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THE INTERNATIONAL SCIENTIFIC
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THE
THEORY OF SOUND
IN ITS
RELATION TO MUSIC.
BY
PROFESSOR PIETRO BLASERNA,

OP THE BOYAL UNIVEBSITY OF BOMB.
WITH NUMEROUS WOODCUTS.
NEW YORK:
D.
APPLETON AND COMPANY,

1, 3,
AND
BOND STREET.
isea
i'
:
PREFACE.
THE
present treatise neither pretends to nor aims
at giving a complete description or demonstration
of the
phenomena
of Sound, or of the history and
Those who wish to study these
laws of Music.
subjects thoroughly, whether from their scientific
or artistic aspect,
works and
must have recourse to
special
special study.
Following the example given by Helmholtz in

his
now
classical book,
empfmdungen,"
"Die Lehre von den Ton-
have tried to bring together in
a plain and simple form two subjects which have

hitherto been treated of separately.
of physics did not
The student
go much into the study of
musical arguments, and our artists do not suf-
PREFACE.
ficiently
understand the very important bearing
that the laws of sound have
upon many musical
questions.
Science has latterly

this respect.
made
She has come
notable progress in
to regard the history
of the development of Music from a single point of
view, and
is
on the road to furnish a larger and
firmer basis to musical criticism.
To expound
briefly the
fundamental principles
of such a science, and to point out
portant
scope of this treatise.

will be received with
of science and
some
most im-
been the object
has
applications,
its
and
hope, therefore, that

interest both
by lovers of
by
lovers
art.
PIETRO BLASERNA.
April 1875.
it
NOTE TO THE ENGLISH EDITION.
A FEW
signed
Sound.
of the woodcuts in this
by Professor TYNDALL
work were
for
his
They are here reproduced by
permission.
de-
book on
his
kind
CONTENTS*
CHAPTER
I.
PAGE
1.
Periodic movements, vibration
Vibration of a bell
method
branes
5.
7.
4.
2.
3.
Vibration of a tuning-fork, graphic
Vibration of a string
6.
Of
plates
Vibration of air in a sounding pipe
by the manometric flame
9.
Conclusion
CHAPTER
1.
Sonorous vibration.
and mem-
Method
8.
.
.1
II.
Propagation in air
3.
In water
and other bodies
4.
Velocity of sound in air
5.
In water
and other bodies
6.
Reflection of sound
Transmission of sound
2.
CHAPTER
Characteristics of sound,
sound and noise

causes on
which
position of sounds
Echo
28
III.
difference
between musical
Loudness of sound, and the various
2.
it
and
7.
depends
4.
3.
Principle of the super-
Sounding-boards and resonators
45
CONTENTS.
CHAPTER
IV.
PAGE
Measure of the number of vibrations

2.
Cagniard de la Tour's siren
the graphic method
3.
Pitch of sounds
of audible sounds, of musical sounds
voice
The " normal
4.
"
Musical sounds
ference
notes
4.
Law
2.
Beats
Their
Octaves and
7.
chords and their limits
and third
other
6.
harmonics
8.
Resultant
Consonant
fifth,
fourth, sixth,
10.
The seventh
the minor third and sixth
harmonic
CHAPTER
1.
Helmholtz's double siren

ratio to three or
2.
4.
2 and
3.
VI.
Perfect major and minor
3.
Their inversion
CHAPTER
4.
5.
Greek
.96
VII.
The nature of music and musical
Ancient music
scale
6.
scales
Scale of Pythagoras
chants 9.
8. Ambrosian and Gregorian
Its decay
Polyphonic music, harmony, the Protestant Reformation,
Palestrina 10. Change of the musical scale, the tonic, and
7.
fundamental chord
11.
74
Application of the law of simple
more notes
chords, their nature
Discords
.59
Unison, inter-
3.
explanation
The major
9.
V.
of simple ratio
5.
limit
of the vibrations
CHAPTER
1.
Laws
6.
pitch
and of harmonics
of a string,
and of the human
The major
scale,
musical intervals
CONTENTS.
XI
PAGE
The minor scale
12.
Sharps and
15.
flats
13.
16.
17. Desirability of
racy
Key and transposition
The temperate
abandoning
CHAPTER
1.
it
scale, its inaccu.
109
VIII.
Quality or timbre of musical sounds
2.
Forms assumed by
optical method
the vibrations, optical method
3.
Another
Phonautographic method
5.
Laws
4.
14 and
of harmonics.
6.
Quality or timbre of strings and of instruments 7. General

laws of chords 8. Noises accompanying musical sounds
9.
Quality or timbre of vocal musical sounds
CHAPTER
1.
Difference between science and art
music
3 and
ence of Paris
4.
6.
146
IX.
2.
Italian
and German
Separation of the two schools
Conclusion
5.
Influ.
175
THE THEORY OF SOUND.
CHAPTER
1.
I.
PERIODIC MOVEMENTS, VIBRATION 2. SONOROUS VIBRATION 3. VIBRATION OF A BELL 4. VIBRATION OF A TUNING-FORK, GRAPHIC METHOD
6. OF PLATES AND MEMBRANES
5. VIBRATION OF A STRING
7. VIBRATION OF AIR IN A SOUNDING PIPE
FLAME.
1.
9.
AMONGST
8.
METHOD BY THE MANOMETRIO
CONCLUSION.
the innumerable forms of motion which exist
in nature, the science of Physics pays especial attention

to some, to
which
it
These are
assigns great importance.
those forms of motion in which a body, or part of a body,

arrives at
an extreme point, remains
at rest for a
moment,
retraces its steps, again takes the road it has already passed
over,
and continues
thus,
ments in a determinate
making regular
to-and-fro
move-
line.
The pendulum offers us the most simple example of

such a periodic movement. Its laws have been determined
by
ous
Galileo,
that
movement
who
is
is
pendulum, be
discovered that the
movement
to say, that the time in
executed,
is
is
isochron-
which the to-and-fro
always the same for the same
its oscillations
large or not.
In other words,
we
if
give to a
at rest
pendulum
slight impulse, or a strong impulse, the oscillations will
be respectively small or large
but for the same pendulum
the duration of each oscillation will be always the same
which
may
the oscillations
The law
independent of their extent.
is
of the isochronism of the
general law in nature.
matically exact,
Although
shall consider.
movement comparable with

an
called
oscillation,
it
pendulum
may
is
a very
not be mathe-
sufficiently so for the majority
still it is
which we
of cases
fro
be expressed as follows, that the duration of
and
if it
Every periodic to-and-
that of the
pendulum
be smaller and quicker,
is
it
For greater clearness we will

the
of
name
vibrations
to those which exactly
simple
give
follow the laws of the pendulum, which, by the way, are
is
termed a vibration.
also
the most simple of
name
all.
of
compound
complex laws.
On
the other hand,
vibrations to those
we
will give the
which follow more
An
example will show how vibrations can be more

complex. The movement of the pendulum may be thus
summed up When
:
it
it
has arrived at the end of
its
path,
remains at rest for a moment, and comes back with a
constantly-increasing velocity, which becomes a

in the vertical position,
second half of
its
path.
maximum
and then decreases during the

For the pendulum, then, the two
extreme points of the oscillation correspond to a velocity

zero, the middle point to the maximum velocity.
An
example of compound periodic movement
is
obtained
COMPOUND PERIODIC MOVEMENTS.
by adding to the already existing oscillation of the pendulum some other oscillatory movement. Suppose, for
example, that the pendulum rod be flexible and
and that
it
on
oscillates
own
its
further suppose the lower heavy part of the
be an
to
when
is
elastic
which,
ball,
on a
billiard-table
to say, exhibits successive compressions
that
and expansions.
then have three vibratory movements united in
the pendulum, which will
first.
Another example of a compound movement
by the ball-player,
who throws
movement
a compound
give
obviously more complex than the
air,
pendulum
being violently impelled
at rest, vibrates like a ball
We shall
elastic,
account, and let us
furnished
is
a ball vertically up in the
and then sends
to the ground.
it up again without allowing it to fall

Here the movement is different from that
of the pendulum.
The
creasing nearly at the
ball goes
same
up with a
velocity de-
rate as that of the
pendulum
does (but the velocity decreases according to a different

law),
comes
to
rest,
increasing velocity,
and then
and
is
up again by the muscular

velocity
is fairly
high and
with a constantlysuddenly stopped and thrown

falls
force of the player, whilst its
still
increasing, according to the
laws which regulate the falling of heavy bodies.

case, then, contrary to that
In
this
which takes place in that of the
pendulum, the two extreme points of the path correspond

the one to a velocity of zero, the other to a fairly high
velocity in fact, to the highest velocity possible under
the circumstances.
There exist in nature a very great
number
of vibrations of various forms,
and that these
have been carefully studied and their importance fully

understood, constitutes one of the most pregnant strides
which Physics has made in this century.

Of all these vibratory movements I will
treat of
one
group, which merits special attention on account of the

great facility which it offers for its study, and for the
which
great importance
the history of
2.
I wish
human
first
its
application has exercised on
culture.
of all to demonstrate that sound
we
stand these vibrations
to
know
ticles,
formed
know
are not obliged to
intimate structure of the bodies themselves
is
To under-
by the vibrations of the particles of bodies.
it is
the
enough
body can be subdivided into little parand that these particles can move away from one
that the
another, at least within certain limits, without thereby
causing the rupture or disaggregation of the body. This

in regard
is the result of everyday observation, and
to
our present study, I have no need
into the matter or to formulate a

tical
more or
to
go farther
less
hypothe-
opinion on the intimate structure of the bodies
themselves.
yet another
We
must, however, add to this conception
that of the elasticity of bodies.
called elastic in
which a
particle,
moved from
A body is
its
natural
to return to
position of equilibrium, has a tendency
first
position as soon as the external
displaced
When
it
its
cause which had
has ceased.
a particle
is
under the circumstances here con-
VIBRATION OF A PARTICLE OF AN ELASTIC BODY.

templated,
it
is
does what the
it
free to
move,
it
pendulum
returns
The
does.
instant
towards the position
it
originally occupied; at first with small velocity, afterwards
with constantly-increasing velocity. Arrived at

of natural equilibrium,
its
momentum
finally
about
the
stops and
pendulum
movement which
retraces
oscillates
vertical position.
its
it
has acquired, and

It
steps.
then
oscillates
on one side and the other of
simple, like that of the pen-
is
But in the study of the
body, or part of a body,

to consider the
it is
not enough
of one particle only.
The body
may
movement
it is
vibrations to which a
be subjected,
formed of a vast number of
one vibrates,
its
Mathematical investigation shows that
in this case the vibration
is
position
position of natural equilibrium, precisely as the
its
dulum.
its
continues for a certain space by
it
important to
and
as
each
know whether they
influ-
particles,
ence each other in their respective movements.
In
this
any case is possible, according to the special

conditions under which the vibrations take place, and
respect
the cause which excites them.

single particle vibrates
on
its
It often
own
happens that each
account, as if the others
were not in existence.

irregularly in all
Those vibrations which take place

possible directions, acquire a great im-
portance in respect to the phenomena of heat, and for

others besides, but have no direct bearing
In order that the vibration
may be
sonorous,
that the particles should execute their
and with a certain
regularity.
The
upon sound.
it is
necessary
movements together
vibrations then acquire
a general and regular character. They may be compared

to the compact manoeuvres of a company of soldiers, while
the
thermal vibrations
irregular
movements
rather resemble the
altogether
of an undisciplined crowd.
can be demonstrated by a certain number of

examples that sound is always accompanied by vibration
3.
It
of the
sounding body.
metal bell
upwards, firmly attached to a foot
Fig.
pendulum a touches the

that
it
may make
is
taken,
(fig. 1).
mouth
A very light
bell to indicate the
at a given
moment.
movements
If this bell be
rubbed by a violin bow, a very marked sound is obtained,

and immediately the pendulum is driven away, falls back
against the bell, and
movement
of the
is
again driven away, and so on; the
pendulum
lasts for a certain time,
and
VIBRATION OF A TUNING-FORK.
less
grows
as the
long as
bell, so
sound dies away, and shows that the
it
sounds,
in a state of vibration in all
is
its parts.
4.
Another
vibration
be held by
(fig. 2).
by a
sort of steel fork
can be easily set in

fork of this kind is called a tuning-
its
foot,
If the tuning-fork be struck
fork.
it
illustration is given
if it
D, which,
be rubbed at the extremities of
upon the
its
table, or if
branches with a
bow, a very faint and scarcely audible musical

sound is obtained. This sound is observably strengthened
violin
if
the foot of the tuning-fork be placed in contact with
'
the table,
or,
better
still,
with a hollow box.
The sound
can then be clearly heard, and by this means it

shown that the sound really exists. This being
may
be
so, it is
easy to believe that the two branches of the tuning-fork,
when
it
sounds, are in a state of continual vibratory move-
The movement
ment.
follow
it,
very rapid and the eye cannot

but the outlines of the branches no longer have
is
a sharp and well-defined form, which clearly shows the
movement
is
of the tuning-fork.
made very
the finger.
ment
ment
perceptible
This vibratory
by touching the fork
ceases,
But the
by
with
when
the other
one diminishes when the other diminishes, and
the one stops
visible
itself
two branches be touched, the moveand with it the sound. Sound and move-
If the
are so correlated that one is strong
is strong,
movement
when
the other stops.
vibrations
of the tuning-fork can be
the following graphic
method
made
A plate
of glass
2),
(fig.
coated with lamp-black
by
a petroleum flame, and which slides easily in the frame
G,
taken, and a point
is
having been attached to one of
the branches of the vibrating tuning-fork, this point
is
drawn along rapidly

continuously on it.
in
placed against
it,
and the plate
such a
Or,
is
way that the point slides

to make the experiment still more
elegant, a cylinder of brass
is
certain
used, on which
and more
is
stretched
a sheet of paper blackened by a petroleum flame.
This
cylinder can be turned by means of a screw handle
moved by hand
fork
is
or
now brought
by mechanism
and
is
fixeoHirmly by means
If the tuning-fork remains at rest
cylinder turns, the

paper, or, as the
and the
point traces a straight line on the
movement
of the cylinder is spiral,
traces a curve differing very little

If,
3).
close to the cylinder, so that the point
slightly scores the paper,
of a vice.
(fig.
The tuning-
from a straight
on the other hand, the cylinder remains
the tuning-fork vibrates,
its
it
line.
at rest
and
point traces a short line per-
pendicular to the
first.
If, lastly,
the tuning-fork vibrates
and the cylinder
turns, a regular
and very characteristic
GRAPHIC METHOD.
undulating line
is
obtained on the paper, which represents
fairly well the vibratory
When
movement
3.
traced on the paper are very wide

is
later on,
when
the
already weakened, the vibrations begin to dim-
inish in width
ceasing, they
finally,
when
become almost
confounded with the straight

5.
of the tuning-fork.
the tuning-fork gives a loud sound, the vibrations
Kg.
sound
The vibration of a
demonstrated.
stretched over a
3
For
this
the sound
invisible,
is
on the point of
and are sensibly
line.
string can also be very easily
purpose a metal string
wooden box
(fig. 4).
Two
is
bridges,
used,
A and
10
B, on which the string rests, give
of
any part
the exact length of
it
one metre, and a scale placed beneath
it
to be determined at will.
enables the length
The wire
is
fixed
Fig. 4.
and kept stretched by means of pegs, exactly as in a

This instrument, which has been known since
pianoforte.
the days of the ancient Greeks, and which
sonometer or monochord,
is
is
called a
of great importance both in the
and in the study of those phenomena in

which we are now interested. If the string be rubbed in
history of music
the middle with a violin bow, a note
is
obtained, the pitch
which depends on many circumstances, as, for instance,

on the length, thickness, and density of the string, and on
of
its tension.
feeble
if,
the sound
If the string be rubbed lightly, the sound is
on the contrary,
is
loud
it
be rubbed with some
or loudness of the sound depends
amount
force,
and, generally speaking, the intensity
of force that produces
it.
on the greater or
The vibration of
string can be demonstrated in the following
Simple observation has already
manner
shown that the
less
this
string
VIBRATION OF A STRING.
when rubbed
extremities,
is
ined,
it
it
At
the
on the two bridges, the string

but when the middle part is exam-
rests
rest,
found that the string loses its sharpness of

It appears sensibly thickened, and this thicken-
is
outline.
maximum
at
about the middle of the
which proves that each
particle of the string per-
ing reaches
string,
in a state of rapid vibration.
where
appears to be at
11
its
forms a to-and-fro movement in a direction perpendicular

Vibrations of this sort are
to the length of the string.
called transverse, to distinguish

vibrations, in
which each
tion of the string
itself.
vibration of strings
existence,
some
like riders,
may
of.
and
fall
is
made
of the longitudinal
the transverse vibrations only need
In order better to demonstrate their
little slips
of paper, doubled in the middle
be placed on the string
these riders are thrown
is
longitudinal
particle vibrates in the direc-
In practical music no use

here be treated
them from
up on account
when
it
vibrates,
of their lightness
back again on the string, thus indicating when it

and when it is at rest. The most
in a state of vibration
simple form of vibration
is
that in which the whole string
performs simultaneously one single vibration.
This effect
can easily be obtained by leaving the string quite

and rubbing it with the bow close to one of its ends.
that case all the riders are
middle, where the
thrown up
movement
the others in succession.
is
first
greatest,
free,
In
those in the
and afterwards
This shows that, with the ex-
ception of the two fixed points of the string, there
is
no
12
point of
it
that does not vibrate,
or,
in other terms, that
The
the whole string vibrates in one single vibration.
note which
thus obtained from the string
is
and
the lowest
is
it is
for this reason that it is
this is not the only note
which can be obtained
note corresponding to
it,
called its fundamental note.
But
from the
string.
or,
finger,
If
better
obtained which
musical ear
it
still,
is
be touched at
its
with a feather
(fig.
distinguishes,
4),
a note
and
which
practical
The
musicians call the octave of the fundamental note.

string in this case vibrates in
two parts in such a way
that the point touched remains at

is
at
This fixed point
rest.
called a node of the vibrating string,
has been
produced
artificially
In
the point indicated.
placed on the
that
string,
it
and such a node
by touching the
fact,
if
the riders
string
be
now
will be observed in this case
the rider nearest to the finger does
whilst all the others are thrown
maining
is
a note which the
observably higher
easily
middle with the
The
off.
not
rider
move,
by
re-
at rest thus indicates the presence of the node.
Successively higher
and higher notes can be obtained

it at a third, a fourth, and
from the string by touching

a
fifth of its length, &c.
An
experiment made by means
of riders shows that in each case of this sort the string
subdivides itself into a certain
equal
in the
first
number
of parts, invariably
case into three, in the second into four,
and in the third into
five,
&c.
and the
riders that
remain
on the string will indicate the equidistant nodes formed
VIBRATION OF A STRING.
in the string.
Thus, for example,
at one-fifth of its length,

pails,
it
if
13
the string be touched
divides itself into five equal
and four nodes are formed
at distances of |, f f, |
,
of the string's length, whilst at the intermediate points is
Kg.
found the
maximum
5.
vibratory
movement
parts of the string between the nodes
points of
maximum movement
Fig. 6 represents in
(fig.
5).
The
which contain these
are called ventral segments.
somewhat exaggerated dimensions
the different modes of vibration which a string assumes in

different cases,
when
it
vibrates as a whole, or
is
divided
14
into 2,
3,
4,
&c.,
In the
parts.
formed, in the others
we have
1,
first
case no node
2, 3, &c., nodes.
is
It is
necessary to observe that these different cases correspond

to different,
and successively higher and higher, notes of
the same string.

G.
Another interesting example of vibration is that

by a plate or membrane. This case is somewhat
offered
more complicated than that

tion
is
almost the same.
of a string, but the explana-
In
fact,
a plate
may
be con-
sidered as an assemblage of strings rigidly fastened together.
As we
obtained nodal points in the string,
we
ought therefore to have nodal lines in the plate, formed
by the junction
Chladni,
who
of the different nodal points.

first
observed these nodal
lines,
indicated
a very simple means of demonstrating them, on which

account the figures produced by these lines are called
"
Chladni's figures."
Fig. 7
shows some
plates,
such as are
in the middle to a solid foot, which

generally used, fixed
rests on a common bench.
By sprinkling a Little sand on
15
CHLADNI'S FIGURES.
the plate and rubbing
it
with a bow, musical sounds are
obtained, unpleasant because too shrill, but always quite

clear
and the moment the sound
is
produced, the sand
dances about and collects together on certain straight

or
curved
vibratory
nodal
lines,
which indicate the places where the
movement
does not exist: these are Chladni's
lines.
Prom
the same plate very varied figures can be obtained
r.8.
by applying the
finger to suitable points, in order thus to
induce a nodal point, and thence a nodal
line.
Fig. 8
16
contains a very beautiful series of figures, which can be

obtained,
Savart, from
according to
The number
sufficient size.
square plate of
of these figures
is
rather large,
and those here drawn represent only a small part of those

which can be obtained, especially when the plate is large.
Membranes also vibrate in an analogous way. The

forms of their nodal lines are generally even more complicated than those of plates, and are observed in an analogous way.
The
rule
is this,
that to a determinate note
belongs a determinate figure for the same

plate,
and that the
produced
No
is
figure
membrane
more complicated
is
or
as the note
higher.
relation,
however, between these phenomena, or
rather no law that will
make known
the relation between
the figure obtained and the corresponding note, has yet
been discovered.
7.
We
have up to
this point only studied the case of
the vibration of solid bodies, but liquid and gaseous bodies
can also produce sound by vibrating.

case
that of a sounding pipe, of which under
is
different forms
is
"
much
use
is
made
mouth
"
pipes,
and that of
"
reed
many
in practical music.
divided into two large categories
sound
The best-understood
It
that of "flue" or
"
pipes.
In both the
the air which
produced either
is
by breaking up
blown into them, or by causing it to enter in puffs. In
the first and most important that is, in the flue-pipe
is
this effect is obtained
called the
embouchure
by a
special arrangement,
of the pipe.
which
is
FLUE
Fig. 9 represents the
By
17
PIPES.
most common form of
blowing through the open tube
of the
mouth
or
a musical sound
and open
and it has
a,
flue-pipe.
whether by means
by connecting the pipe to a bellows,

obtained.
The pipe is hollow within,
is
or closed at the top, according to circumstances,

its
embouchure
Fix
9.
at
m and
I.
Fig. 10
shows better
Fig. 10.
in section the arrangement of such an embouchure,

consists of
bevelled to
into the
which
an upper lip I and a lower lip m, which are

an edge. The air enters by the tube a, passes
box
&,
and breaks through a narrow
fissure against
18
the upper lip
I.
It partly enters the pipe,
and induces
and produces a very clear and agreeable sound.

11 gives an example of a reed pipe. The air, which
vibrations,
Fig.
enters
by
r, is
obliged, in order to get to the larger tube E,
to pass through a special apparatus, the
n.
gives the detailed arrangement.
reed,,
of which
When
the fissure a ;
The box
acb is closed in
this is lifted up, the air passes
when
12
Fig. 12.
the middle by a small, thin, elastic, metallic plate

the tongue.
fig.
the tongue springs back
by
d, called
through
its
own
REED
the
closes
it
elasticity,
19
PIPES.
The vibration of the
passage.
tongue induces a rapid opening and closing of this fissure
the air penetrates at intervals, in regular puffs, and thus
a sound
pipe be used,
comes feeble
note
we blow hard
if
we blow
if
first
or second kind of
the sound
gently, and in
is
loud
be-
it
this last case the
the lowest that the pipe can give, for which
is
reason
Whether the
obtained.
is
called the
it is
fundamental note of the pipe.
This note depends on the dimensions, and, above
all,
on
the length of the pipe, and also on the nature of the gas
that enters
it
a determinate
so that to determinate dimensions
mode
When
fundamental note.
happen
and
to
of blowing corresponds a determinate
the blowing
is
stronger, it
may
that the pipe will give a different note from the
This happens especially
fundamental note.
if
the pipe
is
very narrow for its length it is easy to prevent this by

giving to the tube a sectional area proportioned to its
;
length, according to certain rules suggested
may
pipe, then,
will give
which
by preference the fundamental
will give
by preference higher
the one case and sometimes the other

tical
In
practice.
notes.
is
note,
or one
Sometimes
utilised in prac-
music.
fact there are instruments,
and with
its
by
be constructed at pleasure which
reeds, in
which each pipe
fundamental note
both with embouchures

is
various and complicated forms which
wind instruments
intended only to give
as, for example, the organ, in all the

it
can assume.
as the trumpet, trombone, &c.,
Many
and
also
20
the flute
are pipes, each one of
This
a series of notes.
which
attained
is
is
intended to give
by giving the
instru-
ments great length in proportion to their other dimensions

and turning and twisting the pipe when too long in order
to give it a
more convenient form. Like a vibrating
string,
a sounding pipe thus gives a series of notes successively
higher and higher.

the current of air
tained
by
It
is
enough
for this to strengthen
but a better and quicker
effect is ob-
opening a communication with the external air
at suitable points
by means
of pistons in the cornet,
and
and of the keys in the flute. The

effect may be compared with that obtained when a point
in a vibrating string is touched by the finger a node is
by means
of the fingers
established, and the vibrating column of
into a certain
number
air subdivides
of parts, according to simple rules,
which vary, however, with the nature of the pipe.

