track data (Harris et al., 2000) and data to be obtained during
fieldwork this year, ages and denudation rates will be measured, quantifying uplift in
different regions over different timescales. With a lower temperature sensitivity than
apatite fission track thermochronology, apatite U-Th/Helium thermochronology (e.g.
Farley, 2002), will be used to obtain data from the rocks involved in initial uplift. Useries disequilibria (e.g. Edwards et al., 2003) will be used to date the elevated
Quaternary coral reefs.

An attempt will be made to correlate the reef terraces present at various locations across
northern East Timor (e.g. Fig. 5.2). These terraces, like those of the Huon Peninsula,
Papua New Guinea, may show evidence of sea level change during the Holocene, further
constraining the timing of reef formation (Ota & Chappell, 1999). Data acquired from
both approaches will be combined to establish a first-order model of uplift over different
timescales, providing an analysis of the geomorphic response of the landscape to plate
collision. Uplift may also vary east-west and north-south across East Timor itself,
indicated by the slight tilting of uplifted coral reefs. In the case of northern Timor being
uplifted faster than southern Timor, the coral reefs ought to dip gently toward the south,
which may be confirmed through fieldwork.

It is hoped that my work on constraining the recent uplift history of East Timor will add
to the growing body of work, establishing a comprehensive knowledge of the recent
geology of East Timor, and will help in the evaluation of natural hazards, an important
asset in the rebuilding of infrastructure in this emerging nation. A copy of the report
arising from my study will be lodged with the East Timor Department of Energy and
Mineral Resources.

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