The flute and organ pipes for the most part are fluepipes, but in the first the embouchure is formed both by
the
instrument
itself
clarionet, the oboe, and
instruments
and the
all
lip
of the player.
The
the trumpet class, are reed
these last have a
little
funnel against which
the lips are placed, which by vibrating act as a reed.
All the various different-shaped pipes are divided into
open and stopped.

differences, the note
is,
cceteris
Besides
certain
very characteristic
produced by the two kinds of pipes
parlous, different in pitch.
Two
pipes of the
same shape and dimensions, the one stopped and the other
open, give two fundamental notes which are to each other
VIBRATION OF AIR IN A
fundamental note and
as the
21
PIPE.
its octave.
If therefore
an
open pipe be stopped, its note descends to the octave

below and if a stopped pipe be opened, its note rises to
;
the octave above.
methods
different
Many
may
method
is
to introduce into
be used to demonstrate
One
the vibration of air in a pipe.
an open
pipe, one wall of which is of glass,

by its upper end a light, well-
stretched
membrane
which some sand
The note
13).
is
is
sprinkled
(fig.
slightly altered
by the introduction of
traneous
m on
of paper
this
ex-
but nevertheless
body,
continues to exist, and through the
be observed
how
glass wall it
may
the sand
thrown up with some
is
noise, because the vibration of the

air is
communicated
to the paper
membrane and thence
to the sand.
At
the middle point of the pipe
the
movement
of the sand ceases,
which shows that

there
the
is
at this
point
a true node, and also that
dancing of the sand
produced by
is
air in a stream,
not
but only by
ng.ia.
air in a state of
vibration.
Another simple mode of demonstrating the vibration
22
of the air is the following:

sectional area is taken, in
tube rather long for
which one wall
is
made
its
of very
By blowing into it with some violence,

obtained much higher than the fundamental
thin flexible wood.
a note
is
The
note of the pipe.
communicates
air in vibrating
vibrations to the flexible side of the tube.
its
Therefore, if
the pipe be held horizontally, and sand be sprinkled on

the flexible side, the sand will dance about and accumulate in certain lines
cate exactly the
which are true nodal
way
in which the air
is
lines,
and
indi-
vibrating in the
interior of the pipe.
Another method of some importance has been pointed

Take a tube of glass of sufficient sectional
out by Kundt.
area and about two metres long.

as
lycopodium or cork dust,
is
the tube, and distributed over

is
Some
light powder, such
poured into the interior of

it fairly
evenly.
The tube
then stopped at the two extremities with corks
then held firmly by
its
middle with one hand, whilst
it is
it is
rubbed with a slightly wetted cloth with the other. A

very sharp clear note is then formed; the vibrations of
Fig. 14.
the tube are transmitted to the enclosed
powder
fig.
14,
distributes itself regularly in the
where a portion of the tube
is
air,
and the
way
light
indicated in
represented.
The
KUNDT'S METHOD.
nodes, and between
circles are
23
them the powder shows
real transverse lines.
The form
and especially the distribution

on the
of the figure,
of the nodes, depends
on various circumstances
dimensions of the tube, on the note which can consequently
be obtained from
the tube.
In
it,
and on the gas which is enclosed in

Kundt's method is susceptible
this respect
of great accuracy,
and
to deduce the velocity
is
widely applicable, enabling us
with which sound
is
propagated
through different bodies.
The mechanician Konig has recently devised a very

elegant novel method of demonstrating the vibrations of
8.
the air in sounding pipes
manometric flame.
Fig.
that
viz.,
15
gives
by means
a sufficiently exact
by him.
idea of the apparatus contrived
of the
One
or
more
annexed drawing they are

equal A and B), are mounted on a small box &, which acts
The indiarubber tube a puts it in comas an air-chest.
pipes, equal or unequal (in the
munication with a blower.
The valves v serve
action at will either pipe or both together.

itself
a hole
under which
made and
is
is
by
membrane which
to separate the interior of the pipe
capsule, which
gas-tube
is
put in
by means
In the pipe
a capsule
closed again
a flexible elastic
to set in
from the
e,
serves
interior of the
communication on one side with a
of the small tube d,
and on the other
which ends in a gas-burner. The

enters
then
the
capsule, fills it, and passes through the
gas
small tube and the burner. Lighting it, then, at the burner,
with the small tube
/,
24
a small flame
obtained.
is
If the pipe is not sounding, the
gas passes quietly through the capsule, and gives rise to a

quiet and normal flame.
If,
on the other hand, the pipe
Fig. 15.
produces
its
to the
thence to the flame.

it
movement
note, the
communicated
of the vibrating air is
membrane, from
When
it
to the gas,
and
the pipe produces this note,
will be seen that the flame lengthens, grows restless
and more
blue,
thing abnormal.
and by
all its
behaviour indicates some-
This proceeds from the fact that the
flame takes part in the vibrations of the air in the pipe.
THE MANOMETRIC FLAME.

It rises
and
falls rapidly,
and
as this
25
movement, on account
of its rapidity, cannot be followed by the eye, only a complete image of the flame is seen, an image caused by the
and long
superposition of the partial short
In
flames.
order readily to observe the vibrations of the flame,
recourse
is
had
to a
Behind the flames
means often made use
is
of in physics.
placed a four-sided box of looking-
which can be rapidly turned round a vertical axis

by means of a handle and a system of toothed wheels.
When the flame burns steadily, a continuous luminous
glass S,
band
formed in the turning mirror, because to each
is
position which the mirror takes up in
that
hand, the flame vibrates

short
and sometimes long
is
rotation, there
its
corresponds a similar image of the flame.
If,
to say, if
on the other
it is
sometimes
there will correspond to cer-
tain positions of the mirror long,
and
to
others
short
images, and there will be seen in the turning mirror long
and short images succeeding each other (fig. 16, a).

The short flame is confounded sensibly with the luminous mass, because the lower part
of the flame
part
does
not take
the vibrations.
in
much
But the
long flames are seen clearly separated one from the other;
whence
the phenomenon presents the ap-
pearance
flames, as
idea of
of
is
separate
shown in
what happens
and
fig.
16.
l'ig.
16.
equal
This method gives a clear
in the interior of the pipe,
and
if
26
care be taken to darken the
room in order
to
remove
all
other reflections from the mirror, the experiment becomes

perfectly visible even to a very
smaller pipe
may now be
an octave higher than that of the
When
at
the apparatus
first, it
numerous audience.
used, which gives a note exactly
is set
first.
in action in the same
way
as
will be observed that the vibrating flames are
considerably nearer together.
In general terms,
the higher
an equal speed of the mirror, the nearer

together are the flames that is to say, the more rapid are
the note, for
the
vibrations
of the
air in the pipe.
This
is
a very
important law, which will require further study later on,

but which it is useful to have already demonstrated by this
elegant experiment.
We may
even go
farther,
and deter-
between the number of vibrations per

second of the two pipes. Setting them both in action
mine the
ratio
independently of each other, two series of flames are

obtained one over the other (fig. 16, a ). And with a
attention
little
it
will be seen that with whatever velocity
the mirror be turned, two images of the lower line cor-
respond to one image of the upper
may
then be arrived
at,
line.
This conclusion
that the octave is always composed
of a number of vibrations per second double that of the
fundamental
9.
note.
Similar demonstrations might be continued,
truth,
examples are not wanting.

cited, and these will
important have been

strate the point to
for,
in
few only of the more

suffice to
be settled in this chapter.
demon-
Wherever
SOUND THE EESULT OF VIBRATION.
27
there is sound, there is always vibration whence it may

be concluded that sound and vibration are concomitant
;
The vibration may come from a solid, a

a gaseous body but there is no known case of
phenomena.
liquid, or
It does not
sound, without vibration of material bodies.
must produce sound.

may happen, they must satisfy certain
which will be considered later on. Eut
necessarily follow that all vibrations
In order that
this
special conditions,
up
to this point
there
is
we may
say, that
But vibration
vibration.
wherever there
is
objective
sounding bodies independently of the listener.

Sound, on the other hand, is produced in our
therefore subjective.
is
He would
sound
exists in
ears,
To a deaf man the vibration
but the sound does not.

vibration,
it
and
is
exists,
be able to study the
though entirely ignorant of the fact that
it
pro-
duces a special sensation on our normal organisation.
From
this
sound the
we may
effect
that sound
bodies.
is
conclude that miration
produced on our
is the cause
and
ears, or in other words,
the result of certain forms of vibration of
CHAPTER
1.
TRANSMISSION OF SOUND
OTHER BODIES
4.
OTHER BODIES
1.
WE
2.
II.
PROPAGATION IN AIR
VELOCITY OP SOUND IN AIR

REFLECTION OF SOUND
6.
3.
5.
IN WATER AND
IN WATER AND
ECHO.
7.
possess in our organisation a special instrument,
the ear, adapted for perceiving sounds.

tions of the sounding
But
if
the vibra-
body are the cause of sound, the
How
do these vibrations ultimately reach

question
our ears, so as to produce the sensation of sound ?
arises,
could
vibration evidently
were no medium
generally air
but
fit
it
may
or gaseous body, so long as
body
is
not be propagated
to propagate
also be
it
be
This
it.
elastic.
Elasticity of the
a necessary condition, not only for the formation

:
since a vibration
can only be propagated by transmitting
body
to the layers of the

;
is
any other solid, liquid,
of sound, but also for its transmission
ment
there
if
medium
medium
these layers communicate
its
own move-
nearest the vibrating
it to
fresh layers in their
neighbourhood, and so on.
Vibration seems, then, to travel from layer to layer, and
when circumstances
tory
movement
transmitting
is
permit, in every direction.
not possible
medium be not
if
The
vibra-
each particle of the
able to vibrate on
its
own
TRANSMISSION OF VIBRATION.
account
And
that
is
to say, if the
29
medium be
not
elastic.
thus the power that a body possesses of transmitting
sound constitutes one of the surest
criteria of its elasticity.
very clear idea of the transmission of a vibratory
movement may be obtained by observing a
On
of water at rest.
concentric waves
is
throwing a stone into
large surface
it,
a series of
seen to start from the point struck
by
the stone, which as they grow larger, become less distinct,
and end by becoming imperceptible. It would be a mistake to suppose that the water itself moved from point to
Each
point.
particle remains, so to speak, at its post,
and
only executes a vibration perpendicular to the direction
wave
of the
same post as
is
so,
having accomplished which, it is at the very

It is easy to demonstrate that this
before.
by throwing on the water some sawdust
or other
when it will be observed that it is lifted by

vibratory movement which passes under it, without
floating body,
the
being sensibly displaced.
It
is,
then, only the vibratory
movement which moves from one point

not the body
The
itself or
any
part of
to another,
and
it.
which coming
from different points strike against or across each other,
is more complicated, and at the same time more interesting.
case of several vibratory movements,
If
two or more stones be thrown into
different points,
still
which, as they grow larger, join together.
shows that
water at
two or more systems of waves are formed,
at each point
common
to
in opposite directions, there are special
Experience
two waves moving

phenomena, called
30
interference.
But beyond these
points, each
wave
had
is
pro-
and never
pagated exactly as if the other did not exist,

existed.
This
is
the great principle of the coexistence of vibratory
movements, a principle discovered by expeiiment and

proved to demonstration by mathematical analysis. It is
applicable to
all cases,
whatever be the
elastic
examined, and whatever be the nature of its

Applied to the case of sonorous vibrations and
to this conclusion
sounds
may
body
vibrations.
air, it
leads
that twenty, thirty, a hundred different
be transmitted in every direction without
reciprocal disturbance.
2.
In order to Demonstrate that
mit sound, use
is
made
air is really able to trans-
of a glass globe, into which a rod
of brass penetrates, carrying at its lower
extremity a
by means
The globe
a in
its
little bell c (fig.
17) attached
of
an
is
furnished with a stopcock
inelastic cotton thread.
neck, which
opened or
closed.
enables
it
to be
If the air be
ex-
hausted from the globe as thoroughly

as possible
the globe,
by means of an air-pump,
and thence the bell, may be
shaken with any degree of violence without any sound being heard.
ever, against the
the
globe,
reason of which
is,
By
holding the
a very feeble sound

that the air
is
ear,
is
howheard,
not completely
exhausted, and that the cotton thread by which the bell
ALL ELASTIC BODIES TRANSMIT SOUND.

is
suspended
is
not completely devoid of elasticity, and
though but slightly. But

and is imperceptible at a
therefore transmits the sound,
the
31
is
phenomenon
very
faint,
an
If the stopcock be opened for
very short distance.
instant and again closed, a little air will enter the globe,
and the sound of the

vibrations
now
find
is
bell will begin
an
elastic
very
glass
envelope of the globe.

transmits
to
is
the ear of
be heard.
Its
medium, which, although

them at last to the
able to transmit
rarefied,
elastic,
to
them
the
to
The
the external
very
and thence
air,
stopcock be
If the
feebly.
is
and therefore the sound
observer,
heard, although
which
glass,
again
opened, and left open so that the air can enter freely,
the sound will grow louder, and
when
the air in the globe
has reached the same density as the external

will be heard
shows that
case
with
its
was necessary
it
for
transmits sound better as

3.
Not only
but
air,
the bell
This experiment
full loudness.
air is able to
air,
transmit sound, that in this
such transmission, and that

its
all
density
solid,
is
it
greater.
liquid,
and
gaseous
bodies, are able, if elastic, to transmit sonorous vibrations.
well-known
It is a
fact that
if,
when bathing
in the sea,
the head be plunged under water, or even the ears only,

the noise produced
rocks
is
known
distinctly
fact,
passage of
ground
by the water
heard.
And
it
striking
is
against the
an equally well-
that to hear a distant noise produced
men
or animals, the ear
must be held
by the
to the
which shows not only that the earth transmits
32
sound, but that in some cases
than
Almost
known
all
and metals
it
even better
bodies are able to transmit sound,
are best of all adapted for this purpose.
transmission succeeds best

scribed
is
transmits
it
air.
and obliged
when
to travel in
the sound
one direction only.
not the case for a bell sounding in the open
sound
This
air
the
transmitted in every direction, and soon grows
is
feeble.
This
circum-
is
But
if,
on the other hand, the transmission takes
place in one direction only, a sound, although feeble,
may
be heard at a great distance. It is on this principle that

are founded the acoustic pipes, or speaking-tubes, in common
use.
These are cylindrical tubes, generally of gutta-percha,

to point as may be required,
which are arranged from point
with this condition, however, that they should not have

sharp curves. If words be spoken at one end, the sound
is
transmitted from layer to layer of the enclosed
easily reaches the other
made between two

cally, there is
end
air,
and
communication can thus be
distant parts of a building.
Theoreti-
no limit to such transmission in cylindrical
in practice, however, the sound grows gradually

tubes
weaker in long tubes, because the vibrating air loses a
part of its vibratory movement by friction with the sides
;
of the tube.
Very long
distances
may
nevertheless be
attained.
An
is
elegant experiment on the transmission of sound
that described
yards
in
by
Wlicatstone.
A rod
of
wood
several
length passes from one room to another
for
VELOCITY OF SOUND.
33
example, from one room to the room on the floor below.

In order to preserve it from contact with other bodies, it
surrounded by a
two extremities are
is
and by indiarubber, but the
tin tube
left
One extremity
free.
put in
is
communication with the sounding-board of a pianoforte

or other musical instrument, and transmits all
To make these
the other extremity.
to
notes
its
perceptible, it
need only be fixed to some other instrument
a violin,
The
effect
is
a piece
played in the
other
room
harp, or pianoforte.
of music
astonishing;
or
other floor
is
perfectly heard.
This being
4.
themselves
different bodies
for all bodies
By
as
Is
it
velocity
is
now
present
sound transmitted in
great or small
Is
it
the same
velocity
of time
the following questions
so,
With what
meant the space passed over
is
in a second
an example, let us investigate the space passed
over by a sonorous vibration in one second of time in air.

It is a well-known fact that this velocity is not great.
In
when
fact,
man some
distance off strikes an anvil
with a hammer, the movement of the
and then the sound

great, the lapse
the blow
The
is
is
of time
and
hammer
is first
seen
the distance
is
rather
between the moments
at
which
heard
if
seen and heard becomes very considerable.
firing of a
cannon a long distance
off is
announced
by the flame produced by the explosion of the powder,

and only some time afterwards by the report. Similar
first
examples are very numerous.

5
They demonstrate
that
34
sound
transmitted
is
much more
slowly than
light,
and
that the velocity of sound in each case cannot be great.
The method
itself
of determining the velocity of sound

It
very simple.
two cannon
two
at
may
is
in
be done by merely placing
different stations as far apart as pos-
and having exactly measured the distance between

them, firing them at previously-arranged moments, and
sible,
observing by means of a stop-watch the

the report from the
vice versa.
first
moment
The time which the sound takes
which
and
to pass over
the space comprised between the two stations

ascertained, and
at
station reaches the second,
is
thus
further, the distance between the two
stations being also
known, the required velocity is found

by the former. Such experiments
dividing the latter
by
must be made
noises.
when
at night, so as not to be disturbed
They ought,
further, to
by other
be made on calm nights
no wind, because wind, which is merely a

of
change
place of a great mass of air, increases or
diminishes the velocity of sound according as it is favourthere
is
able or unfavourable
its
direction
is
that
the same
which the sound

to be quite free
is
is
to say, according to
whether
as, or contrary to, the direction in
transmitted.
But
as
from wind, the cannon are
it is
impossible
fired first
from
one station and then from the other, because in this case
the wind will be favourable to the transmission of the
one sound, and unfavourable to the transmission of the

other.
One
of the
two
velocities will
the other too small, and the
mean
then be too great,
will represent a very
VELOCITY OF SOUND.
35
which would have been
close approximation to the value
found had there been no wind.
Experiments of
We may
this
kind have often been performed.
note especially those
made by members
of the
French Academy in the year 1822 between MontJilery and

ViUejuif, those made by Moll and Van der Beck, and lastly,
those lately
made by Eegnault with much more
perfect
means.
The
result of these experiments
sound in
in
fixed
of time
and that
F.) it
(60 '8
not at
first
is
a temperature
that
it
is
sounds than for feeble ones.
the
of
about 340 metres per second.
known
is
velocity of
be
second
with
16
C.
It
was
rather greater for loud
However, this difference

and may be neglected
very small,
To confirm the
in most cases.
may
this velocity increases regularly
observed by Eegnault
on
that the velocity of
C. (32 F.),
air, at a temperature of
round numbers at 330 metres* in a
temperature, so that at
the
is,
sound,
influence of temperature
we may
experiment made by Captain Parry
here notice
in Melville
the
Island,
lying in the middle of the group of islands near North

it results that, for the very low
below zero C. (37'3 below
F.), the
was
309 metres per second.
least velocity
Another question is this, Are low and high notes pro-
America, from which

temperature of 38'5
pagated with the same velocity
band playing
*
One metre
Listening to a military
at a distance, it will be observed that the

is
equal to 3 '2 8
feet, Le., to
about 3 feet 3 inches.
36
piece of music which

serves
is
being executed completely pre-
The notes reach the
rhythmic movement.
its
observer enfeebled by a great distance, but they maintain

exactly the
same consecutive
not be possible
order.
had not the same
velocity.
Biot endeavoured to
more accurate experiments on

known and very simple melody
such a
way
very long pipe,
by causing a
on a
flute in
On
listening at
the other end of this
he found the rhythm of the melody un-
more accurate
some such small
difference in
may
experiments
of
would be
this point
to be played
make
It is not at all impossible that still
this respect as
certain
would
that the sound entered one of the water-
pipes at Paris.
altered.
This, however,
the different notes, whether high or low,
if
reveal
was found
for loud
and feeble sounds in
EegnauWs experiments, but the

certainly very small,
difference
and might in most cases
be neglected.
The velocity of sound in water has been determined

by Colladon and Sturm in the Lake of Geneva. A bell
was suspended under water and sounded at known mo5.
ments
at a long distance
from this a tube was led into
the water from the boat, in which was the observer.
lower end of the tube was

ear,
much
The
enlarged, like a colossal
and was closed by means of an
elastic
membrane,
which was completely under water. The sonorous vibrations from the bell were propagated through the water to
The
the membrane, and from it to the air in the tube.
observer holding his ear to the tube, distinctly perceived
VELOCITY OF SOUND.
sound.
the
37
Whence, by measuring the distance from
the bell to the observer, and the time occupied by the sound
in traversing the
whole distance, Colladon and Sturm found
The
a velocity of 1435 metres per second.
sound through water

through
is
velocity of
therefore appreciably greater than
air.
other experiments have been tried in order to
Many
sound in
arrive at the velocity of
would be impossible
It
different bodies.
to enter into further details
on these
points without overstepping the limits I have laid down,
the more so as the methods employed in these researches

are very various,
and require a somewhat profound know-
ledge of the theory of sound.
I wish therefore to limit
the statement, that the velocity of sound
to
myself
small in gaseous bodies, such as
proportion as the gas
is
air,
more dense
and
that
is
is
smaller in
it is
therefore
the smallest possible in carbonic anhydride [262 metres
per second], which
is
a gas one and a half times denser
air, and the greatest possible in hydrogen [1269

metres per second], a gas which is fourteen times less
than
dense than
air.
In
gas
an increase
of temperature
considerably increases the velocity.
In liquids the velocity is, generally speaking, sensibly

In
greater than in gas [with the exception of hydrogen].
solids it is found to be still greater, especially in metals,
in
air.
which
But
it rises
as high as
twenty times the velocity in
increase of temperature generally considerably
diminishes the velocity, except in iron, in which at
first
38
the velocity increases with the temperature

C. (212
F.),
up
to
100
and then rapidly diminishes.
These differences and these anomalies arise from the

intimate structure of the various bodies, and from the
which
in
structure varies with temperature.
this
velocity of sound depends on
two quantities
on the
way
The
elas-
and on the density of the body it increases when

the first increases and when the second diminishes. But
ticity
the laws according to which elasticity and density
as
vary with the temperature are very various, especially in

solid bodies, it follows that the variations of the velocity
of sound in solids
For
must
also follow complicated laws.
kinds of wood there are very different
different
values, according to the direction of the fibre
The following
rings.
table contains
some
and of the
results obtained
in this respect, and will serve to render the above explanation
more
clear
VELOCITY OF SOUND IN VARIOUS BODIES.

Metres per
Second.
Air
REFLECTION OF SOUND.
39
Metres per
Second.
Gold
at20C.
100 C. (212
200 C. (392
20 C. (68
100 C. (212
Silver
Copper
.,
Iron
(68 F.), according
Cast steel.
.
200
20
100
200
20
100
200
20
100
200
to
Wertheim
F.)
F.)
F.)
F.)
C. (392 F.)
C.
(68 F.)
C. (212 F.)
C. (392
C.
F.)
(68 F.)
C. (212
F.)
C. (392 F.)
C.
(68 F.)
C. (212
C. (392
Acacia wood along the
F.)
F.)
fibre
across the rings
with the rings

Pine in the direction of the fibre
6.
it
across the rings
with the rings
When
a sonorous
wave
strikes against
an
1743
1719
1634
2707
2639
2477
3556
3292
2954
5127
5299
4719
4986
4925
4788
4714
1475
1352
3322
1405
794
obstacle,
same phenomena as an elastic body striking

The sonorous wave is reflected in such a
wall.
exhibits the
an
elastic
way
that the angle of incidence
is
equal to the angle of
The angle formed by the ray of sound which

reflection.
impinges on the wall, with the perpendicular to the wall
drawn from the point at which it impinges, is called the
angle of incidence. The angle formed by this perpendicular with the reflected ray of sound
reflection.
By means
a ray of sound after

determined.
is
called the angle of
of this law the direction taken
its reflection
by
can always be perfectly
40-
An
exist.
innumerable quantity of phenomena of reflection

The two most distinct forms are resonance and
When
echo.
a sound
is
produced in a closed chamber,
the sonorous waves are propagated in every direction,
and are sent back
strike against the walls of the chamber,
from them by reflection, and can be repeated several times

from one wall to another. An observer within the chamber will hear not only the sound which comes direct from
the sounding body, but will also receive the vibrations
which come by reflection from all parts of the chamber.

The sound is thus remarkably strengthened, and this
the reason
why
and
easier to hear
it is
to
make
is
one's self
heard in a closed room than in an open space.

Evidently in such a case the sound will not only return
sttengthened, but even altered; because the reflections
from the walls, on account of the low velocity of sound,

require some time, and prolong the sound more or less
considerably.
is
chamber be
If the
small, this prolongation
not considerable and can be neglected
chamber assumes large proportions

theatre
this
There
is
in breaking
may become
be remedied.
it
places,
only one
up the
may
be con-
confounded with the next note,
of resonance
empty
large, enclosed,
sists
it is
phenomenon
troublesome unless
freely.
but when the
each note spoken, sung, or played,
siderably prolonged
and
as, for example, in a
where
way
all
reflection takes place
to prevent
large walls.
extremely
This happens in
The
it,
which con-
seats of a theatre,
the decorations between them, the galleries, even the
41
REFLECTION OF SOUND.
haogings, serve not merely for the accommodation of the
also
fill
for the internal "beauty of the theatre,
and
spectators
an even more important
office
viz.,
venting the disagreeable resonance of the place.

of the
most
difficult
problems
for
an architect
a room on proper acoustic principles

in
which sound
that
to the present time this
and
it
ways
and
well
is
Dionysius
room
to say, a
may be
up
utilised in various
The celebrated
interest.
known
it is
in the rocks near Syracuse,
"
ear of
a sort of hole excavated
where the
The
least
roar.
Cathedral in London
so constructed that
great
sound
dome
formed into a deafening

is
said that
have combined to solve some
art
problems not deficient in

"
one
problem has been solved in very
few theatres in a satisfactory way.

The reflection of sound has been
nature
It is
to construct
shall be considerably strengthened without
degenerating into resonance,
is
but
that of pre-
is
trans-
of St Paul's
two persons
at
opposite points of the internal gallery, placed in the
drum
mere whisper.
The
of the dome, can talk together in a
sound
transmitted from one to the other
is
reflections along the curve
nomena
are
bridges,
viaducts,
problems
often
of this
often solved,
whispering
met with
An
by
of the
dome.
met with under the

&c.
and
there was
nature were
architects.
galleries,
much
by
successive
Similar phelarge arches of
a period
sought
It is for this
when
after,
and
reason that
speaking pipes, &c., are so often
in old houses.
elegant
mode
of demonstrating
the reflection of
42
sound
is
by the use
of
two parabolic
reflectors
MN"
MIT
(fig. 18), placed one opposite the other in such a way that
their centres shall be on the straight line AA'.
Placing a
sounding body at a particular point F, called the focus of the
MN", the sound-wave strikes against the
reflector
is
driven
back thence by
reflection
reflector,
on to the second
Big. 18.
reflector,
that
is
and by
it is
to say, the ray
and by a second
remaining rays
is
concentrated on to
FC
is
its
own
focus F';
reflected in the direction CO',
reflection
along
reflected in the
C'F
7
.
Each of the
same way, and they
all
43
ECHO.
p
concentrate at F.
perceives
the
An
ear placed at this point distinctly
sound made
a very slight
and of the double
reflectors
without the mirrors
give, whilst
to perceive the ray FF',
which
is
it
by means
at F,
reflection
of
which they
would only be possible
much
too feeble
by
itself
to excite a sufficiently strong sensation.
met with
in
the famous Baptistry at Pisa, a building surmounted
by
Another case of multiple
reflection
a narrow cupola of peculiar form.
is
Placing one's self
under the cupola inside the Baptistry and singing a note,

thereis prolonged for a very considerable time
the sound
fore
by singing three
of the reflections, a
or four notes in cadence,
by the
most beautiful chord
heard, as
is
effect
from an organ, which is considerably prolonged.

7. The best understood of all the cases of reflection
that which
produced,
is
it
In order that an echo
called echo.
is
may
as, for
sembles a wall.
is
be
necessary that there should be, at some
distance from the observer, a large vertical wall, or
other object
if
example, a rock
A sound
the wall returns from
it
sent
by
by
some
which roughly
re-
the observer towards
reflection,
and
if
the distance
passed over by the sound be sufficiently great, the reflected
sound will be clearly separated from the sound littered.

The velocity of sound being, at our ordinary temperature,
about 340 metres
'34
metres.
syllables
are
per
second,
the
tenth
of
this
is
But
experiment shows that about five

pronounced in one second, therefore the
time necessary to pronounce one syllable
is
one-fifth of a
44

In this time sound passes over twice 34, or
second.
68 metres.
It follows that, if the reflecting wall be at a distance
of
34 metres from the observer, one
when
syllable
nounced would take one-tenth of a second
pro-
be trans-
to
mitted to the wall, and another tenth of a second to

return to the observer; in
second.
all,
therefore, one-fifth of a
Therefore the echo would reach the ear of the
observer after the syllable had been pronounced,

therefore separate
and
called monosyllabic ;
it
distinct.
is
In
called dissyllabic
lables
can reach the observer distinctly.
when
the wall"
is
at
when two
At
syl-
This happens
twice the distance
say, at a distance of about 68 metres.
and
this case the echo is
that
is
to
a triple distance
an echo may be trisyllabic, and so on. An echo may

also be multiple, when the sound is reflected from two
parallel walls, placed at a sufficient distance
other.
The most
interesting case of this sort
from each
is
certainly
that of Simonetta, near Milan, a villa with two lateral
wings.
The report
of
a pistol
is
repeated as often as
thirty-two times.
found almost everywhere.

Their explanation is always easy ; it seems therefore useless to dwell longer on the point.
Examples
of
echoes
are
CHAPTER
III.
CHARACTERISTICS OF SOUND, AND DIFFERENCE BETWEEN MUSICAL SOUND

AND NOISE 2. LOUDNESS OP SOUND, AND THE VARIOUS CAUSES ON
WHICH IT DEPENDS 3. PRINCIPLE OF THE SUPERPOSITION OF SOUNDS
1.
SOUNDING-BOARDS AND RESONATORS.
4.
1.
ALL
may
the different musical sounds in nature, whatever
be their
and by whatever means they may

be distinguished from each other by
origin,
be propagated,
may
three different qualities.

Firstly,
By
produced, or
the greater or less energy
by
by which they
are
their loudness.
By their pitch.
By a certain characteristic
Secondly,
Thirdly,
difference,
by which
even an almost unpractised ear easily distinguishes the

sound of the violin from that of the flute, that of the
pianoforte from that of the
human
voice, &c.,
even though
these sounds are all of the same loudness and the

pitch.
"
This characteristic difference
tone," or
We
"
ought, then, to examine on
called "quality,"
what these three
different
But before entering into

necessary to explain what is
sound depend.
important matter,
really
same
timbre"
characteristics of
this
is
it
is
meant by sound, when
its
qualities are
spoken o
46
A distinction
and
noise.
is
generally
Sound
is
made
in physics between sound
the result of very regular vibrations
which follow a law, complicated perhaps, but still a law.

When the vibrations assume the simplest possible form
viz.,
that offered
by the
oscillations of the
the
pendulum
resulting sound is called simple, or a simple note
if
the
law be more complex, the sound is called compound, or a

compound note. Noise, on the contrary, is a mixture of
sounds collected together under no law, or under some
law so complicated that the ear neither understands nor

feels it.
It follows that in most cases it is easy to distinguish the one from the other, but the limit between
sound and noise
is
a sound to one,
is
not always so clearly drawn. That which

is
a noise to another, and vice versa.
confused sound produced by the
movement
of the
of the sea is generally considered to be a noise
attentive
and
practised
ear
distinguishes
of the waves.
but an
determinate
musical sounds, and finds a musical meaning.

poets speak often,
The
waves
Thus the
and not without reason, of the harmony
An
orchestra,
when
the individual instru-
mentalists are tuning their instruments and preparing to
the line
which may perhaps be considered as

of demarcation between musical sound and noise.
In
there really
play, produces a noise
fact,
is
a considerable amount of music in
it, although perhaps somewhat irregular, and the general

impression produced is by no means disagreeable.
A fine
or practised ear is able to pick out a determinate
note from the midst of a confused noise.
Often those
who
LOUDNESS OF MUSICAL SOUNDS.
47
have not the habit are not aware of the presence of a more
marked note in the midst of so many others but with
;
very
attention
little
In order to
it
becomes easy to recognise
demonstrate this
use
fact,
a series of eight small boards, which are
is
all of
it.
made
of
the same
length and breadth, and which differ only in thickness.

If one of these boards be allowed to fall
on a bench, most
people would be unable to distinguish any note in the

But a very marked note is there. To
noise of the blow.
make
it,
however, perfectly evident, the eight boards
be allowed to
one after another.
fall
to produce the musical scale,
They
which will be perceived very
distinctly.
It follows that in the confused noise,
by the
of each board, there
fall
not easily perceived, but which

clear
and
may
are tuned so as
is
is
produced
a note, which at
first is
nevertheless sufficiently
distinct.
In the study which we have now commenced, I shall

always consider musical sounds, or notes, and not noises,
because the attempt to determine the quality of a noise
would be meaningless.
It has
no
definite pitch, loudness,
or timbre.
2.
This being
so,
let
us
now
investigate
what may be
the causes on which the modification of the loudness of
musical sounds depends, or by which

loudness depends, in the
less
it is
first place,
energy by which the sound
is
produced.
The
on the greater or
produced.
Now, all
work
the experiments described in the earlier part of this
show that
greater energy produces a
more marked vibra-
48
tory
movement
in the particles of the sonorous body, in
the sense that each vibrating particle traverses a longer

space.
The law
the duration
of isochronism of vibrations shows that
independent of the space passed over,
is
within a certain approximation, which

sidered
We
sufficient.
will
call
generally con-
is
the
greatest
passed over by each particle the amplitude of

therefore
we may say
which a sound
is
that the greater or less energy
the loudness of
a sound
The loudness
is represented
sounding body
density,
it
is
by the amplitude of the
of a sound depends also on the nature

is
to transmit
In
it.
and
fact,
heard in different degrees of loudness,
according as the sound

gas, water, or
In other words,
it.
density of the body which

is
by
produced only influences the amplitude
of the vibrations, and not their duration.
vibrations causing
space
its vibration,
is
some other
enough
for
transmitted
by
air,
some other
liquid or solid body.
me
As
to the
to refer to the experiment
described in the second chapter, of a bell under a glass

receiver.
When the air is completely exhausted,
the sound
can scarcely be heard, and the sound becomes stronger and

stronger as the air is gradually allowed to enter the receiver.
The loudness depends,

sounding body.
again,
It is a general
on
by numerous experiments and by

phenomena,
whatever
they
the distance of
the
law of nature, confirmed
may
theory, that all those

be,
which
have
the
property of being transmitted equally in all directions,
must follow the inverse
ratio of the square of the distance.
SYMPATHETIC VIBRATION.
Sound belongs
to precisely this class of
in fact, under like conditions, it
is
phenomena
transmitted equally in
every direction. It follows that its loudness must vary

inversely as the square of the distance which means that
;
a sound that has a given loudness at a certain distance

is
found at double the distance to have a loudness four
times less
fourth.
At
in other words, its loudness
is
reduced to one-
three times the distance the loudness would
be one-ninth, and for a distance twenty times greater, the

of the original loudness.
loudness would be
The loudness depends,
3.
again,
on the presence of other
bodies, capable of vibrating together with the principal
body.
We have
already seen that sound
enclosed place than in an open one.
is
stronger in an
This arises from
the multiple reflection in the interior of the place,
which the vibrations which

to disperse,
and therefore come in greater number
ear of the observer.
This
by
exist within it are not able
is
to the
only a particular case, treat-
ing rather of the conservation of existing vibrations than

of the creation of
new
ones.
But experiment shows that whenever a body

other bodies placed near
vibrates,
are able to enter into a state
it
of vibration, on this condition only, that such todies shall

be capable ly themselves of
interesting fact,
may
be demonstrated in
Take
producing
the
same
note.
This
which deserves a moment's consideration,
many
ways.
a sonometer on which two
stretched, tuned to give the
same
note.
equal strings are
In order
to
show
50
whether they are in a state of vibration in any given case

on the two strings, as described
or no, place paper riders
in the
first
chapter
If one of the
[5].
rubbed with the bow so that
on
note, all the riders placed
into the
But
air.
it
may
it
give
two
its
this string will
strings be
fundamental
be thrown up
same time,
will be observed at the
that the other string, which has not even been touched,
same phenomenon, although more feebly

thrown off.
also exhibits the

its riders
on the two
If the riders be replaced
the strings be touched at
the bow, a node

note
its
is
one,
This
same way
may
vibrate in
string will
which
way
all
the riders are thrown
the one corresponding to the
is
This means that the second string vibrates
middle node.
in the
and one of
set up in the middle, and a higher

The second string begins to vibrate of
accord in the same
off except
strings,
middle point and rubbed with
its
is
produced.
own
will also after a little hesitation be
as the
first.
be continued
any way
show that
the same way.
the
first
made
string being
to
whatever, the riders on the second

it
immediately begins to vibrate in
The vibrations
of the
first
string are trans-
mitted to the wooden bridge on which it rests, and thence

to the second string.
They are also transmitted from the
first
to the
vibratory
second string by means of the
movement
is
air,
But the vibratory movement of the second

longer takes place,
and the
the same in both strings.
if it is
give the same note as the
string
no
unable by vibrating alone to
first.
SYMPATHETIC VIBRATION.
To demonstrate
a
little
this, let
more, so that there
one of the strings be stretched
may
note between the two strings
The
first
string
may then
ical action of
for example, a semi-tone.
be rubbed
ever extent you please, but no

in the second.
be a sensible difference of
how and to whatis now observed
movement
was not therefore the purely mechanthe blow or shock given to the instrument
It
which produced in the previous instance the beautiful
phenomenon observed.
The following is another experiment, tending
Take a tuning-fork, mounted, as
the same law
:
to
show
is
usual,
on a wooden box.
Being rubbed with a bow, it gives a

Now take an organ-pipe, which
very clear pure note.
itself
would give the same
note.
Scarcely
is
it
made
to
sound near the tuning-fork, without, however, touching it,

than the tuning-fork is heard to reproduce the same note.
But the phenomenon no longer takes place, when instead

of the first pipe one is used which gives a different note
from that of the tuning-fork.
Two equal tuning-forks

marked manner.
exhibit this
phenomenon in a very
Even when placed
at a great distance
from each other, the one sounds directly the other sounds.
This no longer happens if the tuning-forks do not give the
same
note.
by taking two
convincing proof of this
may
be obtained
even by slightly
the
note
of
one
of
the
two
former tuning-forks by
altering
fastening,
branches.
different tuning-forks, or
by means
of
It will not
some wax, a small coin to one of
now
sound.
its
52
The following is a third method of demonstrating the

same law (fig. 19) Take a cylindrical glass jar a, and
:
Fig. 19.
make
a tuning-fork b vibrate over
tuning-fork
water into the

in
it is
jar,
The sound of the
however, the volume of the
gradually diminished.
more, a point
it.
not in the least reinforced.
is
is
By
By
pouring
air enclosed
pouring in more and
arrived at where the sound
is
considerably
more be poured in, the phenomenon ceases.

The quantity of water which must be put into the jar
reinforced.
If
in order to obtain the greatest possible reinforcement, can
thus be determined by a few
trials,
This point being
SAVART
53
S BELL.
found, let us next look for the cause of this reinforcement

of the sound.
Take the
jar
and blow gently across the upper edge
feeble note is produced
that of an organ-pipe,
tuning-fork.
If,
by
and
the vibration of the
air,
like
this note is exactly that of the
on the other hand, the water be poured
more be added, notes may be obtained by blowing in the same manner, but they are no longer the same
away, or
as the note given
by the tuning-fork.
The same conclusion

bell (fig. 20).
is
arrived at
A large bell
by means
of Savart's
a when rubbed by a bow pro-
Fig. 20.
duces a powerful note.
a movable bottom
brought near
it.
&,
By
A hollow
is
so
cylinder of wood, with
constructed that
it
cau be
altering the position of the movable
bottom, and thus modifying the internal dimensions of the

cylinder (the open end of which
is
turned towards the
54
bell),
is
the point at which the reinforcement of the sound
greatest
siderable
When
is
The
easily found.
when
the cylinder
is
the sound of the bell
effect
obtained
con-
is
brought near.
is still
strong, the reinforce-
ment produced by the cylinder is very sensible. The

effect is still more remarkable when the sound of the bell
is
allowed to diminish so that
bringing the cylinder nearer,

4.
it
it
can scarcely be heard
on
becomes very marked.
These experiments demonstrate, then, that the rein-
forcement of a sound only takes place
when
there are
A.
JPig. 21.
other bodies in the neighbourhood of the sounding body
themselves capable of giving the same note.
This im-
portant law of resonance has been applied to many cases.

The sounding-board is founded on this law.
In fact,
tuning-forks give a very feeble sound by themselves.
They
are therefore often
mounted on wooden boxes,
as in
HELMHOLTZ'S RESONATOR.
55
where the tuning-fork AC is attached to the box

that supports it by means of the foot B.
fig.
21,
The boxes have
different dimensions, according to the
dimensions of their tuning-forks, and enclose a quantity

of air determined for each note.
They considerably
rein-
sound of the tuning-fork, provided that their

dimensions have been well chosen.
force the
An
interesting form of sounding-board,
quired a great importance of late years,
spheres or even cylinders of different
two
apertures.
which has
ac-
that called Helm-
These resonators are hollow metallic
resonator.
Iwltz's
is
One
a,
sizes,
furnished with
the larger, only serves to maintain
a communication between the external air and that in the
sphere the other b, the smaller, has the form of an orifice

with an elongated neck, and is intended to be inserted in
;
the ear
[figs.
22 and 23].
Pig. 22.
For
use, it is necessary to
nators of different sizes.
volume
of air that
it
have a
Each
series of these reso-
of them, according to the
contains, reinforces one single note
56
the larger ones serve for the low, the smaller for the high
notes.
The
spherical resonators are really the best, and give
the clearest phenomena.
Nevertheless, a cylindrical and
Pig. 28.
even conical form
is
sometimes adopted, because they are
more readily held in the hand, and
more
are therefore
convenient to manage.
It is easy to
show that these resonators
reinforce musical
If a series
sounds, and each one only one particular note.
of tuning-forks, which give notes corresponding to those
of the resonators, be taken, the sound of each fork

forced
still
by
its
This effect
corresponding resonator.
is
rein-
may
be
better observed if the point of the resonator be intro-
duced into one ear and the other be closed with the hand.
It is to be noticed that
effect unless it
no resonator will produce
be combined with
its
this
corresponding tuning-
fork.
Let us suppose that there are a number of notes mixed

together, our ears then separate them with difficulty.
But
if
an observer wishes
these there
is
to
know whether amongst
some one particular
note,
the corresponding resonator and hold
note in question
is there, it
it
he need only take

to his ear.
will be reinforced,
will easily be able to distinguish
it
all
amongst
If the
and thus he
all
the others
RESONATORS AND SOUNDING-BOARDS.
An
example of
number
kind
this
of suitable tuning
a very agreeable
is
-
57
easily to be found.
forks be
If a
sounded together,
will be produced, in which,
harmony
however, an unpractised ear would not perhaps be able to

distinguish the individual notes composing
of resonators
it is
By means
it.
To take another
quite easy to do so.
example, the human voice is very rich in notes, and

even when merely speaking, we modulate the voice much
more than is generally believed. If a resonator be taken
and held
to the ear while
natural voice,
the observer speaks in his
now and then he
every
perceive in the resonator the note to
which
signifies
that amongst the
will
which
many
it
distinctly
corresponds,
notes which he
the particular one to which the
uses in speaking, there
is
resonator corresponds.
He could thus with a little patience
analyse successively
all
the notes used
by a person whilst
speaking.
In a
later chapter, following the
I will show what use can be
example of Helmholtz,
made
of the employment of
show [chapter ix.] how one of the
most important and most delicate laws may be observed
and followed by this means.
these resonators.
The
case
of resonators
described above
the
an
earlier
forming part
of
certain
musical
The sonometer, which has been described

chapter, the violin and other stringed instru-
ments, the pianoforte,

7
and of the sounding-boards
must not be confounded with that of
sounding-boards
instruments.
in
I will
&c.,
have sounding-boards intended
58
to reinforce not only one note alone, but all the notes in
turn,
and
a uniform extent.
to
as far as possible
It
would be a very bad musical instrument in which the

different notes had not the same loudness, when the
method
of producing
them
of these sounding-boards
and
not easy to follow.
is
the same.
The theory
much more
complicated,
is
is
will confine
saying, that in order to obtain this effect
myself to
it is
necessary
that the sounding-board be relatively very large, and that

it
In
should have a particular shape determined by experience.

this case the sounding-board corresponds to a
note, and
that
to
it
is
very low
subject, like a vibrating string, to such laws
corresponds not only to the lower note, but also
many
successively higher notes.
If the lowest note be very low,
notes that their
it
can reinforce so
number may be considered
many
infinite.
This takes place especially in the case of plates,
mem-
branes, and large vibrating boards, and practice shows that

all that is wanted in the way of reinforcing notes can be
obtained.
CHAPTER
1.
IV.
MEASURE or THE NUMBER OP VIBRATIONS; THE GRAPHIC METHOD

2.
CAGNIARD DE LA TOUR'S SIREN
3.
PITCH OP SOUNDS
LIMIT or
AUDIBLE SOUNDS, OF MUSICAL SOUNDS AND 0* THE HUMAN VOICE

4. THE "NORMAL PITCH"
5. LAWS OF THE VIBRATIONS OF A STRING,
AND OF HARMONICS.
1.
THE second
is
their pitch.
Every
ear,
however
tinguishes a high note from a

interval
is
of musical
characteristic quality
not large.
when
one, even
the
I propose to demonstrate that the
number of
pitch depends on the
low
sounds
little practised, dis-
vibrations that
body makes in each second of time, in such a
a sounding
way
that the
low notes are characterised by the small number, the high

notes by the large
number
of their vibrations per second.
In order to solve this problem,

another:
how
mined
There are
the
number
we must
of vibrations
many methods
is
first
solve
to be deter-
in physics used for this
purpose.
One method
have already to a great extent indicated

by means of which the vibrations of
the graphic method,
chapter.
In that
of a cylinder, turned
by hand.
a tuning-fork were traced in the
experiment use was
made
first
Naturally the motion could not be very regular, but
if in-
THE THEOEY OF SOUND.
60
stead of the hand, use
is
made
of one of the
many mechani-
motion can easily be

obtained and further, the velocity of this motion may be
cal equivalents, a perfectly regular

;
determined.
Suppose, for example, that the cylinder has a
velocity of one turn per second
record
its vibrations,
we have
the tuning-fork will then
to know their number per second

how many there are in one complete
and
only to count
turn of the cylinder. The calculation

cylinder
is
equally simple if the
makes any other number of turns in a second. If,

makes five, we have only to
for example, the cylinder only
count the vibrations in five turns, and the determination

will be accurate, if the
makes per second

possible,
is
number
of turns that the cylinder
accurately determined.
and I will describe
later
This
on a very simple
is
often
counter,
by which the number of turns of a rotating apparatus is

The problem may then be solved by this
measured.
a tuning-fork are
means, as far as the vibrations of

concerned.
2.
At
this point it
becomes necessary
to
make
the reader
acquainted with another instrument, which answers this purpose to perfection, and which offers the advantage over the
turning cylinder of not requiring for
its
use a slight change
of the note, for a point has to be attached to the vibrating
tuning-fork to trace
its
vibrations.
Cagniard de la Tour's Siren.
This instrument
Figs. 24, 25,
arrangement of the instrument.
is
and 26 show the
It consists of a hollow
box BBB, which by means of its neck

can be put in communication with a blower capable of
empty
cylindrical
CAGNIARD DE LA
furnishing a constant current of

the cylinder are a certain
In the upper end of
air.
number
of equidistant holes,
disposed on the periphery of a circle

outline of the rim
itself.
61
TOUIi'S SIREN.
concentric to the
These holes are
all oblique,
so
I
Fig. 25.
Fig. 24.
Fig. 26.
an angle of about 45 with the vertical line.

Over these holes is a metal disc C, which covers them
as to form
entirely,
axis A.
and which
is
able to turn rapidly
This disc carries an equal
on a
number
vertical
of holes,
corresponding exactly in position and size with the holes

in the disc below.
These holes are also oblique, but in a
different direction, and form an angle of about 45 with

the vertical, but an angle of 90 with the direction of the
holes beneath.
Fig.
25 shows the section of the two
discs,
the fixed one and the movable one, as well as the arrange-
ment
of the holes.
The holes p slope
in one direction
and
Fig. 26 is a drawing in section of

p
the whele apparatus, in which is shown the hollow cylindri-
the holes
in the other.
62
cal
box
on which
cylinder
movable disc CE, and the axis
of the siren, the

it
When a current of air is forced into the
turns.
by means
of the blower, this current passes,
true, through the holes
a series of impulses,
it is
but on account of their obliquity, it
strikes against their sides.
begins to turn.
Aa
all in
The movable
disc thus receives
the same direction, and therefore
when the current is strong,

weak by suitably control-
It turns quickly
and slowly when the current
is
ling the blower, the force of the current can be regulated at
and through
will,
the velocity of rotation of the movable
it
disc.
But the current of

regular
jet,
mittently as
turn.
air that
enters the cylinder in a
can only pass out through the holes intersoon as the movable disc has begun to
The reason
passes out at the
for this is
The
very simple.
moments when the
disc
when
number
it is,
on the
between the holes
It follows that the air
of the siren in the form of little puffs,
frequent as the
the holes in the movable
are over the unperforated parts
in the fixed disc.
only
holes in the movable
disc coincide with the holes in the fixed disc
other hand, intercepted
air
of holes in the
must come out
which will be more
two
discs
and the velocity of rotation of the movable disc
is
greater,
is greater.
Suppose, for example, that each disc has twenty-five holes,

as is the case in the siren I
are
am now
describing [twelve
shown in the drawing, but the number
is arbitrary].
Suppose further that the velocity of rotation is one turn

per second of time. In this case each hole in the upper
63
THE COUNTER.
disc will give out twenty-five puffs of air in a second of
time.
however, the movable disc makes
If,
turns in a second, I
i.e.,
25
by
2,
of holes
the
3,
number
or generally
&c.,
4,
number
of turns, to find the
2, 3, 4, &c.,
must multiply the number
by
of puffs of air produced
by
very pure note
is
each hole per second.
When
the siren
formed, low at
set in action, a
is
when the disc turns slowly, but higher
first
The note is produced
as the velocity of the disc increases.
because the external air over the instrument
by the
regularly
puffs of
from the
air
is
struck
These
siren.
periodical blows produce vibrations in the external
number
the
to the
of
number
of blows received per second.
therefore produce at will,
we
note
time
please,
number
be
it,
by
number
we can
vibrations
of
as there is a
of turns
We
can
controlling the blower, any
high or low
it
the
calculate
corresponding to
the
air,
which per second evidently corresponds
means
at the
same*
per second
of determining
that the instrument
makes
in
second of time.
The very simple counter, which is placed at the top of

the instrument, and which is represented in fig. 26,
answers
this
purpose.
To
the
fixed a vertical steel arbor Aa,
end a few turns S of what
The teeth
that
it
of a toothed wheel
disc.
To the
carries at its
CF
is
upper
an
endless screw.
EH gear into
this screw, so
is
moves forward one tooth
and movable
movable disc
which
called
for
one turn of the arbor
axis of the toothed wheel is
64
fastened a hand, like that of a clock
graduated
circle enables its
[see
movements, and by
on the
circle corresponds to
its
Each
those of the toothed wheel, to be observed.
24]; a
fig.
means
division
one tooth of the wheel, or one
revolution of the movable disc of the siren.
The toothed
wheel has 100 teeth, therefore the divisions under the
hand are hundredth
round an internal
parts, arranged
second toothed wheel, with a second hand
and a second
set of divisions, is so arranged that for each
periphery.
revolution of the
and
hand one
its
first
wheel
it
moves forward one tooth
Its divisions show, therefore,
division.
each hundred turns, whilst those of the

single turns of the
movable
first
show the
disc of the siren.
This system enables us easily to determine the number

of turns
it
may
To
made by
the siren in a given time, even though
be very high.
facilitate
the counting, the toothed wheel can be
brought near to the main arbor and moved away from it

at will by means of the button a (fig. 24), which allows of
a small displacement ; the wheel is thus put in action for
as long as
may
be desired, and
The instrument
may
be stopped at
will.
Suppose we wish
thus used.
is
to
determine the number of vibrations per second which
We have
corresponds to the note of a tuning-fork.

(1.)
way
To reproduce with the

as to
keep
it
siren the
same note in such
constant for a certain length of
time.
(2.)
This being
obtained,
to
set
in
action
stop-
THE
watch and the counter of the

the number
65
SIREN.
siren,
and thus
to determine
of turns per second.
These two operations are easily performed.

result is obtained
note of the siren
and
is
at first
first
The
very low, then rises slowly,
some time remains constant.
after
The
by suitably loading the blower.
The reason
of
this constancy is this, that the current of air is just able
overcome the friction of the instrument
to
But say the note
velocity.
then in order to get up to

more.
The note
for this given
of the tuning-fork is higher

it,
the blower must be loaded
rises suddenly,
and
after a
few
trials
found which must be put on the blower in

order to reproduce the note of the tuning-fork and keep it
the weight
is
The note keeps constant for a certain length of

which the second operation can be easily
steady.
time, during
This being arranged, the exact position of
completed.
the pointers
is
observed, the stop-watch
afterwards, at a
chosen moment,
which
in
left
is
is
is set
going,
and so
the counter of the siren,
action for ten seconds.
It is always
somewhat long time rather than

one second only, because in the former case a small
error committed in setting the counter going is less felt
better to operate for a
for
than in the
When
counter
the
is
stopped, and from the position of the pointers
number
seconds
latter.
the ten seconds have elapsed, the action of the
of turns
made by
the instrument in ten
is seen.
In this case say there are 358 turns in ten seconds
66
that
is
to say, that 35'8 turns correspond to
To know now the number
one second.
of vibrations per second, since
the disc of the siren has 25 holes, 3 5 '8 must be multiplied
by
25,
second.
which gives 895 as the number of vibrations per

The tuning-fork in question, therefore, produces
a note of 895 vibrations per second of time.
we can
operated in this case, so
The
whatsoever.
siren lends itself admirably to researches
It only requires a practised ear to be able
of this nature.
Whether we wish
to reproduce exactly a particular note.
have recourse
to
method, or whether
to the graphic
wish to make use of the

of determining the
or,
As we have
operate in any other case
we have
siren,
number
we
acquired the power
of vibrations of very
many,
I might say, of all notes.

3.
Let us
now
consider the more important results
which have been arrived
at
on
this point,
by a minute
and accurate examination of the facts.
What
is
the limit of audible sounds
perceive, as a note,
or
is
our
That there
any number
Does our ear
of vibrations whatever,
perception confined between certain limits?

is
a lower limit
by means of the siren.

and at first turns very
however, begins
easily be demonstrated
the siren
is
perceived.
the siren turns a
more exact experiments
is
set in action,
slowly, the single puffs of air are
heard singly, but no note
when
may
When
it
is
A very low note,

little faster.
By
found that there must be at
least sixteen vibrations in a second of time in order to
produce a note
and
this limit is only reached
by using a
LIMIT OF AUDIBLE SOUNDS.
very powerful instrument
that
somewhat loud
able to give a
to say,
is
note.
for instance, in the case of the
67
an instrument
In other cases
common
siren
as,
twenty or
must take place per second,
twenty-five vibrations
in
order to produce an appreciable note.

It is
more
a high limit for sound.
difficult to fix
If
the blower be successively loaded, the siren turns faster
the note grows sharper and sharper, and at
and
faster,
last
becomes
nary siren
it
shrill
and
disagreeable.
would not be possible
above a certain
limit,
But with an
ordi-
to obtain a velocity
because the friction would prevent
To
a very high velocity.
solve
the problem, Despretz
and smaller tuning-forks, and finally

succeeded in demonstrating that there is an upper limit
made use
for sound,
of smaller
beyond which our ear perceives nothing.
This limit was fixed by
him
at very nearly
38,000
vibrations in a second, a figure that has been finally con-
firmed by Helmholtz
different individuals.
vibrations
lie
but
it is
We may
probable that
it differs
in
conclude that sonorous
between the limits 16 and
38,000 per
second.
But
all
the notes
comprised between these extreme
limits are not musical notes, properly so called

say, notes advantage of which
The notes that
are too
is
that
is
to
taken in practical music.
low are badly heard
those that are
too high are unpleasant.
In the modern pianoforte of seven complete octaves, the

A corresponds to about 27J, the highest A to 3480
base
68
vibrations per second.
Therefore, taking into account the
differences of tuning,
it
may
be said that the notes of the
pianoforte range from 27 to 3500 vibrations per second.
In the
the fourth open string [the lowest note]

the highest note
violin,
about 193 vibrations;
corresponds to
be fixed at about 3500.
may
This
number
is not,
however, the highest.
Some
piano-
which corresponds to about

go up
4200 and with the piccolo 4700 and more vibrations per
second are reached.
But the real gain that music has
to the seventh C,
fortes
from so great an extension is very doubtful.

Notes that are too high are shrill, and lose entirely that
realised
sweet quality which constitutes the principal characteristic of musical notes.

It may be concluded, without
full,
exaggeration, that musical notes are comprised between
27 and 4000 vibrations per second.
The question
between which
ing
it,
of the
we must
as
many
sions
voice,
and of the limits
interesting.
In consider-
distinguish between the voice of men
The
and of women.
human
acts, is also
it
latter is represented
by about twice
vibrations per second as that of men.
are
made
classes of voice
for
:
thus there
and tenor voices;

and soprano voices.
Subdivi-
musical purposes in each of these

are, for
men,
bass, baritone,
for
women, contralto, mezzo-soprano,

The following table shows the limits
of each of these voices for a normal case, as they
reasonably be expected from a good and practised
The
may
singer.
figures written in brackets represent cases of excep-
EXTENT AND LIMITS OF VOICES.
Extent and Limits of the

.
[B=
(D
61]
Baritone
73)
Tenor
(G
Bass
Mezzo-soprano
Soprano
(G
E=
F=
AE=
F=
98)
= 110)
(E = 164)
Contralto
to the
which the stage has produced up
tional voices
present time
69
(C
A=
196)
Human
82
87
109
164
174
218
D=
=
F|
A=
F=
A=
=
Voice.
293
[F
370 [G
435 (C
696 (A
870
1044
(B
=
=
=
=
(E
348]
392]
544)*
870)
976)
1305)
The well-developed voice of a single singer embraces

about two octaves in the case of women a little more.
,
The extreme
limits
the
of
human
voice
[man's and
woman's combined] may be fixed within four octaves,

from C = 65 up to C
1044, certain extreme cases not
included.f
4.
question of some practical importance has latterly
been raised and solved: that of establishing a uniform

pitch for all countries, so as to make it possible to tune
For the purpose of tuning musi-
instruments uniformly.
cal instruments,
which gives the
a small tuning-fork
A which
string of the violin,
the
and
is
generally used,
corresponds to the second

is
A, counting from the lowest note.
fifth
open
in a seven-octave pianoforte
All the
* Tambcrlik's
overpraised C$.
t Certain marvellously gifted voices have had more extended limits ;
the voices of Cruvelli, Catalani, Patti, and Nilsson will always be celethis.
The highest voice seems to be that of Bastardctta, whom
Mozart heard at Parma in 1770, which had three and a half octaves, and
went up almost to 2000 vibrations.
Also the voice of eunuchs, and
brated for
especially that of the celebrated
FarhuUi, have a very great range.
70
theatres
different
of
Italy
and
pitches differing from each other

theatre
1700,
it
Europe have adopted

and even in the same
At Paris, in
goes on gradually rising.
was 405 later on, 425 in 1855, 440 and in
the
This last number has
1857, 448 vibrations per second.

since remained
steady at the Berlin Theatre; but the
Milan corresponds to 45 1J, and that

of Covent Garden Theatre at London to 455 vibrations
pitch of the Scala at
per second.
This state of things was very unpleasant to singers,

for
whom
differing
when
the
it
it
so
is
effect,
was no easy matter

sensibly
in
countries,
especially
remembered that modern music, to increase

is written very much on the extreme notes,
and especially on the high

great call
to satisfy requirements
different
upon the
singers.
ones,
To
and therefore makes a

this
may
be added the
tendency of the manufacturers of musical instruments,
and especially of brass instruments, to
raise the pitch
continually, in order to give a greater brilliancy of tone to

their instruments.
As may be seen from

century until
the example given of the rise of
it
thus came about that from the last
now
the pitch had been rising considerably
pitch at Paris,
everywhere, and had a tendency to rise
still
higher.
It
was therefore necessary to find a remedy for so grave an

inconvenience, and an international commission fixed as
the normal pitch (usually called the diapason normal) a
tuning-fork giving 435 vibrations per second of time.
THE HARMONIC
5.
I will close this
tant law, at which
71
SERIES.
chapter by demonstrating an impor-
we
arrive
by studying the number of
When
the vibrations per second of a string.

string vibrates in one vibration,
it
gives
which I have called the fundamental

be divided, by touching
the whole
lowest note,
its
If the string
note.
with the finger or a feather,
it
and higher notes

called an harmonic
into two, three, four, &c., parts, higher
are obtained,
which form that which
The notes of
scries.
taken at random.
this
They
harmonic
is
series
are not notes
are very agreeable to the ear in
fundamental note, and have great importance, as we shall see in the sequel, in the theory of music
relation to the
and of musical instruments.

there
is
method
It
may
be asked, then,
if
a simple law to regulate these notes, as the

o f their production
To answer
is
so simple.
this question, all that is
needed
is
to deter-
mine the number
of vibrations of the string for the funda-
mental note, and
for the successive
Carefully
repeated
relations exist
between
for example, that the
tions per second
by dividing the
harmonic
experiments
show that
these notes.
all
notes.
simple
Let us suppose,
fundamental note makes 128 vibra-
the second harmonic, which

string into
two
parts,
is
obtained
then makes twice
128 vibrations, or 256 per second; the third harmonic,

which is obtained by dividing the string into three parts,
makes three times 128,

fourth harmonic, which
or
string into four
makes
parts,
384 vibrations per second the

from the division of the
;
arises
four
times 128, or 512
72
vibrations per second, and so on.
fundamental note
Therefore, calling the
the harmonic notes will be exactly
1,
represented, in respect of their vibrations per second,
the whole numbers,
2, 3, 4,
&c.
considering the
By
by
mode
of formation of these notes, the following two laws are

arrived at
(1.)
The harmonics
increase, in respect of the
their vibrations per second, as the

(2.)
The number
number
of
whole numbers.
of vibrations per second of a string
always varies inversely as its length.

This second law holds for all cases, even when a string
is shortened in any manner whatever
on the sonometer
;
accomplished in a very simple manner.

Besides the two fixed bridges on which the string rests,
this shortening is
there
a third movable bridge, by means of which the
is
string can be shortened at will.
scale of centimetres
and millimetres allows the length of the effective part of

the string to be measured in any case.
A sonometer
constructed in this
shortest
means
manner
The operation
of a note.
affords
of determining the
is
the
in its whole length (one metre),
it
gives a
when
diate use.
is
thus tuned, the sonometer
If
it
be desired to
know
is
the
The
vibrating
known, constant
for example, one of 128 vibrations per second.
the string
and
of vibrations
performed as follows
string of the sonometer is stretched so that
note
simplest
number
When
ready for imme-
number
tions of a given musical sound, that note
is
of vibra-
exactly
reproduced by sliding the bridge along, and so shortening
USE OF THE SONOMETER.

the string; the scale under the string gives
73
its
Let this be, for example, 432 millimetres
number
string,
new
then, as the
of vibrations varies inversely as the length of the
we
arrive at the following proportion
432
Whence
1000
128
^^-
296
Therefore the note makes 296 vibrations per second.
This method of determining the number of the vibrations is the simplest of
all.
of sufficient accuracy, and
It is capable of giving results
may
la we of the vibrations of strings
be adopted directly the
have been established.
CHAPTEE
1.
MUSICAL SOUNDS
4.
BEATS
2.
LAW
OF SIMPLE RATIO
THEIR EXPLANATION
5.
OCTAVES AND OTHER HARMONICS

LIMITS
THE MAJOR
9.
THIRD AND SIXTH
1.
V.
10.
3.
6.
UNISON, INTERFERENCE
KESULTANT NOTES
AND THIRD
THE SEVENTH HARMONIC.
FIFTH, FOURTH, SIXTH,
IT has been shown in the last chapter that
sounds
In order that a sound
character,
THE MINOR
all
the
nature are not musical sounds, properly so
in
called.
7.
CONSONANT CHORDS AND THEIR
8.
it
must
may
acquire a musical
satisfy the essential condition of being
agreeable to the ear.
on
It is
this account that all the
sounds produced by imperfect instruments must be reAll those, also,

jected, whatever may be their pitch.
which are too high or too low must be rejected as
either
There remain, therefore, the
disagreeable or insignificant.
comprised between about 27 and 4000 vibrations

per second, which form an interval of a little more than
seven octaves, between which limits the music of all
notes
countries and all nations
But
it
would be a grave
or at hazard.
may
written.
error to suppose that
between
the notes can be used arbitrarily

Experience shows that any one of these
the limits hinted
notes
is
at, all
be chosen in executing or beginning a piece
MUSICAL SOUNDS.
But when once
of music.
others that are to follow or
w- move
75
this note is selected, all the
accompany
in a very restricted circle.
it
This
are limited,
is
and
not only the
case in our modern music, but also holds good for the
music of every epoch. There is no instance known of a
musical system, however barbarous it may be, in which
the choice of the notes
is left to
poser or performer.
The history
trary, teaches us that
it
the fancy of the comof music,
on the con-
has always been sought to
select,
from the enormous number of possible notes, an infinitely
more
rules, in
by
number, according to certain established

which musical instinct was at times influenced
restricted
scientific
preference
theories.
tions
theories of greater or less value, giving the
to
We
one and
sometimes to another of
will consider later
such
on the different concep-
which instinctively or rationally have guided
nations in the historical development of music.
different
For the
content myself by saying that in our

modern music, art has outstripped science with rapid
strides, and it is only quite recently that the latter has
present I will
been able to give a complete and rational explanation of

the former has effected by means of delicate
what
aesthetic feeling.
2.
It
may
be established as one of the fundamental
principles of our music, that the ear can only endure

notes, be they simultaneous or successive,
tion
namely, that they should
other in respect of the
number of
"bear
on
this condi-
simple ratios to each
their vibrations per second;
76
that
to say, that the ratio of the
is
number
of vibrations
per second of the notes should be expressed by low

numbers. All the bearings of this simple principle will
be pointed out in a later chapter, and since, thanks to the

great researches of Helmholtz,
notwithstanding
I will for
significance,
its
such a subject.
figures,
road
is
has acquired of late years,
an even simpler and wider

the present content myself with
more important consequences.

not without some hesitation that
indicating
It is
it
its simplicity,
I shall
and indeed
I enter
have to go through a
to argue entirely
upon
upon
series of
figures.
The
rather a rough and thorny one, but I trust that,
like the traveller
who
courageously climbs the steep and
mountain in order
to enjoy at last a vast

rugged
and magnificent panorama, so from the highest peak of this
sides of a
argument a vast horizon will open out before the reader,

in which he will discover the synthesis of one of the'-'
grandest creations of the imagination
itself
forms one of the
history of
3.
human
most
a creation that in
brilliant
pages
in
the
culture.
The most simple
ratio that
can be imagined between
the vibrations per second of two notes
is
that in which
both are represented by the same number of vibrations.
The two notes
are then said to be in unison.
If they be
form
one
more prothey only
longed note if they be sounded together, they only give
It sometimes happens,
one note of double loudness.
sounded one
after the other,
however, that two equal notes, instead of supporting each
INTERFERENCE.
77
other, are enfeebled in their effects.
due
are
to
what
is
Cases of this kind
called interference.
This happens
whenever the vibrations of the two notes are made in the

reverse
the
way
first
that
whilst the other

It
is
is
note makes a
to say,
when
movement
makes a
the vibrating body of
in one given direction,
precisely contrary
movement.
evident that such opposing vibratory movements
must destroy each other's effect, when superposed

air in which they are propagated; as a particle
in the
of air
which ought to move at the same time and with the

same force in two opposite directions, not being able to
follow either, remains at rest.
Pig. 27.
The apparatus represented

duce interference at
plate
in which
vibrating
will.
a Chladni's
segments
in
It is
B, A'
fig.
27 enables us
composed
is formed by the
The vibrations in two
figure
B'.
to pro-
of a vibrating
78
contiguous segments, as A' and
inasmuch
rise,
when
as
and
vice versa;
segments, as at
which gives by
when
they are
and
itself
closed at the top
A'.
If
A'
at
similar
DCE
is
fall,
those at B'
two opposite
in
a bifurcated pipe
the same note as the plate, and
is
by a paper membrane, which serves,
sprinkled with sand,
in the pipe.
B', are contrary, or reverse,
the particles
now
to
indicate
the vibrations
the plate be caused to vibrate,
and some sand be sprinkled on it to indicate its mode

of vibration, two points having similar vibrations, as
and
A',
may
be selected, and the branches of the
pipe placed over them, without, however, allowing them
sand on the membrane will then dance
to touch; the
about and dispose itself regularly, which shows that the

and A'
air in the pipe vibrates, because the vibrations of
support each other in producing this

points having
effect.
an opposite motion, as A' and
Again, two
B',
may
be
and the branches of the pipe placed over them

the effect will then be nil, and the sand will not move.
selected
From
all this
we may
conclude that when two equal and
simultaneous vibratory movements are superimposed, they

support each other, but that, on the other hand, their
destroyed if they are equal
and
effect is
opposite.
The question is interesting as to what happens when

the two notes produced are almost though not quite
4.
identical,
and have not therefore quite the same number
of vibrations per second.
known by
the
name
A new phenomenon then appears,
of beats.
BEATS.
79
In order to show what these beats really are, the followTwo large equal organing experiment may be adopted.
pipes are taken which give
together,
we
which
ness,
two low,
strong, identical
These being attached to a blower, and sounded
notes.
obtain the same note, only of double loud-
obtained by sounding either pipe without

But the pipes are so made that it is easy
is
the other.
For this purpose

an aperture in the upper part of one of the walls
of each pipe closed by a movable plate, by lowering
which more or less the aperture in the pipe can be opened
slightly to alter the note of either.
there
is
to a greater or less extent; the effect thus produced
is
by shortening the pipe. The

and by means of the movable plate
similar to that obtained
note
it
is
can be regulated at
Now
raised.
is
slightly raised,
let
will.
the note of one of the two pipes be slightly
The
between the notes of the two pipes
difference
so small that even a practised ear can scarcely perceive
it for
such low notes.
together, a
sound
strong and now

are perceived.
is
But
if
the two pipes be sounded
obtained of varying loudness,
feeble,
now
and very marked jerks or shocks
These shocks are the beats.
If the dif-
ference between the notes of the two pipes be very small,
the beats will be very slow, not more perhaps than one
in the second
but
if,
on the other hand, the difference
be increased by raising the note of the

will
become more
frequent.
By
first
pipe, they
suitably regulating the
note of one of the pipes by means of the movable plate,
80
and leaving the other untouched, 2, 3, 4,

per second may be obtained. In the last
count them
or 10 beats
5,
case,
however,
but they are distinctly

audible, and remain so up to 20 or even 25 per second,
it
difficult
is
to
beyond that the ear
is
no longer able to distinguish
them.
Beats of this kind are very common.
They
are
more
especially heard in instruments with fixed strong notes, as,

for
example, in the organ.
instrument
correct
is
method
into unison.
They
are a sure sign that the
not well tuned, and afford a very simple and

of bringing
two
slightly differing notes
All -that need be done
is
to tune
them
until
the beats cease.
In the sound of bells the phenomenon of beats is very

In fact, it is not possible to cast a large bell so
common.
that
it
may
present at every point a perfect homogeneity
and an equal density and elasticity. The bell, therefore,

easily divides into two not perfectly equal parts, which by
vibrating somewhat differently produce beats.
5.
If
It is easy to
understand
how these beats
are produced.
two notes make exactly the same number of vibrations
per second, except in the special case of interference,
which will not be here taken into account, the vibrations

of the two bodies coincide,
double loudness
same
be
pitch, the
but
if
and a note
is
produced of
the two notes be not of exactly the
phenomenon
is
more complicated. Let it

makes 100
supposed, for example, that the first note
vibrations in a second,
and the other 101.
BEATS.
81
If they be sounded together, the first vibrations will
almost correspond with each other, their effects will be
added together, and a louder note will be produced. But

first, the second note will
at the fiftieth vibration of the
have accomplished
fifty
and a half
But
vibrations.
as a
vibration always has one half in which the vibrating body
moves in one
direction,
moves in the opposite
and another half in which
it
direction, it follows that at the
and the corresponding

half vibration of the second, the movements will be
contrary, and the note will therefore be sensibly deadened,
fiftieth
vibration of the
or at least
more or
first
first
To the
less considerably enfeebled.
hundredth vibration of the
hundred and
note,
first
note corresponds the one
vibration of the second, and from this
point they again reinforce each other, and so on.

is
It
thus seen that for each difference of one vibration
there
must be one strengthening and one enfeebling of
the note
fore,
if
that
is
to say, one beat per second.
there be two notes, which differ
10 vibrations per second, there will be
and the number of
beats per second;
easily observed, gives a very exact
by
2,
There-
2,
3,
beats,
3,
4,
4, 5,
5,
which
measure of the
10
is
differ-
ence between the number of vibrations per second of the
two
notes.
This
a very safe, practical method for
is
determinations of this
sort,
because
it
is
independent, so
to speak, of the ear, or, at all events, does not require a
very delicate
ear.
The phenomenon
9
of beats
is
not only observed
when
82
two notes are almost in unison, but even more when the
two notes are
number
to each other, in respect to their
vibrations per
second, almost, but
other simple proportion.
of
not quite, in some
Let, for example, the
number
of
their vibrations per second be as one to two, then, if the
proportion
is
no beats;
exact, there will be
if,
on the
other hand, the proportion be not exact, the beats are at
once heard.
In order
to
show
the fundamental note and

slightly altered at will.
this,
its
take two pipes giving
octave,
and which can be
If they be perfectly tuned
sounded together, there are no

agreeable, like one clearer and
beats,
and
and the harmony is

but if one of
fuller note
the two notes be ever so slightly altered, immediately

Itunpleasant beats appear, which spoil the harmony.
is easy, by an analogous reasoning to the foregoing, to
It is enough, however, here to
explain this phenomenon.
draw
this conclusion, that the beats are the simplest
and
most sure means of observing that two notes are not so

tuned that their vibrations may be represented by a simple
ratio.
But
as simple ratio is a necessary condition in
be produced which shall be
order that harmonies
may
agreeable to the ear,
follows that the presence of beats
is
it
a sure proof that an instrument

6.
In
strict relation to
the
is
not properly tuned.
phenomenon
of beats,
and
as
a necessary consequence to the combination of two notes,

are
those
notes whose
discovery,
middle of the last century,
is
made towards
the
generally attributed to the
celebrated violinist Tartini, and to which the
name
of
RESULTANT NOTES.
resultant
given.
notes,
sometimes
or
difference notes,
The theory of these notes
Hitherto
has been held that
it
83
is
when
is
usually
not easy to give.

the beats become
very rapid, so as to be more than 16 per second, they

generate on their own account a very low note, which is
the resultant note.
If there be
one which
two notes
makes 100, and the other 125 vibrations per second they
which will generate a note
will give 25 beats a second,
There are thus three notes
of 25 vibrations a second.
the original two of 100 and 125, and the resultant note
of 25 vibrations per second.
But
this explanation,
and however well
it
may
however simple
it
may
correspond to the results,
to certain serious objections
on which
it is
appear,
is
open
impossible to
The true theory of resultant notes can only be

given by means of mathematical calculation.
dwell.
All that need here be said
is,
that resultant notes are
really difference notes in this sense, that the

their
vibrations
difference of the vibrations per second of the
bined notes.
number
per second really corresponds
to
of
the
two com-
Thus in the example given above, when two
notes are combined together, one of 100 and the other of
125 vibrations per second, a resultant note is obtained

which really corresponds to 25 vibrations per second.
These resultant notes
by means
may be
experimentally observed
two organ-pipes, one making 200 and the

other 250 vibrations per second, giving a harmony; which
is
of
represented by the ratio
|,
and which, as will be seen
84
later on, is called a
major
together, besides these
heard, which
When
third.
two
notes, a
is
very clearly
corresponds to 50 vibrations per second,
number which
is
the fourth part of 200, or the half of
on that the half means
It will be seen later
the half.
they are sounded
low note
the lower octave of a note, therefore the half of the half

signifies
two octaves below
same
this
that the resultant note which
note.
It follows
formed ought to be the

second octave below of the note of 200 vibrations a
second, which with a
is
attention
little
is
found to be the
fact.
whenever
Eesultaut notes are

different notes are
always present,
combined and there
rule for determining
a very simple
number of
vibrations per
them
the
two
is
second of the resultant note is always equal
to the difference
number of vibrations per second of the notes that

are combined. But as it is more important in the theory of
between the
sound
to
know
the ratios of the numbers of vibrations per
know
second of the different notes to each other than to

the absolute
different
number
of their vibrations per second, the
notes are expressed by whole numbers
such
being the case, the resultant note will also be expressed
by whole numbers.
In the example given above it may be said that the
notes 4 and 5 have been combined, since the ratio is
The
the same as that between 200 and 250.
note
is
then represented by the difference
The resultant notes have
resultant
1.
great importance in the theory
THE OCTAVE.
of music, as will be
shown
into account,
and
on in
later
they are frequently very loud,
85
it is
this chapter.
necessary to take
also their ratios to other notes.
If,
As
them
then,
combined together, it is not enough to

select those which by themselves will give an agreeable
harmony; it is necessary further to examine the resultant
several notes be
notes,
and
combined
It
may
how
to see
these will behave in relation to the
notes.
be added that these resultant notes are notes
that really exist.
It follows
from
they can
this that
combine with each other and produce new resultant

which are called resultant notes of the second
There are thus resultant notes of the
But
&c.
these
as
are
so
notes,
order.
third, fourth order,
very feeble
that
even a
practised ear cannot succeed in distinguishing them, in
most cases
it
is
not worth while to take them into
account.
7.
The next most simple
after unison is that of 1
That note
of the octave.
is
2.
ratio that
This
is
can be imagined
the ratio called that
called the octave of the funda-
mental note that makes twice the number of vibrations

per second.
means
too,
Doubling the number of vibrations of a note

it to its octave above, and vice versa.
So,
raising
reducing the number of vibrations per second of a
note to one-half, means descending to
The octave
vibrations
octave
of the octave
per
second
is
four
its
octave below.
represented by a
times
greater,
by a number eight times greater
number of
the
third
the second,
THE THEORY OF SOUND,
86
third, &c., octaves
below are expressed by
J, &c., of
J,
the vibrations per second of the fundamental note.
The harmony
is
of the octave with the fundamental note
When
very consonant.
in tune,
which
is
the two notes are perfectly
recognised by the complete absence of
beats, the ear does not
distinguish
two
single, open, clear note, as it were, is heard,
what modified
notes.
One
with a some-
timbre.
The Greeks, who did not use harmony, properly

called, in their music, nevertheless
octaves; which
is
easily understood,
bered that the voices of
singing
together,
admitted singing in
when
it
is
remem-
women and boys are an octave

men therefore a chorus,
higher than those of adult

all
so
must produce an accompaniment
in octaves.
The resultant note produced by the combination of

the notes 1 and 2 is again 1, which means, that in the
of the
harmony
its
octave the
resultant note serves to reinforce the fundamental note.
Other simple relations are furnished by the fundamental

note 1 united to one of the notes of the harmonic series
2, 3, 4, 5,
&c.
the octave
The note 2
the note 3
is
represents, as has
the twelfth, or as
been seen,
it
may
also
be called, for reasons which will be seen later on, the fifth
of the octave ; the note 4
is
the octave of the octave, &c.
All these notes form agreeable harmonies with the
fundamental note.
is
Their only defect, musically speaking,
that the intervals between
them and the fundamental
87
1C SERIES.
These
note are very great.
harmonies,
however,
are
certainly poor, but not unpleasant, and are especially

used on the violin and other stringed instruments. The
fundamental character of these harmonies
harmonic
is
that the
to
2,
that of 1 and
is
3,
and so on
the resultant notes of the second order are found,
we come
the
Thus, for example, the resultant note
series.
of 1 and 3
is,
arising from them also belong
notes
resultant
and
when
fundamental
to analyse them, to strengthen the
note.
8.
But music would be extremely poor
to limit
it
to these
were wished
few notes, although they are the most
Certain brass instruments, indeed, have no
natural ones.
other notes
if it
at
their
as,
disposition,
primitive keyless trumpet
example, the
for
but the melodies played on
such instruments are very restricted and monotonous.

Practical musicians, therefore, have been compelled to
go farther into the matter, and to see
if
they could not find
other ratios which, although more complicated than the

first,
it
would be
still
simple enough to be acceptable.
naturally follows, from the principle laid
head of this chapter, that the
less
at the
complicated the ratios,
the more perfect are the harmonies.

into
down
But
The introduction
music of more and more complicated harmonies has

made slowly and gradually. This must be
therefore been
considered as progress in the sense that
musical resources, but

of primitive purity.
it
is
progress
it
made
has increased
at the
expense
88
how far this has

and how much farther
Starting from this principle, let us see
been done up to the present time,
we can
reasonably go.
sufficient
apology
that music
ciples,
is
but that
What
has been said
for the opinion of those
is
of itself
who maintain
not the result of absolute aesthetic prinit is
rather the result of successive musical
education, an education which evidently primarily depends

on the aesthetic aspirations of different nations, and on the
state of their culture.
In
fact,
history shows that all bold
musical innovations have had to contend with immense

opposition, and it is convenient, though not consistent
with truth, to look upon such resistance as only rancour
or personal envy.
The true reason is, that there is no
mathematical expression by which to define with certainty

when a ratio is simple and when not and it is equally
;
difficult to establish
Whether
cated,
it
more
the ear
how
a sound ceases to be agreeable.
be more or less simple, more or less complior less agreeable,
it
depends on the habit of
far it will follow a bold innovation.
certain harmonies,
admissible,
when
In truth,
which are now considered perfectly
were not so considered in past
centuries,
especially in the early stages of music.

9.
is
The jump from the fundamental note 1 to its octave

very great, and leads to the inquiry, whether it be
not possible to introduce other notes in this interval.
The
study of the harmonic series here offers a good precedent.
In
fact
we have
&c., are consonant.
seen that the ratios 1:2, 1:3, 1

It
may
then be asked,
if
4,
the ratios
THE
89
FIFTH.
which result from taking another note of the harmonic

such as 2:3, 2:4, 3:4
B as a point of departure
are not also consonant;
which
signifies, in
other terms,
that the notes of the harmonic series are consonant not
only with the fundamental note, but also with each other.
This question
may
be approached in a different way.
Given that the interval between 1 and 2 can or ought to

filled up with other notes, it may be asked, what will
be
be the notes which will present the simplest possible

ratios
by
I,
It is evident that these notes will be expressed
the figures 1 J, 1J, If, 1J, If, &c., or
I-,
by the
ratios f, j,
&c.
The simplest note is that of f which corresponds to the

ratio 2:3.
It signifies that the new note makes three
,
same time in which the fundamental
vibrations in the
note makes two, and represents also the
second and third harmonic.
consonant even by the ancient Greeks,

scientific
is
of the
who made
it
with
exaggeration the starting-point of their music
and of the formation of the musical

It
harmony
This ratio was recognised as
the
harmony
3 be taken,
its
of
the
scale.
If
fifth.
resultant note
is
the
that
harmony
is
to say,
the octave below the fundamental note, seeing that this
equal to two.
is
This resultant note contributes considerably
to the
improvement of the harmony of the fifth.

Another simple ratio is ^, which may also be written
3 4. This ratio was also known to and admitted by the
:
ancient Greeks.
It is to a certain extent a
consequence
90
of the
fifth,
and can be derived from it
mental note be
octave
f
the
is
note.
In the harmonic
of the third
:
it
its
is
evidently
value, hence
f,
and
its
we have
called in
is
fourth
ratio 3
below
fifth
funda
for if the
music the fourth, whence the

the octave of the fifth below the fundamental
This ratio
1,
obtained by doubling
is
series it represents the
harmony
Writing down the

seen that the resultant note is 1, which
and fourth harmonic.
4, it is
does not correspond to any lower octave of the fundamental

note, but is instead the second octave
that
is
to say, of the fourth itself.
below the note 4
The harmony
fundamental note with the fourth presents, then,
what strange
arises
from
it,
this
character, that the resultant note,
of the
some-
which
does not reinforce the fundamental note,
but the fourth, and makes
to a certain extent
it
more
important than the fundamental note.
Another
fairly
simple ratio
is
that expressed
corresponds to the major sixth in music.
unknown
to the
Greeks
by f
it
This ratio was
more complicated
was some time before it was
it is,
in fact,
than the preceding, and it

Indeed it presents this hitherto new character,
adopted.
that the resultant note reinforces neither the one or the
an altogether new note.

the resultant note is 2, which is
other of the two notes, but
is
Writing the ratio 3 5,

the fifth below the fundamental note
:
3.
Another important ratio is that furnished by the fourth

and fifth harmonics, and expressed by f or 4:5; it is
called the major third.
Written in the second manner,
it
MODERN AND PYTHAGOREAN THIRD.

gives as a resultant note 1
that
portant ratio, which was
4.
It is a very
unknown to the ancient
was introduced into modern music in the

teenth centuries.
say, the second
to
is
octave below the fundamental note
91
The Greeks had
im-
Greeks, and
and
fifteenth
six-
in its stead the not widely
different, but obviously dissonant harmony, f|, formed

from the fundamental note 1 by four successive fifths.
i,
H xx |-x
t
f,
x| x | - V
fx|
ft
This note, lowered by two octaves in order to bring
near to the note
becomes
-J,
1,
which
is
and
to
keep
precisely the
the Pythagorean third, from the

It
Greek
name
same
it
octave,
third, also called
of its inventor.
be said without exaggeration that the substitu-
may
tion for
in the
it
of the consonant
it
and harmonic third f con,
most remarkable and most decisive progress of

The third
as compared with that of the Greeks.
stitutes the
our scale
also
comes into the category of consonant harmonies
through the consideration that
its
resultant note being the
second octave below, reinforces the fundamental
note.
Another harmony, which was introduced into music, js

or also
the minor third. It is expressed by the ratio
,
5:6.
with
It
many
sixth,
was only adopted in the seventeenth century

reservations, together with the
from which
it
harmony
can be easily derived.
only the octave of the sixth inverted.
As late
In
of the
fact, it is
as the middle
of the last century, even in the compositions of Mozart,

this
harmony was considered
as
imperfect,
and
was
92
avoided as far as possible as the final chord of a piece.
The
resultant note
notes
note 6 of the
This note
5 and
is
is
1,
harmony.
Writing it
and is in respect to the
harmony the second octave below
its fifth.
very low, and not dissonant with the notes
But in the
6.
the
of
the resultant note
6,
the
of
either
very low, and does not reinforce
is
further combinations to which the
minor third becomes subjected, the resultharmony

ant note, as will be seen later on, becomes obviously
of the
dissonant.
There
is
one other harmony, which
|, or also
minor third
that
is
note 5
5:8.
It
was the
to be adopted.
The
now
considered
that of the
consonant, although imperfectly so

sixth
is
last
minor
with that of the
resultant note
is
major sixth below the fundamental

a new note which is not dissonant in itself, but
to say, the
which becomes so in the

sixth gives
10. This
fuller chords to
which the minor
minor sixth
evidently on the
rise.
harmony
of the
is
It may, however, be asked, if it

would not be possible to push on farther in this direction,
so as to enrich music with other fairly consonant harmonies.
limit of dissonant notes.
This
is
been
a question of high musical
much
discussed,
deeper study. It
to
is,
art,
however, perhaps too delicate a question
be touched on here.
To
treat
it
necessary to enter into a series of
and
to consider the
one which has latterly
and one which would merit even
properly
it
would be
most minute
harmonies in their relations
details,
to three
SEVENTH HARMONIC.
Such an investigation would go
or four different notes.

far
93
beyond the limits of
It
this treatise.
be observed that, in order to enlarge the
may, however,
music
field of
would be proper to have recourse

the seventh harmonic, and to consider the ratios f f
in this direction,
&c., in
to
it
f,
which the seventh harmonic has a decisive impor-
Some
tance.
of these ratios
as J, I,
are undoubtedly
Their resultant notes are so
dissonant to our ears.

or are at great intervals,
and therefore
insignificant,
also,
and I
do not believe that future generations will ever be taught

The same cannot be said a prior*,
to think otherwise.
.of
the
harmony
how
observe
But
f.
it
the seventh
is
a strange
harmonic
phenomenon
can
be
to
entirely
banished from music even as a dissonant note, notwiththat
standing
much more
much more
dissonant,
&c., of
V>
an ear accustomed
ample,
|,
harmonic
may
complicated,
which we
for
ex-
To
adopted,
to our music, as it
appear like
and therefore
shall speak hereafter.
are
ratios
is,
as,
the seventh
an unpleasant note; but an
unprejudiced examination, according to the opinion of
some
that
it
certain
an opinion with which I entirely agree

shows
is
rather strange than unpleasant; that in
special cases
it
affords
very good discords and
passing chords, and that the strangeness arises rather from
our want of familiarity with
it
than from
its
inherent
nature.
It
need not, however, be a matter of surprise that this
note should be thus banished from practical music.

10
The
94
reason
is,
scientifically speaking, that the
number 7
is
not
harmony, and that being

of being a prime number. Since, even
sufficiently small for a consonant

great, it has the fault
in discords,
too
much
of the greatest importance not to
it is
but divisible by
advantage over
reason
make
use of such numbers, numbers greater than
why
7,
5, have a great numerical

this is the true and principal
2, 3, 4, or
it.*
no use
is
And
made
of
it
in music.
Without wishing to push too far forward, and to prophesy what will happen in the future, it may be observed
that the systematic introduction of the seventh harmonic
into
music would produce in
incalculable revolution
justifiable,
it
a very deep and almost
a revolution which does not seem
because for our magnificent musical system
another would be substituted, perhaps as magnificent, but

certainly not better,
more
sibility that a
and probably worse, and
at
secondary part in the musical system will
hereafter be assigned to the seventh harmonic.
chords
any rate
This does not, however, exclude the pos-
artificial.
To
certain
for example, the chord of the diminished seventh
and discords
it is
well suited, and
substituted with advantage for
However
this
may
may
sometimes be
some in present
use.
be, it is certain that for
us the
seventh harmonic represents the great line of demarcation
between consonant harmonies and
discords.
Below
it is
*
Euler had remarked the importance of the numbers 2, 3, and 5,
and established upon them a rule for the development of our musical
system.
CONSONANT AND DISSONANT INTERVALS.

consonance, and above
is
it
dissonance, and between these
We have
a great hiatus.
thus the following harmonies
...
in the interval of one octave
Perfectly consonant
Consonant
95
Imperfectly consonant
-If
Hiatus formed by the seventh harmonic.

10
Dissonant
-I
This demonstration
may
with the resultant notes of the
The harmonies
first
examined above,
order which arise
will be found
line, in the treble clef; the resultant notes
line, in
This
the bass
mode
on the upper
on the lower
clef.
of illustration will serve to
been explained above more

8ve.
be terminated by represent-
ing in musical notation the harmonies
from them.
-$
make what has
clear.
min.
mm.
min.
3d.
6tli.
6th.
CHAPTER VL
1.
HELMHOLTZ'S DOUBLE SIREN
2.
APPLICATION OF THE LAW OP SIMPLE
RATIO TO THREE OR MORE NOTES

CHORDS, THEIR NATURE
4.
THE laws explained
1.
is
PERFECT MAJOR AND MINOR
in the preceding chapter can be
demonstrated by means
Helmholtz, which
3.
THEIR INVERSION.
of
called
the
siren
constructed
the double siren
(fig.
by
28).
It is composed of two complete sirens, a

a1} placed
one over the other, so that their revolving discs face each
,
These are attached to the same arbor
other.
fore turn together
of this arbor
which
is
with the same velocity.
Jc,
and there-
In the middle
the counter (not represented in the figure),
is
intended to measure the number of turns
absolute measurement
is
required.
Each
when
disc carries four
concentric circles of holes, according to an idea already

realised
by Dove ; and by means
of four buttons
any one
of the circles of holes, or all simultaneously, can be set in

action.
duced
There are thus eight notes, which can be proat will, at the disposition of the experimenter.
A strong
current of
either siren at
the
rotation
notes.
gQ
of
or
air,
which can be caused
to enter
glt produces, as in the simple siren,

and the formation of the
the discs
Fig. 28.
98
In the upper disc the

15, 16, in the lower disc,
thus
circles
8,
10,
have successively 9, 12,

There are
12, 18 holes.
possible combinations of notes, the vibrations
many
of which have simple ratios to each other.
^o>
The revolving discs are covered by cylindrical boxes

hQ
7^ which serve to reinforce the notes pro,
duced, and to
make them
For the study
clearer.
there is an arrangement by
can be slightly altered. In fact, the
box of the upper siren can be turned independently of the
which these
rotatory
of beats
ratios
movement
of a handle d,
This
of the discs.
is
gears into one on the upper siren, and

for
each three turns there
the siren
itself.
attained
which turns the toothed wheel
is
is
by means
e, which
so arranged that
one complete revolution of
Under the handle
is
a graduated circle
divided into sixteenths, whence each division corresponds

to
is
4*3-
of a complete turn of the siren.
turned,
it
So when the siren
follows the holes in the revolving disc, or
moves in a contrary
direction to them, according to the
direction of the rotation.
The
effect in the first case is to
note, in the second to raise
the note depends on the
it.
somewhat lower the
The reason
number
of this
of puffs of air
is,
that
which are
produced each time that the holes of the revolving disc

coincide with the holes of the siren; these puffs will
be more or fewer in number, according as the siren
caused to
move
in a direction contrary
as that of the revolving disc.
Very
to,
or the
is
same
varied experiments
HELMHOLTZ'S DOUBLE SIREN.
may
be made by means of this double
99
siren.
The most
important and the most interesting of them may now

be described. If the twelve holes of both upper and
lower siren be set in action, two identical notes are
added together, and they

therefore give a reinforced note, when the two sirens
are so placed that the puffs of air from both are made
Their effects are
obtained.
at the
same
instant.
But, on the other hand, they enfeeble each other
when
the two sirens are so placed that their puffs are alter-
the
d be slowly and regularly turned,

sometimes strengthen, sometimes weaken
If the handle
nate.
notes
each other
beats are thus obtained, the
per second corresponds
number
which
of
to the difference of the
number
of vibrations per second of the two notes produced
by the
sirens.
If the twelve holes of the
and the blower be more
two
discs be kept in action,
loaded, the
siren
will
turn
quicker, and the two notes will rise in pitch but will
still remain in unison, which demonstrates that unison
is
independent
of
the absolute
number
of
vibrations
per second.
But
if
note and
the eight and sixteen holes be set in action, a

its
octave
is
obtained, since the vibrations in
given time are as 1 to
and remains
so,
2.
The octave
is
any
quite perfect,
however much the velocity of rotation of
may be altered by loading the blower. The

notes change, but their ratio remains the same. Whatever,
the discs
THE THEOEY OF SOUND.
100
then,
may
be the fundamental note, the octave always
makes double the number

be desired
The phenomenon which
turned.
and
of vibrations in a second.
If
it
produce beats, the upper siren has but to be
to
results is easy to foresee
to explain.
The
can be produced in different ways

by combining the numbers 8 and 12, 10 and 15, or 12 and
ratio of the fifth
18, since in
each case there
is
the ratio 2
is obtained by the holes 9 and

that of the major third by 8 and 10, 12 and
of the fourth
have the
ratio
3.
12,
The
ratio
12 and 16
15, since
they
5.
The major and minor sixth are obtained by the combinaand 15, and 10 and 16.
tions 9
Lastly, the ratio of the
minor third
is
obtained by the
holes 10 and 12, 15 and 18.
There are
many
other combinations possible, but these
The
examples are enough for the present purpose.
harmonies obtained by this means are mathematically
correct,
and therefore preferable
instruments.
show
to those obtained
Experiments made with
clearly that the absolute
number
this
by other
instrument
of vibrations per
second has no influence on the harmonies, because the

ratios
always remain the same
the ratios are fixed by the

the absolute
number
number
since in this instrument

of holes in action, whilst
of vibrations per second depends on
the velocity of rotation of the revolving discs, which can
be controlled at
The fundamental
will.
be any note whatever
note, then,
may
but when once a note has been
101
THEORY OF CONSONANT CHORDS.

decided on for this
second of
all
office,
the others
is
number
the
fixed
by
of vibrations per
the ratios pointed out
above.
Eesultant notes also can be studied by means of this
The laws
instrument.
are thus arrived at,
set forth in the last chapter,
which were
by which the resultant note
of a combination of any two notes was defined as a true

difference note.
We
2.
must now
which
treat of another question
is
intimately connected with that just studied. As yet only

the case of the combination of two notes has been con-
and the conditions under which they give a consonant chord. But the question may be generalised. It may
be asked, Can three, four, or more notes be so combined as
sidered,
to produce a consonant chord
rule holds good,
which
tion of that explained
In order
"be
that
consonant,
pose
it bear,
tions,
is
In
nothing more than the generalisa-
and
illustrated in the last chapter
a chord, produced by
it is
more
notes,
may
in respect of the number per second of their vibra-
also to each
fundamental note but

This rule shows that in order to
other.
produce a consonant chord,
most simple
it is
mind
must bear simple
for example, a
fourth, fifth,
tlie
not enough to take the
ratios of octave, fifth, fourth, &c.,
necessary also to bear in
compose
three or
necessary that the different notes that com-
simple ratios not only to
it
this case the following
but
it is
that the different notes that
ratios to
each other.
Thus,
chord formed by the fundamental note,
and octave,
is
its
clearly dissonant, notwith-
102
standing that these notes are represented by the most
simple ratios existing
1430A
*l
The reason
too complex,
is
"2)
and therefore dissonant.
by f which
expressed
~S>
that the ratio of the fourth to the fifth
is
ratio is not
In
is
fact, this ratio
comprised amongst
those giving consonant harmonies.

3.
In
this respect a
much
better chord
is
obtained by
substituting the major third for the fourth, notwithstanding
the fact that
it
has a more complex ratio with the funda-
We
mental note.
thus obtain the notes

1
whose
~2>
"1
*J T>
ratios are
!>
which are
all
>
f9
consonant.
The above chord
is
the most consonant that exists in
music, and it is therefore called the perfect chord; to

which is also added the word major, because the major
third forms part of it, and to distinguish it from the
perfect
for the
The
minor
chord, in
major
third.
which the minor third
perfect major chord, as its
name
is
substituted
expresses,
is
the
most consonant chord that can be imagined. In its most

simple form it is composed of the fundamental note, major
third
and
fifth,
and
it is
usual to add the octave.
The
ratios
of these notes to each other are a major third, a minor

third,
and a
fourth.
The
resultant notes which they form
PEEFECT MAJOR AND MINOR CHORDS.
In
can be easily determined.
fact,
103
writing the chord in
figures
16?>
i
3
2>
by combining each note with all the others,

that the resultant notes are the following
it
is
seen
J, I, 1, 1.
The
first
represents the second octave below the funda-
mental note;
the
same note; the

the
last,
second, the
first
third, the octave
the fundamental note
octave
below the
itself.
sultant notes reinforce existing notes,
below the
fifth;
and
Therefore the re-
more
especially the
fundamental note, which contributes greatly to giving the

chord a firm, bold, and decided character. In this respect
the perfect minor chord
its
structure
is
is
in the following
manner
In
first,
fact, if it
although
be written
fl
*J
it
inferior to the
not very different.
"5>
2^ *>
will be seen that the ratios of the successive notes to
each other are
654
T> T>
~5>
which only differ from those of the major chord by the

order in which they follow each other. The ratios of the
notes in the perfect major chord to each other are the
intervals of a major third, a
whilst in the
third
and
and a
is
minor third and a fourth
minor chord they are a minor
fourth.
third, a major
The
difference is very small in itself,
to
explain the great fundamental
not enough
difference that exists
between these two chords.
104
But a
far
more conclusive explanation
chord
first
represents
Ttf>
~5>
the major third below the
second
new
note in
octave below the fundamental note, and
the chord, which

is
found by means
13141
"5?
The
is
These are in the perfect minor
of the resultant notes.
is
is
dissonant with the fifth
the second octave below the minor third
the octave below the fundamental note
the second
the third
the fourth
is
is
the
major third below the fundamental note that is to say,

the second octave above the first resultant note which
thus adds to the existing dissonance of the chord
Whilst,
the last
fundamental note.
finally reinforces the
then, all
the resultant notes in the perfect major
chord reinforce the existing harmony, certain of them in

the minor chord tend to disturb
it.
If these resultant
notes were stronger, they would suffice to

dissonant.
Even
and undecided
as
it
is,
make
they impart to
it
the chord
a disturbed
character.
These two perfect chords, the major and the minor,

form the keystone of our musical 'system. They are often
met with
in compositions,
end with one or the
They
and every piece of music must
other.
are, in truth,
the fundamental chords, and impart
to the composition its special character.
Pieces founded
on the perfect major chord have a cheerful, brisk, bold,

open character, and are therefore well adapted for the
expression of such conditions of the mind.
On
the other
PERFECT MAJOR AND MINOR CHORDS.
105
hand, those founded on the perfect minor chord are sad
and melancholy, or to express it more exactly, are disturbed and undecided, and therefore express well condi-
mind
tions of the
which uncertainty and indecision

Thus it is seen that theory and
in
play the greatest part.
practice perfectly agree in defining these

It
chords.
two fundamental
that the history of music also
may be added
Whilst the perfect major chord

from
the very birth of harmonised
has been accepted
music properly so called, the perfect minor chord was
corroborates these views.
considered for a long time rather as a slightly dissonant
passing chord than as a fundamental chord.
time of Sebastian Bach
to conclude a piece of
character
its
not
may
it
who would
to the
hesitate
In Mozart we find a
it.
as a closing chord
omitted
willingly
probably did
up
Up
to the middle of
music with the minor chord, even
demanded
certain reluctance to use
decessors
is,
there were those
the last century
when
that
the
sound well
minor
enough
third,
to
his pre-
which
them.
It
almost be said that the most highly gifted musical
natures
may
have, as
it
were, felt beforehand that which
theory has since been able to explain in a simple and

conclusive way.
To make
to the resultant notes
this
of the
more
clear
with respect
two perfect chords, these
notes are given below, written in the musical notation.
On
the
first
line are the
resultant notes of the
Those of the
first
two chords, on the second the

order which they generate.
first
order only are considered, because those
106
of higher orders are only heard under exceptional circumstances,
and have no great practical importance.
PERFECT CHORD.
MIMOH
MAJOR
4.
The
perfect chord can, however, be used in different
Carrying one or more of the notes an octave
ways.
higher or lower
is
The chord
called inverting the chord.
then acquires a somewhat different character from that
which
it
had
at
first,
and the resultant notes especially

This is a point which can be
are considerably modified.
only indicated, as a fuller study of

limits than those
of this treatise.
remarked that music

inverted
is
it
would require wider

However,
it
very rich in this respect,
chords constituted
the principal
may
be
and that
resource
of
Pakstrina, and of the composers of his school and time.
Chords which in a given position have consonant resultant

notes, can be transformed by invertion into others with
more
or less dissonant resultant notes.
the case with the
This
is
especially
perfect minor chord, in which the
slight existing dissonance
can be considerably reinforced
SECONDARY DISSONANCES.
107
by means of invertion, and can be transformed into a
much more marked
dissonance.
Palestrina,
who had
cer-
tainly one of the most finely gifted musical organisations,

made very great use of this musical process and it is
;
wonderful to see how, without being guided by theory,

and only by the delicacy of his ear, he has been able to
feel
and
to appreciate such slight differences.
he makes but very

the other hand,
little
much
In his music
use of true dissonances, but, on
use of those secondary dissonances
which are produced by the resultant notes by means of

invertions of the chords.
German
great
thinker,
This justifies the saying of a
who
called
Palestrinas music,
"
music of angels, grieving indeed over things terrestrial,

but not disturbing themselves on that account in their
celestial serenity."
As an example,
MAJOR CHORD
a few inverted chords

MINOR CHORD
f)
are given with their resultant notes, taking the simplest
case of three notes.

to find
room
The other
cases are too complicated
here.
Besides the perfect chords, major and minor, there

are
also
other
simple
chords.
Amongst
these
may
THE THEOKY OF SOUND.
108
formed by the fundamental

and
octave, and that of the fundanote, fourth, sixth,
mental note with the third, sixth, and octave, which have
be
mentioned the
characters
differing
chord
somewhat
from
each
other,
and
especially when they are compared with the perfect major

or minor chord.
These chords can be studied by the
same
rules as the perfect chords,
and the conclusion
easily arrived at, that they are nothing

last suitably inverted, as is also
is
more than these
seen by the example in
musical notation on the preceding page.
CHAPTER
1.
DISCORDS
AND
3.
4.
ANCIENT MUSIC
7.
ITS
DECAY
8.
VII.
THE NATURE OF MUSIC AND MUSICAL SCALES

GREEK SCALE 6. SCALE OF PYTHAGOKAS
5.
AMBROSIAN AND GREGORIAN CHANTS
9.
POLY-
PHONIC MUSIC, HARMONY, THE PROTESTANT REFORMATION, PALESTRINA.

10. CHANGE OF THE MUSICAL SCALE, THE TONIC, AND FUNDAMENTAL
CHORD
SCALE
16.
11.
13.
THE TEMPERATE
ABANDONING
1.
UP
THE MAJOR SCALE, MUSICAL INTERVALS 12. THE MINOR

KEY AND TRANSPOSITION 14 AND 15. SHARPS AND FLATS
SCALE, ITS INACCURACY
17.
DESIRABILITY OF
IT.
to this point only the case of consonant chords has
been considered
but music would be very poor
if it
were
limited to these, and to the few notes that compose them.

It
may
further be said that music formed only of conso-
nant chords would be extremely monotonous and quite

without vigour it would be a sort of lullaby only intended
;
to catch the ear without touching the mind,
and without
expressing anything.
To
increase
their
resources,
and to acquire greater
vigour and strength in the expression of
their
ideas,
musicians have been obliged to have recourse to dissonant

notes and chords.
Strictly speaking,
much
dissonant chord
resolved into a consonant chord than
is
greater satisfaction
is felt
when
110
when nothing but consonant
chords has been heard.
It
the force of contrast which produces these sensations
is
in us, just as
This
is
we doubly
appreciate a calm after a storm.
exactly the idea which has unconsciously guided
music up to our time. Its strength lies in dissonances, if

they do not last too long, and they be at last resolved into
consonant chords.
The
perfect chord being the
most consonant of
necessarily close the piece of music.
all,
muse
There can be no
absolute rule for the admission of dissonance, and for
determining the limit up to which
it
may
be used.
All
depends on the degree of musical culture and on habit.

Discords which now are perfectly permissible would have
this
appeared monstrosities in the time of Palestrina.

other hand, certain notes adopted
of decline
rejected
as, for
by
us.
by
example, quarter tones
It
is
therefore
On
the
the Greeks at a period

are decisively
an error which many
commit, to think that music, and especially modern music,

has absolute character and values, and therefore to reject
every musical system which does not agree with ours.
There is nothing absolute in it but the laws of notes and
their combinations
but the application of these laws
is
rather vague, and there remains a very wide and indeter-
minate
by
field,
which will be traversed in very
different
ways
different nations at various historical epochs.

2.
even
If the history of
if all
music be examined with attention,
the evidence possible concerning the music of
barbarous nations be collected, this constant phenomenon
Ill
MUSICAL INTERVALS.
music
that
be found,
will
by notes
proceeds
clearly
separated from one another. Among the immense number

of notes adopted for musical purposes, there are only a few
A style
that go to make up the various musical systems.
of music in
which
would be necessary
it
one note to another, through
would become almost
all
from
to pass
the intermediate notes,

It
intolerable.
is
true that our
singers, and violin and violoncello players, sometimes

make use of this style with success. But the slide from
is only tolerated when it is used
it always remains doubtful wiiether it
and
sparingly;
would not be better to forbear from it entirely. Music
one note to another
proceeds, then,
by musical
walks with separate,

that
it is
in its
firm,
intervals, precisely as
and decided
movement by
steps.
It
man
seems
and by rhythmic
intervals
the different shades of piano and forte,
steps, as also
by
and diminuendo, accelerando and rallantando, of
and staccato, which constitute musical accent, that
crescendo
legato
the secret of the great impression which music makes
upon the human heart resides. It has thus very varied

means of completely adapting itself to the psychological
movements which
because
it is
determinate
to
sentiments;
certain states of
arise.
That
any given
state
of mind,
however,
it
is
applicable
to
mind from which a
this is the case is
mental music
means
constitute
be observed that music does not express
special sentiment may

easily seen from instru-
the determinate sentiment
is
added by
But
if
the words
of words united
with music.
112
be taken away, or modified in meaning,

same melody and the same music
that the
it
will be seen
may be
adapted
to widely different sentiments.
Music
There
is
is
certainly the least material of all the fine arts.
no question in
it,
as in sculpture, of copying
of uniting to the
idealised nature; nor, as in painting,
study of nature the geometrical idea of perspective,
architecture has
a larger basis in nature
and
Even
the optical idea of colours and their contrasts.
The
itself.
trunks of trees and their branches, the grotto, the cavern,
have suggested to the architect the first principles of his

art, dictated to him by the wants of man and the conditions of the strength of materials
offers scarcely
It
anything.
is
but in music nature
true that
it
abounds in
musical sounds, but the idea of musical interval

little
suggested
simple ratios
is
by
these two ideas no music can exist.
this is the reason
Man
for himself his
why
has therefore
own
numerical
relations
are
instrument,
music has attained
development so much later than its sister

resembles architecture more than any other
also
but
almost entirely wanting, and without
been obliged to create
and
is
the song of birds, and the idea of
considered.
arts.
its
Music
art, as
In
full
fact,
in it
the
height and width of a building or of a room, the height

and width of windows, the thickness and height of
columns
in a word, all dimensions are linked together
by numerical
relations
relation.
But these
are only approximate
which allow of a certain amount of freedom,
113
MUSICAL SCALES.
11gf
whilst in music the relations
revenges
itself
*?fi
pvnnf and nature
by beats whenever this fundamental law
is
departed from, however slightly.

3. In the music of all nations two unfailing characters
are found, rhythmic movement and procedure by deter-
The
minate intervals.
and other
&c.
acts of
first
appertains also to the speech
man, as walking, swimming, dancing,
the second belongs exclusively to music.
All nations have selected notes to be used, have collected together those intended to be together,
thus created one or more miisical
By musical
scale is
meant the
and have
scales.
collection of all the notes,
comprised between the fundamental note and its octave,

which succeed each other, and are intended to succeed
each other, with a certain pre-established regularity.
study of the musical scale gives one of the
The
most important
and concise means of judging of the musical state of a

The examination of the musical scale is then
nation.
and
of the greatest assistance,

will here be given
for this reason a
few hints
on the most important musical systems
that history has noticed
to the present time.
up
seems strange that a few notes put together in a

musical scale should be able to acquire a true importance
It
in the study of music.
semblage
of notes
If
made
it
were a question of an
as-
at hazard or capriciously, the
matter would be of no importance
but the musical
scale is always the product of the musical activity of
many
centuries.
It is not established before music,
but
114
is
developed with
must have a very

tive
it.
very perfect form of music

an imperfect and primi-
perfect scale
form of music, on the other hand, will have a scale
of little value.
In
this
wall,
and
it
column
is
comparison with
Greek
and
archi-
the
architecture,
and
column,
were small; the roofs were
was reducible
therefore
In
good.*
between
distances
and
the
also,
respect,
holds
tecture
wall
flat.
Everything
and horizontal lines,
to vertical
this great simplicity that constitutes
one of
the most beautiful characteristics of this form of architecture.
The ancient Etruscans invented the
arch,
which
allows of greater dimensions without impairing stability,
and from which comes the vaulted

magnificent form of
The Eoman
covery.
this,
roof,
and
as a
more
the dome.
architecture is founded on this
new
dis-
But the semicircular arch becomes unstable when
of large dimensions;
it
is
found that the pointed arch
answers the purpose better in certain cases.
It allows of
and demands greater height in the buildings, and is

accompanied by an admirable development of details
which are perfectly adapted to it, and it is thus that

the Gothic style in all its immense variety was developed.
Thus a simple consideration
of stability
and strength has
caused different nations to find different solutions, and

from, three simple primitive forms, three magnificent styles
of architecture have been

*
developed, which differ from
Helmholtz, Op.
cit.
115
BIBLICAL MUSIC.
each other so
much
that
it
would almost be thought that
they had nothing in common.

4. Primitive music is as ancient
the high plains of Asia, where
traces of
it
are found,
it
From
as history itself.
many
man
followed
ancient historical
in his wanderings
through China, India, and Egypt. One of the most ancient

books, the Bible, speaks of music often and from its
earliest pages.*
David and Solomon were very musical. They composed

psalms full of inspiration, and evidently intended to be
To the
sung.
latter is
due the magnificent organisation of

He founded a
the singing in the temple at Jerusalem.
school for singers, and a considerable band, which at last
reached the number of four thousand trumpeters, the

principal instruments
being the harp, the cithern, the
trumpet, and the drum.

The history of the development of Greek music has a
more important bearing on the question now under conIt is incontestably established that the
sideration.
Greeks
had no true principle of harmony even in their most prosperous times. The only thing that they did in this re-
accompany in octaves when men and boys

executed the same melody.
spect
was
Thus
*
to
their instrumentation only served to reinforce the
[At Genesis
"And
iv.
his brother's
21,
speaking of the generations of Cain,
name was
handle the harp and organ."
Jubal.
the father of
all
it
that
time, but
says
such as
These words do not prove in the
that the organ was iu existence at

characteristic.]
He was
least
they are certainly
116
were played in unison or in octaves,

or whether more or less complicated variations were exevoice part, whether
it
cuted between one verse and another, or even between the
With them music was an
parts of a verse.
intended to increase, by idealising
this
auxiliary art,
the effect of words.
music must be regarded only

point of view, and in this respect it must be
The development of
from
it,
their
admitted that they arrived at a considerable degree of

perfection, notwithstanding the truly primitive form under
which
it
appears at the present time.
It was, in fact, a
with more variable rhythm and

more frequent and more pronounced modulation than
ordinary declamation. This music was much enjoyed by
sort of lofty declamation,
the Greeks, and
when
it
is
considered that the Greeks
and most creative nation that has
were the most
artistic
ever existed,
becomes necessary
it
to look
with care for
the refinements which their music must, and in fact does

contain.
5.
The Greek musical
fifths.
scale
Eaising a note to
seen in the
fifth chapter,
tions per second
by
its
was developed by successive

fifth signifies, as
has been
number
of vibra-
multiplying
its
This principle was rigorously
f.
maintained by the Greeks rigorously, because the fourth,

of which they made use from the very beginning, is
only the fifth below the fundamental note raised an
;
octave.
To make the
clearer, recourse will
making the
tracing out of these musical ideas
be had to our modern nomenclature,
supposition
that our scale, which
will be
LYRE OF ORPHEUS.
studied later on in
known
details, is already
its
reader ; calling the fundamental note
c,
to the
and the successive
with the terms sharps

for the intermediate notes, as is done in our
notes of our scale
and
117
flats
d,
In
modern music.
e,
f, g, a,
b, c,
this scale the first note, the
c,
repre-
sents the fundamental note, the others are successively
the second, the third, the fourth, the
the sixth, the
fifth,
seventh, and the octave, according to the position which
they occupy in the musical
scale.
If the c he taken as a point of departure, its fifth
and
below
fifth
its
'octave, so as to bring
the octave of
obtained
it
is g,
If this last note he raised
is /.
an
nearer to the other notes, and
if
be also added, the following four notes are
c>f>g,c>
whose musical
ratios are
1.
I, 2.
These four notes, according to an ancient

stituted the celebrated lyre of Orpheus.
it is
that
it
is
interesting,
contains the most important musical intervals of
In
fact,
when an
interrogation
To emphasise a word,
voice rises a fourth.
fifth,
Musically speaking,
certainly very poor, but the observation
declamation.
tone,
tradition, con-
is
made, the
it rises
another
and goes to the fifth. In ending a story, it falls a

Thus it may be understood that Orpheus' lyre,
&c.
notwithstanding
its
poverty,
was well suited
to a sort of
musical declamation.
Progress
12
by fifths up and down can be
further continued.
118
The
fifth
of g
ratio will be
when
ratio
is d,
and
The
f.
if it "be
raised an octave
following scale
d, f, g,
its
musical
its
musical
have then the
l\>,
c,
1 6
intervals are
19
J
which
We
is
whence
is ty,
c,
whose
lowered an octave,
below /
fifth
is
>
~5>
2">
>
^>
nothing more than a succession of
fifths,
transposed into the same octave, in the following
way
all
bb,/, c,g,d.
This
an
is
the ancient Scotch and Chinese scale, in which
number
enormous
of
popular
songs
are
written,
especially those of Scotland and Ireland, which all have a
peculiar and special colouring.

6.
But the
fifths.
scale
can be continued further by successive

below ty>t and
Omitting, as the Greeks did, the fifth
adding instead three successive fifths upwards, we shall

and
have a as the fifth of d, and e as the fifth of
;
finally, b as the fifth of
The
e.
ratios of these notes,
octave, will be
whence the
when brought
into the
same
last three fifths
men-
27 81 243
TIP Wf> 12 F>
scale will be the following

c,
d,
e,
f, g, a, &,
c,
with the ratios

i,
The
first
3,
ft, *, I,
H,
III,
and the second of the
tioned above, the a and the
e,
2.
were introduced by
Ter-
PYTHAGOREAN SCALE.
pandro ; the
the
last,
b,
to say,
But
idea
by Pythagoras, whence the Greek
name
scale still bears the
is forme7i^as*"li&3* been
119
of the Pythagorean scale.

r
ssWi,
By
succ^ssive 'iifths
with the fundamental idea of simple

it is
ratios.
is
..
necessary to observ?ihat the execution of this
not entirely happy.
is
It
that
It is true that the
law of
very simple, but the individual notes have,

nevertheless, an origin very distant from the fundamental
formation
The mode
note.
for
is
of formation of the scale
tuning the strings of the lyre,
and
was well suited
this
seems to have
been one of the principal motives for adopting this mode

of formation but the interval between any two notes of
;
the scale
anything but simple.
is
further that
ratios to the
This
is
especially the case with the three notes last
ratios to the
The
by
I
its
thus be seen
fundamental note.
sponding to our a,
The
may
some of the notes bear extremely complex
introduced into the scale
fractions
It
e,
and
&
that
is
to say, those corre-
which no longer bear simple
fundamental note, being expressed by the

J}, fff.
would not be a matter of much importance.

can only be considered as a passing note, which
last
open dissonance leads up to the c, or other

Its being more or less dissonant does no
consonant note.
and may in certain cases be pleasing. But that the

third and sixth bear complex ratios is a grave defect, and
liana,
this is probably the principal reason
did not develop harmony.
why
the Greek music
The Pythagorean
third
and
120
sixth are decidedly dissonant, and with the fourth and

fifth
more
alone no development of
harmony
is
possible, the
between the fourth and
so that the interval
fifth is
rather small, and therefore dissonant.

7.
The Pythagorean
scale held almost exclusive
However, in the
in Greece.
that
Christian era
is
are found.
centuries
many
Thus, for example, they divided the interval

c
and d into two
At
parts, introducing a note in the middle.
they
for the
we
look upon as dis-
Others again introduced various intervals, founded
cordant.
most part rather on theoretical speculations than
artistic sentiment.
All these attempts have
left
no trace behind them, and
therefore are of no importance.

scale passed
sway up
its
last
so far as to again divide these intervals in two, thus
introducing the quarter tone, which
on
Greek
attempts at modifying
between the notes corresponding to our
went
sway
before the
to say, during the period of
decline in politics and art

it
last
It
But the Pythagorean
Italy,
where
it
held sovereign
which epoch began

transformation into our two
to the sixteenth century, at
and
slow
musical
from Greece to
successive
scales.
ought to be added that the Greeks, in order to
increase the musical resources of their scale, also formed
from
it
from the
several different scales,

first
The law
which are distinguished
only by the point of departure.
of formation
was very simple
the scale written as follows
in fact, suppose
AMBROSIAN AND GREGORIAN CHANTS.
c,
note whatever
Any
the scale
may
e,
/, g, a,
&,
121
c.
be taken as a starting-point, and
may
be written, for example, thus

e,
f>
ff>
a, b>
d,
c,
e;
or
a, I,
c,
d,
e,
f, g, a, &c.
It is evident that seven scales in all
can be formed in
way, which were not all used by the Greeks at

A musical
different epochs, but which were all possible.
this
founded on one or other of them, must evidently
piece,
have had a
distinctive character
and
it is
Greek melody must be
in the blendings of shades, that
considered as more rich than ours, which
more
in this respect,
is
subject to far
rigid rules.
The
8.
turbance
later,
Pope
different
in
Greek
Ambrose,
Italy.
Gregory the Great,
lishing the first four;
Thus
underwent much
scales
Bishop
of
Milan,
had the merit of
and the second, the
dis-
and
re-estab-
rest of the
music [the Ambrosian

and Gregorian chants] acquired a clearer and more elevated
It was a recitative on a long-sustained or
character.
Greek
scales.
ecclesiastical
short note, according to the words that accompanied
it,
music for a single voice, which is still partially retained,

and which may be said to differ from the Greek music
only by the purpose for which
it is
intended.
9. In the tenth and eleventh centuries an attempt

was begun, especially in Flanders, at polyphonic music
that
is
to say, at
music
for several voices.
It consisted in
122
combining together two different melodies, so as not to

This sort of music also advanced rapidly
produce discord.
In the time of Guido
in Italy.
d'Arezzo, the celebrated
inventor of musical notation, such pieces were composed,

in which frequent use
thing most displeasing
upon
was made of successive

to the ear,
fifths
and which we now look
as a serious mistake in music.
By
the impulse
of Josquino and Orlando Tasso, the last and perhaps the
most important composer of that school, polyphonic music

was developed in a surprising manner.
Three, four, and
more melodies were combined together in a most complicated fashion, in which the art of combination had a much
more considerable part than
tours de force without
was
artistic
especially cultivated
by church
mere
inspiration
any musical worth
Such music
singers,
to
whom
was thus given a means of displaying their own ability.

The voices were interwoven in a thousand ways, and
the only restraint on the composer was not to produce
unpleasant
an end
discords.
to this
Luther's
fictitious
and
great
Reformation
artificial
style
Protestantism rising into importance at that time,

it
put
of music.
made
a necessity that church singing should be executed
by the congregation, and not by a special class of singers.

The music was therefore obliged to be simplified to put it
within the power of
all.
The ground was already prepared
The Troubadours, Minstrels, and Minnesanger

had developed primitive and simple melody, whence
for this.
sprang madrigals
and popular
songs.
And
thus
for
123
PALESTRINA.
polyphonic music another form was substituted, in which

the different voices sustain each other.
Harmony
properly so called arose from these simple
and sustained chords, and from the easy movement of the

different voice parts.
The shock of the German movement was

Italy,
where musical reform was
way by
even in
initiated in a truly genial
Palestrina, partly, indeed, to follow the deliberations
of the Council of Trent.
method
felt
in use
up
Palestrina abandoned the artificial
to that time,
and
laid the
most
stress
on
His composiinspiration.
"
Improperia," "Missa papse Mar-
simplicity and deeply-artistic

tions
("Crux
fidelis,"
celli," &c.) are,
10.
But
and always
will be, a
model of that
about by one individual, nor in a short time.

gorean
style.
so radical a transformation could not be brought
scale,
which was in general use
The Pythawas
at the time,
opposed to a true development of harmony, and the more

so when the execution of the music was intrusted to
human
perceptible.
means
in which every discord becomes doubly

True harmony could only be developed by
voices
of the successive transformations of the musical
scale into another, in
fundamental note,
possible.
which the
and to each
ratios of the notes to the
other,
It is thus that the different
were as simple as
Greek scales have
been transformed by degrees into our two modern scales

that
is,
into the major scale
was more
easily to
and the minor
scale.
The
be found, but the second, with
variations for the ascending
its
first
two
and descending movement,
is
124
not found completely developed until the seventeenth

century,
when music had attained an admirable degree

when there were magnificent schools
development, and
music and singing in the principal cities of Italy.

Yet another idea characterises our modern music
idea of the fundamental note and chord.
of
of
the
This idea did
not exist in Greek music, although certain passages of

Aristotle point to
something
similar.
It did not exist in
the Ambrosian chant, but began to be developed with
polyphonic music.
Ages demanded,
The
interlaced singing of the Middle
as a practical condition, that the different
singers should frequently return to one note, as to a firm

resting-place, in order to
plicated the
keep together.
The more com-
harmony was, the more necessary such a
resting-place became.
It is thus that the idea
of the
fundamental note or tonic was developed, and later, the

idea of the fundamental chord and of key. This precept
has become more and more
more complicated.
It is
rigid, as
now
music has become
required that a piece of
music should begin and end with the fundamental chord,

which can only be a perfect major or minor chord, and
that in the following out of the musical idea, and in the
development of the great masses of chorus and orchestra
the fundamental note should often recur, as a necessary
resting-place for our comprehension.
This idea was only slowly developed.

Palestrina and of his successors
clearness
which
is
it
In the music of
had not reached that
required at the present day.
And
this
MAJOR AND MINOR.
MODERN SCALES
perhaps the principal reason
is
this music, notwith-
simplicity and great beauty, appears some-
its
standing
why
what confused, and rather quaint than

These
11.
examine in
125
facts
being premised,
it
beautiful.
is
now time
to
and the properties of our
detail the formation
they have been thus necessarily developed

the
requirements of polyphonic music and of harmony.
by
The scales which are adopted now are two in number the
musical
scale, as
scale
and the minor
major
another modification, which
scale.
may
The
last
having yet
be considered as the
point where the one passes into the other.
In order to hear our scale in

form, use
may
its
most perfect possible
be made of an instrument
(fig.
29) invented
and perfected by Konig. A strong clockwork

movement, enclosed in a box P, enables a regular move-
by
Seebeck
ment
0.
of rotation to be given to a metallic disc placed at
The
centrically to the
other.
eight series of holes, placed con-
disc carries
same
circle at
equal distances from each
Tubes of indiarubber, A, B, C, are so arranged

blown against at will, so as
that any circle of holes can be

to produce different notes.
the rotatory
current of
movement
air.
The
is
It
is,
in fact, a siren in
which
produced independently of the

beginning with the inner
eight circles,
one,
have the following numbers of holes
But
as the
24, 27, 30, 32, 36, 40, 45, 48.
produced
this
to
is
the
number
of vibrations per second of the notes
proportional to the
number
of holes,
number
it
of impulses, and
follows
that at
equal
126
velocities the
number
above numbers will express the relative
of the vibrations.
ratios are obtained
Dividing by 24, the following
105435159
*>
When
>
T> B>
2">
3>
8" >
-1 '
the disc has acquired a uniform velocity,
if
the
Pig. 29.
different circles of holes
be successively blown against,
will be heard that the major scale
may
be added that this scale
is
is
obtained.
And
it
it
perfect, because it satisfies
even in theory, the law of exact
ratios.
MODERN AND PYTHAGOREAN SCALES COMPARED.

The major
ratios
scale
therefore constituted
is
1
x
>
which are called
In
it,
the
as
8>
4> o>
*
a>
>
&, c.
be seen, the major third, f the fourth, -J,

|, form consonant harmonies with
may
fifth, |,
by the following
05480119^
c,d, e,f,g, a,
the
127
the sixth,
fundamental note, which harmonies have already
been deduced from theory.

They are the most simple
It may further be seen
can
be
mentioned.
which
ratios
that these ratios have been substituted with advantage
some of the more complicated ones of the Pythagorean

scale
especially the third and the sixth, which in it were
for
dissonant,
is
y,
and which are now consonant.
The second, f
the same as in the Pythagorean scale; the seventh,

is
considerably simplified.
It
may be
said, then, that
nothing more than a modification of the

Pythagorean scale, made with the idea of keeping the
same notes in such a form, however, that they should
this scale
is
law of simple ratio. It is clear and evident

must therefore lend itself to harmony,
whilst the Pythagorean scale was decidedly opposed to it.
satisfy the
that this scale
But it is not enough that the ratio of the note to the

fundamental note should be simple, it is necessary that
the ratios of the notes to each other should also be simple.
It will not be possible in this treatise to
question with
all
the necessary details
examine the
the most remark-
able properties of our major scale may, however, be
made
128
The
known.
between one note of the
ratio
antecedent note
and
scale
its
which
called a musical interval, a ratio
is
found by dividing one by the other. In this respect

the comparison with the Pythagorean scale is very inis
The Pythagorean
structive.
scale
expressed by the
is
following ratios:
1
*
The
81
18 >
6T>
"35
"2>
intervals are therefore as follows

Q
>
On
243 O
27
T~
256
8")
2T3>
9
>
>
256
"2I^'
>
this scale, therefore, the intervals are of
the one a somewhat large interval,
whole tone
|||,
which
the
is
called a semitone.
classes
is
called a
which
f,
other smaller and more
two
complicated,
The Pythagorean
scale
composed of five whole tones all equal to each other,

and of two complicated semitones, one placed between
is
the third and fourth, the other between the seventh and
octave.
Our major
scale has the following ratios

1
1>
95435
T
&
'
15
2>
>
>
-"
Its intervals are

>
In
^,
it
16
10
>
T~5>
10
9
>
16
9
>
15'
>
the intervals are therefore of three classes
which occur three times, are the same
intervals
They
others, a little smaller,
as the
are
the largest,
Pythagorean
met with
twice.
are both called whole tones, but to distinguish one
from the other, |

tone.
The
is
called a major tone,
and
a minor
third interval, considerably smaller than the
MODERN AND PYTHAGOREAN SCALES COMPARED.

two
jj, is
first,
met with
the Pythagorean interval
twice,
H*!;.
129
and in the same place

It is called a
as
major semi-
from another smaller semitone, ff,

which will be spoken of later on, and which is called a
minor semitone. If no distinction be made between the
tone, to distinguish it
major and minor tone,
it
will be seen that the major scale
presents, like the Pythagorean, five tones,
distributed
tones,
in
the same
between the two scales
lies
and two semi-
The
order.
in this, that
difference
we make a
between the major and minor tone, and that

our semitone is much more simple than the Pythagorean.
distinction
We
have thus three different intervals instead of two,
and therefore a greater complication, which however is

amply compensated for by the simpler ratios and intervals.
To
this
may
be added that the greater complication which
has been pointed out constitutes even by

variety,
and hence a greater
Certain musical niceties
itself
a greater
richness, in our music.

as, for
different character possessed
example, the somewhat
by the different keys
find
most natural explanation in this greater variety

of musical intervals and in truth, since, for example, the
their
interval
d and
d
e.
between
to play
e,
and d
d
is
is
not equal to that between
not the same thing as to play
The same reasoning applied
to a
music, shows that the selection of the
whole piece of
fundamental
first
note and of the key modifies somewhat the order of the

intervals,
1
and thence
>iece.
13
also the musical character of the
THE THEORY OF SOUND..
130
The second
12.
the minor third
of our scales
is
the minor scale, in which
substituted for the major third, and
is
the sixth and seventh are modified.

following ratios :-^
*l
~&>
>
3>
1T>
Its intervals are the following

>
In
it
composed of the
9643899*
It is
16 10
>
T^>
9
>
~5>
1>>
16
T5J
10
the same intervals are found as in the major scale
V twice, and || twice. The

then, only differs from the major in that the
the interval f three times,
minor
same
scale,
intervals are differently distributed.
The minor
scale is also used in the following
form :
}9048515g
In which the intervals are
V,
I, if,
This scale
scale,
and
is
I,
V,
I,
composed, for the
first
for the second half, of the
half, of
major
the minor
scale.
The
intervals are again the same, only differently distributed.
The second
form
ascending scale
is
that
bass towards treble
adopted
is
to say,
whilst the
by preference for the

for the movement from
first
form
is
adopted for
the descending scale, from treble to bass.
The minor
minor
scale, then,
has as
its characteristic
note the
third, whilst the major scale has the major third.
These two scales
may
further development
of,
therefore
be considered as the
and emanation from, the perfect
CHARACTERS OF MAJOR AND MINOR SCALES.
131
major and minor chords, with which they are closely
allied.
piece of music, written in the major scale, has
the major chord as

for those pieces
The
basis
its
the minor chord
which move within the minor
characteristic difference
Now
in the thirds.
and the minor
is
reserved
scale.
between the two
scales lies
the interval between the major third,
found by dividing one by the

It is, then, If, a smaller interval than the major
other.
and on this account is called the minor
semitone, If
-J,
third, f , is
It
semitone.
may
therefore be concluded that the whole
of the great difference which exists between the major
and minor
scale
be
may
reduced to the presence or
absence of one minor semitone in the interval of the third.
However small
may be mathematically
from
an
artistic point of view.
speaking,
very great
Those points discussed with respect to the two perfect
it
this difference
is
chords
[see
scales.
The major
chapter
also
vi.]
scale
and
hold
all pieces
good for the two

founded on it have
an open, cheerful, bold character pieces that are based on

the minor scale are sad, melancholy, and, above all,
;
undecided.
The reason
different resultant notes,
for
this
is
to be found in the
which are produced by the two

also again met with in the
they are
perfect
chords;
scales.
In conclusion,
it
may
be said that variations so
small as to appear unimportant considerably modify the

character of a piece of music.
In
this respect the scale is like the skeleton of organised
beings,
who show
different
characters,
tendencies,
and
132
developments as soon as characteristic differences are set
up
in its construction.
One
13.
is
remained
last step
not probable that
it is
must now be considered from a

it
will be seen that
would be
it is
made
to be
as yet entirely
in music,
made.
and
The
it
scale
when
fresh point of view,
infinitely richer in resource than
at first sight imagined.
This step consists of transposition, and of modulating

from one key to another in the most artistic manner.
Consider an instrument with fixed notes, such as the
pianoforte,
and suppose that the
scale begins
on
and
c,
some piece of music for example, a melody

founded on this scale. Its fundamental note or tonic
that
then
But
c.
it
may
happen that a singer
execute this melody finds

voice,
and he prefers
who
is
is
is
to
too low or too high for his
it
to transpose
so that the tonic
it,
may
be, for example, g.
This
is
permissible, since
it
has been seen as a general
proposition that any note, whatever

vibrations per second,
may
may
be
its
number of
be used as a point of departure,
since all the successive notes remain in determinate ratios
fundamental note; which
to the first or
respect to the scale, that the intervals
when
the tonic
Now,
that
if
if
is
moved from
the fundamental note be
third and fourth
and/
with
c to g.
the major scale be examined,
a semitone between
signifies,
remain the same
that
c,
there
is
the same interval
is
it
is
will be found
the interval of
to say,
between the
found between
&
and
133
TRANSPOSITION.
c,
or between the seventh and octave.
be transposed from
c to g, in
tion of the semitones,
begins on
g,
it
If the piece, then,
order not to alter the disposi-
must be
referred to a scale
which
and has the interval of a semitone between
But
the third and fourth, and seventh and octave.

scale be written
simply in
if this
the following way, as
the
Greeks wrote theirs:

g, a, 5,
it
between
and
This
tone.
and octave
there
e,
/, g,
that
is,
the required interval of a semi-
is
however, the case between the seventh
is not,
that
d,
c,
between the third and fourth
will be seen that
is,
between/ and
The semitone
g.
on
is,
the other hand, found between the sixth and seventh

that
is
to say,
between
The
and /.
scale, then,
does not
The desired
preserve the original order of the intervals.
order of intervals can, however, easily be obtained

raising
sixth
/a
by
semitone, since then the interval between the
and seventh becomes a
tone, whilst that
between the
seventh and octave becomes a semitone.

14. Eaising a note a
semitone signifies raising that note
to its sharp, as lowering it a semitone signifies lowering

it
to its flat.
In theory, raising a note to
multiplying the
number
note by the ratio f J, which

vibrations per second of
minor semitone.
its
sharp means
of vibrations per second of that

is
To lower
hand, means to multiply
the
its
it
at
to its
number
second by the inverse ratio f J.
of the
ratio'
two notes
number
of
an interval of a
flat,
on the other
of vibrations per

Every transposition from one tonic to another carries
with it the necessity of raising certain of the notes to
their sharps, or lowering
some others
That
to their flats.
which has been explained for one example holds good for all
cases. The tonic can be changed from c to g, to e, to/, &c.
that
is
to say, to each note of the scale.
a quantity of
new
notes
is
By
this operation
obtained, and experiment shows
that every note of the scale ought to be able to be raised
To return
to the
example of the pianoforte,

it is seen that it is necessary to add to the seven white
keys of an octave seven black keys, and not five, as is
done in practice as raising to a sharp means rising through
to its sharp.
the interval
-||,
simple musical
}f
this interval does not exist in the
be better explained by an example.

and /there is an interval of a major semitone,
This idea
Between
and
scale.
may
If e then be raised to its sharp, a note is found
rising through the smaller interval ff,
but lower,
which
is
sharp, then, does not coincide with
by
near /,
as
pianoforte-players are prone to believe.
But there
transposition.
no need
is
When
it
for
is
music
can be changed, for example, from
changed from
therefore,
to c sharp.
must be made
to
stop at this
first
once admitted that the tonic

c to g, it
The same
for the
can be then
considerations,
superadded seven black
been made
for the white keys.

If,
keys that have already
then, the tonic be changed successively to each of the
sharps, in order to keep
the intervals the same
it
is
135
TRANSPOSITION.
necessary to raise some of the sharps a semitone, or
through another interval of
Double sharps are thus
obtained, which being composed of two minor semitones,

are not exactly equivalent to a whole tone, whether major
In
or minor.
sharp of
c is
take a single example, the double
fact, to
obtained by multiplying
tions per second
by
j|-
that
twice over
fraction, then, represents
its
number
is,
of vibra-
double sharp, whilst the interval between
and
and d
represented by the considerably greater ratio
two
This
?.
by
the interval between
c
is
These
notes, then, are not identical with each other.
The conclusion
count
all
thus arrived
at,
that to take into ac-
possible transpositions of this kind,
necessary to
have the seven original notes
for the sharps,

15.
is
Another
and seven notes
would be
for the double sharps.
class of transpositions carries
necessity of lowering
it
seven notes
with
it
the
by a semitone one or other of the
by multiplying by f f, which is called

The same considerations which
notes of the scale
lowering a note to
its flat.
have been made
for the sharps hold
good also
for the
flats.
Eeasoning in the same way, the conclusion is arrived at,

new notes occur for the flats, and seven others
that seven
for the double flats.

sition, that
these
It
new
may
be added as a general propo-
notes do not coincide with those
already mentioned for tne sharps.
and especially
for the pianoforte,
that the sharp of a note
is
it
In executive music,
is
generally admitted
equivalent to the
flat
of the
13G
successive note, that, for example,
flat
at 1,
but this
sharp
is
is
sharp
expressed by
But d
f-J.
is
equivalent to
In
not strictly accurate.
is f,
would be f multiplied by f*, which gives

different from and greater than the first,
therefore
somewhat lower than d
tions can be
As
made
taking c
fact,
whence d
f
a value
?,
which
is
Similar considera-
flat.
for all the other notes at
If the interval e to
equivalent to a
represented
by T f,
whole
intervals.
as sharps
and
be taken, for example,
flats
and f *,
does not coincide either with /
and
flat
it
notes,
sharp
and that therefore
or /,
must be distinguished
between these four
is
correspond respec-
follows that
e,
f flat, e
Indeed, in composition a distinction
/.
remain
major semitone, and therefore
tively to the intervals f f
four distinct notes
is
sharp
to the semitones of the scale, the considerations
the same.
flat
sharp,
is
made
and a composer may not con-
found them one with another.

It follows that the pianoforte, in order to take into strict
account
all
these exigencies, ought for each octave to have
one set of seven keys for the original notes of the
and
scale,
also four other sets, each of seven keys, for the sharps,
double sharps,
thirty-five
flats,
keys in
and double
all
that
flats
to each octave.
It
is
is
to
say,
true that
Rome of these many notes sensibly coincide with each

other, so that even a somewhat smaller number of notes
would
satisfy scientific exigencies
true that music,
but
it is
none the
less
especially instrumental music, cannot
follow out such great complications.
TEMPERATE SCALE.
16.
As
possible
music, then, has
transpositions,
137
developed in respect to
many
attempts
have
all
arisen
to
diminish the excessive number of notes, and to render

practical execution
more
easy.
These attempts are
founded on the principle of abandoning
strictly
all
mathe-
matical ratios, and of being content, on the other hand,
with approximately correct notes, so long as the error
same notes
differing
fruit of these
is
and of considering as the

but little from each other.
The
not too perceptible to the
ear,
manifold attempts, which arose particularly
towards the end of the seventeenth and beginning of the

eighteenth centuries,
is
the temperate
scale,
which reached
development at the middle of the last century,

especially by means of the works of Sebastian Bach, who
its full
dedicated to
and fugues.
it
most inspired preludes

starts -with the principle of making no
forty-eight of his
It
between the major and minor tone, of confounding the major semitone with the minor semitone,
and of considering the sharp of a note as equal to the flat
distinction
of the succeeding note, so that all the notes of an octave

are reduced to twelve only,
distant from each other;
and
which are considered equiit is on this

principle that
our pianofortes, organs, &c., are constructed, where
all
the notes comprised in an octave are provided by seven

white keys and five black ones.
The temperate scale has become generally accepted it

has so come into daily use that, for the most part, our
;
modern executant musicians no longer know that
it is
an
138
incorrect scale, born of transition in order to avoid the
The great pro-
practical difficulties of musical execution.
gress
made
and, above
in instrumental music
due
is
to this
scale,
the ever - increasing importance of the
all,
pianoforte in social
But, no doubt,
in this respect.
it
life is
to
be attributed to
does not represent
It
would
all
it.
that can be done
certainly be very desirable to
return to the exact scale, with a few difficulties smoothed
over to meet the requirements of practice for it cannot

be denied that the temperate scale has destroyed many
;
delicacies,
and has given
to music,
founded on simple and
exact laws, a 'character of almost coarse approximation.
But before continuing
this
example, the values of
make
argument, I will give, as an
the
different
scales,
so
as
to
the measure of their differences more striking.
Supposing the fundamental note makes 240 vibrations

in a second of time,
and calling
represented by the following figures
it
c,
our major scale
ia
cdefgabc
:
240, 270, 300, 320, 360, 400, 450, 480.
The minor
scale
by
240, 270, 288, 320, 360, 384, 432, 480.
The Pythagorean
scale,
comparable with our major scale
240, 270, 303^, 320, 360, 405, 455|, 480.
Lastly, the temperate major scale has

240, 269|, 302|, 320:, 359|, 403J, 453, 480.
If the temperate scale be
matical scale,
it
is
compared with the mathe-
seen that with the exception of the
EXACT AND TEMPERATE
139
SCAI.IvJ.
fundamental note and the octave, none of the other notea
In the temperate scale
coincide exactly.
somewhat modified
all
the notes are
to a greater or less degree.
Taking, for example, the third, this gives in our example
300 vibrations per second

for the temperate scale.
for the exact scale,
Therefore there
in this case of 2| vibrations per second.
sidered that
it is
It
it
It
may
it
equal to about f of that furnished
Pythagorean scale, in
303J,
a difference
when
that this difference is small; however,
and 302 1
is
which the third
must be admitted that
it
is
be said
is
con-
by the
represented
by
cannot be neglected.
has been seen that in Greek music there was no
development of harmony, especially because the third and

It must be concluded that our
sixtli were dissonant.
harmony founded on the temperate
scale is also very
defective.
Another argument must be put forward.
The
differ-
ence in our example between the major and minor third

is
12 vibrations per second
the
first
second 288 vibrations per second.
being 300, and the
But
if
12 vibrations
per second in this most delicate and sensitive note are
enough
to
change the character of the fundamental chord
of the scale,
and of the whole piece of music founded on
must be allowed that 2| vibrations per second cannot

be quite immaterial, and must therefore produce a sensible
it, it
discord.
Lastly,
it is
perfect tune,
it
kno-,yn that
whenever a chord
gives rise to beats.
On
is
not in
the pianoforte
140
these are not very perceptible, but on instruments with
and sustained
such as the organ, they
full,
loud,
may
be recognised in a most unpleasant degree, especially

are frequent.
In the example chosen, they
notes,
when they
would only be 2 f in a second, which becomes sufficiently

unpleasant, although there have been here produced low
notes of 200 and 300 vibrations per second.
notes the beats are
example
to the
much more
frequent.
For the high
Applying the
next higher octave, the number of vibra-
two
and with
tions per second
of the
number
per second, are doubled, which must
of beats
produce a most unpleasant
Even the
notes,
this the
effect.
resultant notes are considerably altered, and
instead of reinforcing existing notes, and entering into the
general
harmony
of the chord, they appear discordant
not indeed loud enough to produce true dissonance, but

sufficiently so to disturb the serene quiet
and the
trans-
parency of a chord.
It follows that
music founded on the temperate scale

as imperfect music, and far below our
must be considered
musical sensibility and aspirations.
That
it
is
and even thought beautiful, only shows that our

been systematically falsified from infancy.*
endured,
ears
have
* Cornne has
lately made some most ingenious experiments, in which
he measured directly the number of vibrations per second of the notes
produced by good singers and violin-players, whilst they executed a pure
melody with the greatest possible care. He found that they made use
neither of the exact nor of the temperate scale, but of a scale differing
but
little
from the Pythagorean
from which he concludes that the
EXACT AND TEMPERATE SCALES.

17. Professor Helmholtz has
141
had an harmonicon con-
structed, on which ho can play at will in the exact or temperate scale, on purpose to see if there really is an appreci-
able difference between them.
As soon
as the ear
becomes
practised, the difference becomes most striking.
little
In the exact scale the consonant chords become much

sweeter,
clearer,
and
more
chords stronger and rougher

all
transparent, the
dissonant
whilst in the temperate scale
mixed together in one uniform tint

distinct character.
The resultant notes
these things are
without any
have greater importance in the former, and in general the
music acquires a more decided, open, robust, and sweet
character.
Fact, therefore, demonstrates that the results
mere speculations or pedantic exaggebut

that
rations,
they have a true and real value, such as
ought to be accepted even in practice.
of theory are not
The wish may then be expressed that there may be a

fruitful era at hand for music, in which we shall
new and
and return
abandon the temperate
scale
and in which a more
satisfactory solution of the great
to the exact scale,
still to be looked upon as the scale of

melody,
must be considered "as the scale of harmony.
distinction, even if it exist, is of no great practical im-
Pythagorean scale ought

whilst our
modern
In truth, this
scale
portance, since pure melody without harmony does not exist at the present
day, and would be no longer enjoyed. And it is enough for a song to be
accompanied by the most simple harmony, to oblige the singer to adopt
the scale of harmony,
if he would avoid discord.

The fact, however, is
It demonstrates
very interesting in itself, and merits careful examination.
a certain tendency in us to select the Pythagorean scale in
and
melody,
gives a very natural basis to the melodious music of the Greeks.
14
142
difficulties of
musical execution will be found than that
furnished by the temperate scale, which, simple though
may
it
be, is too rude.
But
all
the stringed instruments, which are the very
soul of the orchestra,
and the human
voice,
which
will al-
ways be the most satisfactory and most mellow musical

sound, have their notes perfectly
shifted at the will of the artist.
scale does not present
any
and can therefore be
free,
The return
to the exact
The
serious difficulty to them.
same may
be said with respect to the wind instruments,
which are
still
very imperfect, notwithstanding the great

progress already made, but in which the player can,
by changing his lip, somewhat raise or lower the note,
A flute
scale,
trumpet player can therefore play in the exact

just as he already plays in the temperate scale;
or
and the same considerations hold good for the greater part
It does not therefore appear
wind instruments.
of the
impossible, or even really difficult, for the full orchestra
and chorus to perform a piece of music in the exact

scale.
Greater difficulties are met with in the case of instru-
ments with fixed

organ.
notes, such as the pianoforte
The pianoforte
is,
and the
indeed, so imperfect an instru-
ment, that notwithstanding the great reputation which

it
enjoys,
it
cannot be given any important place
In
executive music properly so called.

pianoforte in the orchestra, and
it is
fact there is
in
no
thus confined to the
drawing-room and the concert-room.
The great
defect
THE TEMPERATE SCALE AND THE PIANOFORTE.

of the pianoforte
ever
may be
is
that the notes die
the skill of the player.
away
143
what-
rapidly,
Beats and resultant
As
notes are therefore perceived with difficulty.
a con-
sequence, even discord becomes less perceptible, and this

is the reason why the sound of an instrument that does
not keep in tune from one day to another
The
pianoforte
scale
is
tolerated.
truly, the instrument of the temperate
is,
has been developed, has lived, and probably will
it
Its defects have had an observable

decay with it.
on
the
music
written for it.
influence
Sustained melody
has been more and more obscured ; for

stituted infinite
cadences,
it
have been sub-
and complicated musical
figures, scales,
shakes, &c., calculated rather to
call
up the
pride of a brilliant executant than the musical sentiment
For the few simple
of the hearers.
lines of great musical
works, were substituted infinite arabesques of a
new
order
of the grotesque.
Eeforms of
this nature
may
appear superfluous in the
which does not keep in tune. But

with the organ, which has almost lost
its reputation, together with the church in which it is principally used ; but, musically speaking, it will always be an incase of an instrument
this is not the case
strument of great value. In

are strongly pronounced,
it
the beats and resultant notes
and ought therefore
to induce us
to undertake the important reform of the musical scale.
But
it is
with
all
evident that
if it
be desired to provide the organ
the notes necessary,
complication
but
it
it
would lead
to very great
appears, according to a proposition of
144
Helmholtz's, that
considerations,
by
it is
starting
from somewhat
different
possible to provide for everything in
a very satisfactory manner, with twenty-four notes per

This is double the number of keys which we
octave.
have at present ; but when the great ability of our pianoforte-players with twelve keys per octave is taken into
consideration,
it
may
well be believed that even twenty-
four keys well arranged would not offer insurmountable

difficulties
of execution;
and even
if
musical compli-
and arabesques had to be abandoned, true and

serious music would only be the gainer.
cations
I will therefore end this chapter
by expressing the hope
that the temperate scale will eventually be abandoned.

It has
Man
had
is
its
day, and has no longer
capable of a
much
performed at the present day.

sidering the
different
any real raison d'etre.

music than that
finer class of
schools
I say this without con-
which
at
present divide
musical Europe, since these considerations hold good for
But those who consider that the musical province of

Italy is to cultivate and develop melody, ought to be the
all.
first
to try for
and
to favour such a reform.
Singing
would gain enormously by it, and a melodious form of

music accompanied by simple quiet chords much more,
music formed by several voices would be enormously increased in value by means of such a reform. The ancient
Italian music, the choral music of Palestrina
and
acquires a totally different colouring, and becomes
more
intelligible,
when
it is
performed in the exact
Basili,
much
scale.
RETURN TO THE EXACT SCALE.
145
This would be a great reform, which could not be

effected in a short time
but once made,
constitute a great progress.
If
would in part require more or

tion in order to adapt
them
it
would
of itself
some musical instruments
less considerable modifica-
to these
quartet and choral music can be

formed in the exact scale.
at
new
exigencies, the
once taught and per-
CHAPTER
1.
VIII.
QUALITY OR TIMBRE OF MUSICAL SOUNDS 2. FORMS ASSUMED BY THB

VIBRATIONS, OPTICAL METHOD 3. ANOTHER OPTICAL METHOD 4. PHONAUTOGRAPHIC METHOD
LAWS OF HARMONICS
6. QUALITY OB
GENERAL LAWS OF
NOISES ACCOMPANYING MUSICAL SOUNDS 9. QUALITY OR
5.
TIMBRE OF STRINGS AND OF INSTRUMENTS
CBORDS
8.
7.
TIMBRE OF VOCAL MUSICAL SOUNDS.
1.
THE
is their
sung by
third characteristic difference of musical sounds
Suppose that the same note is

human voices, and played on the piano-
quality or timbre.
different
forte, violin, flute, &c., it
does not require a delicate musical
ear to recognise that these notes, although of the
same
loudness and pitch, are nevertheless different from each

other.
Our ear goes even farther in this direction, and
not only distinguishes between violin and flute, but even
between one violin and another by a different maker. The
difference is very marked, and makes itself felt in a most

remarkable manner in the price of the instrument. Thus,
for example, whilst
many
an ordinary violin
hundreds are paid
Amati.
for a
The same may be
costs a
few pounds,
good Stradivarius or N.
said of all musical instru-
ments, although the difference of price
is
not so great for
most of them, as the modern manufacturers are in a posi-
147
TIMBRE.
any desired number whilst

increase in excellence and value with their age.
tion to furnish
The
them
in
difference of timbre is
and very
characteristic.
stitutes the
violins
therefore very important,
In the human
voice,
which con-
most agreeable and richest monotone musical

is immense.
There are scarcely
instrument, the variety
any two individuals who have exactly the same timbre

Timbre and inflection are the safest means we
of voice.
have of recognising a person.
But the loudness of a note depends on the width,

It
height, and length of the oscillations producing it.
may
then be asked, in what two oscillations, of the same
width and length, can
differ so as to
produce so marked a
difference as that of timbre.
There are two methods of procedure possible in the

study of different forms of oscillation, and of the causes
that influence timbre.
The curve
of the oscillations
may
be traced graphically, and the differences between them

may be examined thus, or the sounds produced by
different instruments may be analysed in order to see if,
besides the principal note that
is
heard, there are not
other concomitant sounds or noises which alter the timbre

of the simple note,
and impress a
The question
be studied in this treatise by both
will
special character
on
it.
methods, and they will be illustrated by the most important examples in each.
As
to the form of vibrations, it
shown that account must be taken not only of

the width and length of the oscillations, but also of the
will be
148
special form of the curve
example, the curves
which represents them. Thus, for

in fig. 30, have all three the
1, 2, 3,
and the same length AB but the form is

different for each one of them, and it is precisely on this
It
special form that that which is called timbre depends.
same width
will
ab,
now be
explained
how
such curves
may be made
visible.
Fig. 3<X
2.
Of
all
sonorous bodies the tuning-fork gives the
simplest vibrations
vibrations comparable with the os-
cillations of the pendulum, and which have been called

They have the
simple vibrations in the first chapter.
form of the curve 1 (fig. 30), if they be traced on paper
by the graphic method, described
in the first chapter.
USSAJOUS' METHOD.
149
But they may also be made visible in the following

way A somewhat large tuning - fork F has a small
:
mirror attached near the extremity of one of
and a counterpoise to the other
[fig.
31].
is
made
its
branches,
ray of solar
Fig. 81.
light introduced into the
room
mirror of the tuning-fork, and
is
to fall
on the
reflected thence
a concave mirror, and thence again
is
diaphragm of translucent paper.
An
at rest as long as the tuning-fork
is
reflected
on
to
on to a
image of the hole in

the window shutter is thus obtained on the diaphragm
under the form of a luminous spot. This spot remains
when
the
latter vibrates, its mirror takes part in the vibration,
and
at rest, but
there appears a vertical luminous line instead of the spot
on the diaphragm.
This line
are not able to follow the rapid

spot,
is
caused because our eyes
movements
which occupies a new position
of the luminous
at every
instant;
150
but
the concave mirror be rapidly
if
that
which correspond
to different points of time, strike
different parts of the diaphragm,

is
so
turns round a vertical axis, the different luminous
it
spots,
moved by hand,
and a beautiful curve
mn
thus formed, which represents the form of the vibra-
In
tions.
it
the width evidently depends on the greater
degree of energy with which the tuning-fork
or less
vibrates
the length depends on the velocity of rotation
of the concave mirror,
But
if
and therefore can be varied
at will.
the mirror be turned with a suitable velocity,
neither too fast nor too slow, a most beautiful sinuous
curve
is
obtained,
which exactly represents the form of
the simple vibrations.
This beautiful optical method of showing the vibrations

of tuning-forks, invented
allows a great
number
interesting to study
by
Lissajous, is very fertile,
of experimeuts to be made.
what happens when two
combined together in
different ways,
plex compound movements are the

out of
many may
and
It is
vibrations are
when somewhat comresult.
One example
be given here, especially as
it
affords
an
admirable illustration of the theory of beats (Chapter v.)

Fig. 32 shows the arrangement best suited for the present
purpose.
From
the window, or from a closed box L, a
pencil of rays of solar or artificial light
is
caused to enter
the room, and having been suitably concentrated by the
upon the mirror of a tuning-fork T', thence

by reflection on to that of a second tuning-fork T, and
thence, finally, on a diaphragm of paper, where the
lens
I, falls
LISSAJOUS' METHOD.
151
image of a luminous spot is formed. The tuning-forks

are both equal, and give the same note.
If the tuningfork
T be now rubbed with
a violin bow,
it
vibrates
and
changes the luminous spot on the diaphragm into a long
but
vertical line;
the
rubbed,
if
vertical
the other tuning-fork T' be also

line
becomes
movements
according as the vibratory
longer or
of the
shorter,
two tuning-
Fig. 32.
forks are
made
same instant
each other's
wax
of time,
same
or in reverse directions at the
and therefore reinforce or enfeeble
effect.
This being
little
in the
so, if
a small coin be attached by means of a
to the tuning-fork T,
it
will be retarded in its
and will thus give with the other T' very marked
The vertical line will then be of variable length
vibrations,
beats.
sometimes long and sometimes
short,
and one of these
152
changes to each beat.
The reason
is
To each beat
simple.
there corresponds one reinforcement and one enfeebling of
the sound, and therefore there
movements
one
is
moment
at
which the
two tuning-forks are added together,

which they enfeeble each other's effect.
of the
and another
at
This vertical line can easily be converted into an undulat-
ing line by rapidly moving the tuning-fork T.
Tig.
33
Pig. 88.
is
thus obtained, where each reinforcement and enfeeble-
ment
are clearly indicated, as also
is
the whole beautiful
form of the phenomenon.

3. It may also be shown that the vibrations of a string
are much more complicated than those of a simple tuningfork.
34 shows the arrangement necessary for this

mirror S is so fixed to the window F as to
Fig.
purpose.
be capable of being turned in
all directions
a pencil of solar rays, and sends

the
it
this receives
room through
This illuminates the string (or better, a part
slit S'.
of the string) of a sonometer A.

is
into the
The image
of the string
magnified and projected on a distant screen (not shown
in the figure)
But
larger
if
by means
of the lens L.
the string be caused to vibrate, the image becomes
and
fainter,
the string in
In order
its
because the eye
is
not able to follow
rapid movement.
to see the
image of the string clearly at any
MOMENTAEY ILLUMINATION OF A
particular instant,
it
is
153
STRING.
necessary to illuminate
it
only
momentarily, whilst the observers remain in darkness.

This can be done, for example, by the electric spark, which
has an extremely short duration.
But the illumination
thus obtained
feeble, and the phenomenon cannot be
The slit S', through
observed at a little distance off.
is
Fig. 34.
which the pencil of solar rays comes which illuminates

the string, can be closed and
opened again for only a very
short time.
brilliant illumination
By this means a
very
of the vibrating
string is obtained for an instant, and the
state of the
instant can thus be made
string at that
given
visible.
But even
15
this
method has the
fault that the
154
an exceedingly short time,

minute details.
phenomenon
lasts for
it is difficult
to observe it in all its
so that
This method, however, may be improved by being

arranged so as to give an illumination of the string at
very short intervals each time that
An
position.
it
returns to the
intermittent series of illuminations
is
same
thus
and they succeed each other so rapidly that the

illumination appears constant, and causes the string to
obtained,
appear as
is to
time that
For
board
slits
if
it
this
The
fixed in the given position.
some means
discover
point, then,
of illuminating the string each
reaches one and the same position.
purpose use
(fig.
34),
which
be made of a disc of card-
may
carries a certain
number
(eight in all) disposed at equal distances
of narrow
round the
can be rapidly turned by

means of an excellent rotatory apparatus B, set in motion
an apparatus
by the weight P, and regulated by the fly
circumference of a
circle.
It
which allows a uniform motion

and
allows
also
its
to be given to the disc,
velocity to be varied at will.
latter result is easily obtained
by
increasing
the weight P, and modifying the form of the fly
few
trials it is
placed before the
the
slits
less
after a
easy to find the required velocity.
The apparatus then operates
intercepts
This
more or
slit
as follows
through which the
them completely
The
disc being
solar rays enter,
but every time that one of
in the disc comes before the
slit
the rays pass and illuminate the string.
in the shutter,
If,
then, the
velocity of the disc be so chosen that in the time that
it
FORM OF A VIBRATING STRING.

takes for the second, third, &c.,
before the
slit
slit
in the disc to
in the shutter, the string
movement, and returns
to its
first
when
it is
same
in the
come
makes a complete
position, the
will be illuminated intermittently at
time, always
155
string
equal intervals of
position.
The
string
and present the form which it has

at the given moment and in the given position.
The
obtained
and
are
clear
and
can
figures
complicated,
very
ought to appear
fixed,
easily be drawn, because the
were fixed
phenomenon remains as
may be wished. But
time as
it
it
form according to the way in which the string

made to vibrate. If it be plucked at a third, at a fourth
changes
is
for as long a
of
its
its
length, or at a seventh or eighth, if
it
be rubbed
with a bow at one point or another, sensibly different

figures are obtained.
Fig.
35 shows, as an example, the form observed when
Fig. 35.
the string
form
is
complicated, which
The image
At
plucked at one-seventh of
is
is
is
not equally clear and sharp at
the points
a, I,
c,
d,
there
intermediate points d, V, c,
fainter.
its
The
length.
The
the interesting circumstance.
is
d',
all its points.
a thin black line
the image
different portions
is
at the
enlarged and
of the string at
these
156
undergo very rapid vibrations, which the

on account of its too slow rate of rotation, does not
latter
disc,
points
succeed in analysing.
These portions, then, behave as in
the ordinary case of a string illuminated by continuous

light,
which does not show
between which
An
4.
it
its
form, but only the limits
vibrates.
apparatus of
much
use in
many
acoustic re-
and especially in the present question,
searches,
Phonautograph
36).
(fig.
form of a paraboloid, open
Scott &
is
large sounding-board in the
at its large end,
and closed
at its
narrowest part by a very thin animal membrane M, which

stretched
is
more
or less
by means
of three screws v (of
which only one is shown in the figure).

pith a cut into a right angle is attached
and
carries
at
its
piece of elder
to the
membrane,
extremity a very light and flexible
point p.
A note produced opposite the paraboloid A is reinforced

by
it,
the
membrane
M vibrates, the piece a takes
these vibrations leverwise, and the point

in a direction perpendicular to its
own
part in
p vibrates strongly
length.
The vibra-
made visible by means of the graphic

The point p touches the surface of the revolving
cylinder C, and the screw V serves to regulate this conThe cylinder is covered by a sheet of very smooth
tact.
tions are further
method.
paper smoked in a petroleum flame, and a movement of

rotation
is
imparted to the cylinder by means of the
handle M, or better
ment arranged
still,
by means
of a clockwork
to produce uniform rotation, driven
move-
by the
THE PHONAUTOGRAPH.
weight P.
cut on
it,
The
axis of the cylinder
so that the traces taken
157
further has a screw
by
different turns are
not superposed.
The phonautograph
may be used
for
is
many and
various researches.
The
vibra-
with great regularity. If

differing slightly from each other be taken
tions of a note are traced
two organ-pipes
a very useful instrument, which
by
it
158
and beats be produced, they will be traced with great

regularity on the revolving cylinder.
Very beautiful
curves are thus obtained, similar to those obtained by the
optical
But
method
[fig.
vibrations, but
known
33].
this instrument serves not only to demonstrate the
also
may
serve most usefully to
make
the form of the special corresponding curve.
In this respect, however, the instrument is not altogether

it may be that it does not register all
to be relied upon
;
the partial notes which enter into the formation of the
compound
note,
something on
its
and
it
own
may
also be the case that
it
adds
account.*
But notwithstanding these small defects, it shows

admirably that different and very characteristic curves
The modus
correspond to sounds of different timbre.
operandi
is
the same in every case.
All that
is
necessary
produce the sound to be examined before the mouth
is to
of the
instrument with a sufficient degree of energy,
and the instrument then of
itself
traces
the required
curve.
37 represents some of the most important cases in

Each horizontal line contains two somewhat
respect.
Fig.
this
different curves,
which however belong
and which are obtained according

*
and
The
effect is
clearer,
to the
when
more
certain,
to the
same sound,
to the greater or less
and the curves obtained are more beautiful

is reversed and only attached by one end
the pith lever
middle of the membrane, and the rectangular lever provided with a
The curves lately obtained thus are

joint so that it can move freely.
much more beautiful and characteristic than those shown in fiir. 37.
degree of energy and clearness with which the sound
is
Generally distinct musical sounds give more

produced.
complicated and more characteristic curves, than faint
sounds.
The
first five lines
contain the curves obtained by the
ci
Fig. 37.
vibrations produced
by the strong
voice
of a baritone
y, and pronouncing more or less clearly

the vowels A, E, I, 0, U.
The sixth and seventh lines
singing the note
contain the curves obtained from the same note sounded
on the clarionet and trumpet.
The
last contains
byway
of
160
complement the curve obtained by Quincke, by another

method, for a vibrating string the first half when the
string was rubbed at one-third, the second when it was
rubbed
at one-twentieth of its length.
All these curves, in their great variety, are certainly

In what
interesting, and give rise to another question
5.
relation do these
complex vibrations stand
to the simple
vibrations found in the case of the tuning-fork
It
be easily demonstrated that complex vibrations

considered as the
sum
of
2, 3,
or
more simple
may
may be
vibrations.
The proposition thus stated is too general for the purposes

of this treatise, and must be restricted to the simplest case
before us.
As an example, suppose
tions, so
[fig.
38].
there to be given three vibra-
chosen that their lengths are inversely as

If
it
be admitted that these three vibrations are
executed simultaneously by the same body,

to
it is fairly
easy
determine the curve representing the resultant motion.
For
this purpose
vertical lines
db,
all
a'V,
that
a"b",
and
values for each curve and add
is
needed
to set
them
sum
to
is
off
draw the
on these the
The curve
together.
thus drawn, in which each vertical line
algebraic
first
is
is
equal to the
of the corresponding vertical lines of the
three curves.
This curve thus produced
is
the curve
required.
In this way the curves of
fig.
30 have a clearly deter-
minate meaning. Curve 1 is simple; the second is the

result of two sets of vibrations whose lengths are in the
161
COMPOUND VIBRATIONS.
proportion of 2
lengths are as 3:
It is seen
the third
is
formed by vibrations whose
1.
by these examples that a complex curve may
Fig. 38.
be considered as the resultant of certain simple curves, and

according to the form and
that the
compound curve
number
of the simple curves composing
differs
it.
As
a general
162
proposition,
it is
the more complex, as the
curves that compose
of the
greater and their form
is
it
number
more
complex.
As
simple curves combined together give a complex
curve,
it
may
be asked whether every complex curve can
be decomposed into simple curves.

terms the problem
is
by mathematical
calculation.
possible to enter
on
the subject makes

result arrived
at.
very general,
it
here
Proposed in these
and can only be solved
It will not therefore
necessary to give, at
it
be
but the great importance of

all events,
the
Calculation shows that such problems
can always be solved.
However complicated the form

be,
it
of a periodic curve
can always be decomposed into a greater or
ber of simple curves,
numbers
if
less
may
num-
they be so chosen that the relative
of the vibrations they represent are in the simple
proportion of the progressive numbers
1, 2, 3, 4, 5,
&c.
This signifies that a complex curve, representing, for
example, the vibrations of a string, can always be decom-
posed into a curve representing a simple vibration of the
same number per second
and, further, into one represent-
ing a vibration of double that number, and others representing vibrations of a

&c.,
per second.
second are as
But
number
triple,
quadruple, quintuple,
as vibrations
whose numbers per
1:2:3:4:5,
&c.,
form the notes in that
which has been called the harmonic

mathematical investigation
in
the following
may
series,
the result of
be acoustically expressed
manner: Every musical sound wJwse
163
HARMONICS.
vibrations have a complex form, as tJwse of

le
decomposed into
to the
harmonic
ought
sounds
them,
be
to
all
series
series.
to
able
With
this
discover
can
theorem in hand, we
in
compound musical
the individual simple notes which compose
and we have thus
mental
string,
of simple notes all belonging
method
of
initiated
studying
the
second
of
timbre
experi-
musical
sounds.
6.
Experience shows that the notes of a string are not
always simple, but are accompanied by notes of the harmonic series if a sonometer be taken, for example, and
;
the string be caused to sound so that
it
gives the funda-
The reader already knows that the har-
mental note.
monics are obtained by dividing the string into 2, 3, 4, &c.,

parts (see Chapter i), and that the fundamental note being
equal to
gressive
1,
the harmonics
numbers
Seebeck's
siren
2, 3, 4,
(fig.
ducing the harmonics.
by the pro-
&c.
29) also serves admirably for proIf there be placed
on the axis of
which contains the following concentric
rotation a disc
series of holes
are represented
8, 16, 24, 32, 40, 48, 56, 64,
which are in the
ratios of
1:2:3:4:5:6:7:8,
the harmonics of the fundamental note are produced in
absolutely correct proportions.
These notes must not be
confounded with those of the musical

especially the
first,
scale.
very distant from each other.
They
are,
164
In
from
fact,
octave
its
thence to
2,
fundamental note 1 we pass to

fifth of its octave 3, and
the
thence to the
second octave above 4; whilst in the
the
musical scale the successive notes are considerably closer

together.
This being understood,
it is
not
difficult to
demonstrate
that in the case of a vibrating string the fundamental note
accompanied by its harmonics. With a little attention,

and without recourse to special experiments, the presence
is
of the third harmonic
may
be perceived by the ear alone.
becomes especially perceptible when the sound

of the string has grown faint, because the fundamental
The
latter
away more rapidly than the third harmonic, and

makes it more prominent also the fifth harmonic
note dies
therefore
is
The second and fourth harmonics
easily perceptible.
are less quickly perceived, because they represent the first
and second octaves of the fundamental

confounded with
The same
forte.
met with
harmonic.
easily
in the strings of a piano-
Sounding a somewhat low note
the octave of the next,
fifth
and are
it.
fact is
third harmonic,
note,
g, is easily
and the
c,
perceived,
of the next octave,
The other harmonics can
but with greater
for
difficulty.
example
which is its
which
also
is its
be heard,
The seventh harmonic
is
wanting, because pianofortes are generally so constructed

that the
hammer
strikes the string almost exactly at the
point which corresponds to a node of the seventh harmonic

that
is
to say, strikes at a seventh of the length of the
)ETECTION OF HARMONICS BY RESONATORS.
string,
which prevents the formation of a node
at that
point.
Harmonics
if
met with
are
also in other instruments
but
they are difficult to perceive, as often happens, either
because they are too
much mixed up with the fundamental

human voice, or because they
note, as is the case with the
are too feeble, recourse
may
Helmholtz's resonators (see
be had with great success to
fig.
22).
that these are nothing more

iii.]
than sounding-boards of spherical or cylindro-conical form
which are fitted to the ear, and which reinforce, each one,
It has
been seen [Chapter
according to
enough
its
be
to
volume, some one particular note.
It is
provided with a
reso-
nators for the different notes that
have a very
efficacious
means
may
many
others.
be met with, to
of proving the
of any particular note, however feeble
midst of
of these
series
presence
may
be, in the
The researches made on
this point
it
demonstrate that musical sounds produced by different

instruments have different harmonics, or at least in a
different measure.
note not accompanied by
times be sweet, but
it is
fore but little musical.
is,
that
agreeable sound,
it
harmonics
may
some-
always thin and poor, and thereis the case with tuning-forks.
This
Even the stopped organ-pipe

the result
its
is
almost without harmonics
and by no means
the vowel u. The har-
gives a hollow
somewhat
like
monics become, therefore, an almost indispensable condition

of musical sounds properly so called.
When the funda16
166
mental note
accompanied by the lower harmonics 2, 3,

If, on the
acquires a "broad, open, soft character.
&c., it
other hand,
is
it
is
sound acquires a
the higher harmonics that prevail, the

shrill or
clanging character
as, for
ex-
ample, in the trumpet, &c.
The
richest in
harmonics are the sounds of the
voice and of strings, and
ments of
7.
this class are,
The timbre
it
is for this
and always
is
produced^ then^ by
number and
the presence, in greater or less
most musical.
will be, the
of musical sounds
human
reason that instru-
degree, of the
harmonics which accompany the fundamental note.

musical sound
are
more
is
always a compound sound,
or less complicated,
and
it
by
itself
its
vibrations
alone consti-
tutes a true harmony, especially if the seventh harmonic
be wanting, which does not form a part of our musical
combining two, three, or more

musical sounds in order to form a chord, it is not enough
that the fundamental notes should bear simple ratios to
system.
It follows that in
each other, but
it
is
should obey this law.
may
be formed by
same system
for
all
also necessary that the
harmonics
Also the resultant notes, which

these notes,
of harmony.
We
must enter
into the
can thus formulate a law
harmony not only vaster and more general, but
will be hereafter seen, even
In
fact,
note 1
more
also, as
simple.
suppose that there be given the fundamental
the harmonics will be represented by
whence the complication of notes

1, 2, 3,
5,
2, 3, 4, 5, &c.,
will be expressed
&c.
by
HARMONICS OF THE TONIC AND FIFTH.
167
Suppose that the octave be also given, which is represented

by 2, and with it the harmonics of the doubled numbers
&c.
2, 4, 6, 8,
It is seen that,
single
new
the octave ,does not possess a
in fact,
It only repeats certain of the
note.
of the fundamental note
and the
produced
is
therefore
by combining together
the
octave,
the reinforcement of
harmonics
some
only effect
of the harmonics
already existing in the fundamental note.
It follows that
the fundamental note and octave cannot strictly be consi-
dered as two separate musical sounds; their harmony consti-
somewhat modified
tutes one single musical sound of
And
this is
what
are rich in harmonics
Adding the
timbre.
really takes place in instruments that

as, for
which
fifth,
is
example, the violin.

represented by
f,
to this
chord, the harmonics comprised in the fifth itself will be

I, 3, |, 6,
Some
of these notes, as 3,
fundamental note; but

chord with the
fifth
is
6,
&c.
&c.,
are comprised in the
f, &c., are
f,
notes.
The
than that with the
less perfect
but we can make
new
more perfect by adding as a

reinforcement the octave below the fundamental note,
octave
which
is
expressed by
i
Referring the
fifth
it
i,
and has
1,
|, 2, 1, 3, &c.
to this
for
harmonics
low note, we see that
all its
harmonics are already comprised in those of the latter in

fact, f ,
&c., are the third, ninth, &c., harmonics of the
;
168
fundamental note
more
perfect.
In
-|.
This
is
this
way
the reason
fundamental note with the
fifth
the
harmony becomes
why
the chord of the
and octave sounds rather
hollow and poor, and is considerably improved when the

lower octave of the fundamental note is added.
A
to
somewhat
same
this
harmonics
is
similar conclusion
is
arrived at
chord the major third, which
by adding
with
its
expressed by
{,
&e.
if
These notes do not exist in the fundamental note, but

the second octave below the fundamental note, which
is
expressed by
J,
be added, they
all
become harmonics,
though distant ones, of this note.
The conclusion
to
be drawn from this
is
that
it
is
add to the perfect chord of fundamental note,

third
and
octave, the two octaves below, in order to
major
necessary to
render
it
really agreeable.
This conclusion agrees with
that which experience has taught for a great length of

time.
In
written as
It
may
fact,
is
in practical music this chord
shown below
at 1,
and never
is
always
as at 2 or 3.
appear strange that in the perfect chord the
NOISES ACCOMPANYING MUSICAL SOUNDS.
its
it
should occupy four
octaves
and
places, whilst the third
occur only once, and
fifth
might appear that in this arrangement there
want
of balance
between the
169
was a
different notes.
Certainly this preponderance of the fundamental note
would be inexplicable by the
laws developed in the
preceding chapters,
when account was taken only
the simple ratios.
The reason becomes evident by the
considerations just
chord
all
now made
it
is,
of
that in the perfect
the notes must be considered as a simple rein-
The
forcement of the fundamental note.
perfect chord
becomes, in fact, a single musical sound, of very musical

quality,
and with a very rich and varied
The conclusion
much
is
thus arrived
timbre.
that chords are so
the more agreeable to the ear as fewer
are added to the fundamental note
chord of
added.
at,
all,
new
notes
in the most agreeable
the perfect chord, not a single
new
note
is
This conclusion becomes the more evident, the
richer the musical sounds at our disposal are in harmonics.

It
is
finds a chord the
necessary to understand
8.
by the conformation of the ear,

more agreeable, the less effort is
also easily explained
which
The timbre
it.
of musical sounds
is
not only caused by
the harmonics which accompany in different degrees the
fundamental note, but also by the more or less distinct

noises which are caused by the special method by which
the sounds are produced.
string
rubbed by a bow
always allows the sound of something scraping to be
170
heard
embouchure of an organ-pipe the blowing
at the
of the air
is
hea,rd
distinctly heard as
rally speaking, as
from our
it
we
in the pianoforte the
strikes the string,
and so
hammer
on.
is
Gene-
are accustomed to hear these noises
earliest infancy, it is these
above
that teach
all
us to distinguish one instrument from another, whilst the
harmonics are unnoticed, although they

louder than the noises spoken of.
In
may
be
much
the harmonics that accompany a note on the
fact, if
violin are always the same, as, with the exception of very
slight differences, is really the case, there is
practical
life
to analyse
may
no reason in
to induce us to go farther into the matter, or
and examine as
be present.
to the extent to
which they
It is for this reason that the harmonics
remained so long unobserved, and that even now many

practical musicians are unacquainted with them, or look
upon them as subjective phenomena.

Our ear does not advance in analysis
ought
to be a
it
farther than
it
obeys, in this respect, also that which appears
fundamental law of nature
that
is, it
obtains its
purpose with the least exertion and the least labour posIt may be easily demonstrated that the ear does
sible.
not separate notes to the concomitance of which
it
has
been long accustomed.

By taking a series of tuningforks giving the harmonic series, and setting them in
action,
in
short
time their notes become so mixed
together as to appear only one note.

tuning-fork, which by
itself gives a
If,
then, another
good harmony with
KONIG'S HARMONIC DETECTOR.

as, for
the presence of this
new
what
it
1,
is
not
be set vibrating,
note almost immediately disturbs
the equilibrium of the harmonics

to analyse
but which
example, f
a harmonic of the fundamental note
171
perceives,
the ear
and
all
tinctly heard.
For the same reason
to perceive the
harmonics of the
is
then induced
the notes are disit
very
difficult
voice,
however
is
human
numerous and strongly pronounced they may be. It is

necessary for this to have recourse to more minute
methods of
resonators
and
analysis,
of the
are
this respect Helmholtz's
in
use.
greatest
But
at
the
same
time I will describe an instrument founded on the use
and constructed by the mechanician Konig

the purpose of making the results visible even to a
of resonators,
for
numerous audience.
9.
tors
note
The apparatus
adapted to
c.
At
composed of eight resonathe harmonic series of the fundamental

(fig.
39)
is
the back of each one an indiarubber tube
puts the orifice in communication with a capsule, closed
by an
elastic
membrane.
In front of
and burns under the form of a
this,
gas enters
small, very mobile flame.
Eight flames, therefore, correspond to the eight resonators.
When
the air vibrates in one of the resonators, the vibra-
tion is
communicated
observed, as
of a
is
described in the
revolving mirror, which
In order to know
of the
to the flame,
human
s if
and
first
is
its
vibrations are
chapter,
by means
turned by a
handle.
the sound of a given instrument or
voice contains harmonics, and
what they
172
may
be, all that is needful is to
produce close to the
apparatus a note corresponding in pitch to the largest

resonator
that
mental note.
is
to say, c
Then,
if
which represents the funda-
there be harmonics, they will set
the resonators in action, and thence the corresponding

flames,
and a glance
at the revolving mirror is all that is
required in order to recognise
them immediately.
HARMONICS OF THE VOWELS.
By means
and
it is
most ingenious instrument it may be

musical instruments have harmonics,
of this
demonstrated that
all
immediately seen which these harmonics
The same may be
said of the
If a
very rich in these notes.
ment,
173
many
human
it
may
is
be sung near the instru-
flames will be seen to vibrate.
the example of HelmJioltz,
are.
which
voice,
But, following
be demonstrated that the
vowels pronounced whilst singing a note give

In order to show this, sing the
different harmonics.
different
fundamental note, and at the same time pronounce sucThe harmonics can thus
cessively the different vowels.
be easily observed, which accompany the fundamental
note in different degrees.
obtained in the case
The vowel
is
very strong, and
we
The following
are considering
results
are
composed of the fundamental note

the third harmonic sufficiently pro-
nounced.
contains the fundamental note, the second harmonic
very strong, and the third and fourth harmonics
The vowel A
slightly.
contains, besides the fundamental note, the
second harmonic feeble, the third strong, and the fourth

feeble.
E has the fundamental note feeble, the second harmonic

rather strong, the third feeble
fourth
is
very strong and the
on the other hand, the
fifth feeble.
has very high harmonics, especially the
fifth,
strongly
marked.
These
differences,
which are
easily observed, arise
from
174
the forms assumed by the mouth, tongue, and lips in the
pronunciation of
the different vowels.
They
are
not
exactly the same, as they depend on the timbre of the
pronouncing them, on the special
voice of the person
character of the language in which they are pronounced,
and
also
mental
is
on the pitch of the note selected as the fundaThis last fact
note.
considered that the
variable form and

cated,
But
and I
if it
be understood .when
The
results, therefore, are compli-
draw attention
to them.
be true that the timbre of the vowels
stituted in the
way
it
itself acts as a resonator of
size.
will only
may
mouth
briefly indicated above,
is
con-
we ought
to
be able to reproduce the different vowels by synthesis, by

combining the fundamental note with its harmonics in
the proper proportions.
This work has been actually
accomplished by Helmholtz,
who made
use for this purpose
which gave sensibly simple notes.

arranged them according to the harmonic series, and
of stopped organ-pipes,
He
combining them together in the way indicated above,

succeeded in making the fundamental pipe spcdk the
The
different vowels in a clearly pronounced manner.
demonstration
stitutes
is
therefore complete,
and certainly con-
one of the great triumphs of science.
CHAPTEE
1.
DIFFERENCE BETWEEN SCIENCE AND

MUSIC
AND
OF PARIS
1.
6.
THE laws
4.
IX.
ART
2.
ITALIAN AND
SEPARATION OF THE TWO SCHOOLS
GERMAN
INFLUENCE
5.
CONCLUSION.
of timbre
are the basis
of the
theory of
instrumentation, and also embrace the whole of harmony.
been explained heretofore is

that is, That musical
reducible to one single principle
Thanks
to them, all that has
notes
must
more
perfect, the
satisfy the laws of
more
harmony, and that this is

a chord reinforce
the notes of
tlie
the
fundamental note. Thus the idea of the tonic and the

fundamental chord loses its character of only practical
utility
it
becomes
a necessary consequence
of
this
law.
Science has succeeded in taking in from one single

point of view this grand and admirable assemblage of
facts,
which are required in the history and development

It is in a position to deduce rigorously the
of music.
rules of the art of music,

if it
happened
But
and could
easily create
anew
to be lost.
I should not wish these words of
the minds of
it
my
mine
to raise in
readers the idea that science can be or
176
desires to be substituted for art.
that
escapes
all
explain up to a certain point

form, but which
it
In
art there
is
one thing
which science indeed can
calculation,
when
it
has taken a palpable
can neither predict or modify
As
Poetic Inspiration.
this is
the most profound knowledge of
grammar, of syntax and prosody, is not sufficient to make

even a mediocre poet, so the most accurate study of the
laws of harmony and of instrumentation would not be
enough to create a composer. Composition and criticism
are
two diametrically opposite operations of the human

they ought to go hand in hand, and as far as pos-
mind
sible
with a
common
one to the other
agreement, and be complementary
but the
never be a great com-
critic will
poser, nor the composer a true
critic.
I have endeavoured to pass before
my
readers in rapid
review the most important facts of the history of music, and

have especially endeavoured to show how even the most
fantastic creations of
man may
be linked to certain simple
laws which science has revealed.

tainly
unknown
to those great
men
These laws were cerof genius
who have
left
an imperishable record in their works.
They were only
guided in their paths
and
by
feeling, fancy,
inspiration.
And it
came afterwards and only explained.
The thought,
will always be thus even in the future.
to prophesy
mind
into
our
enter
will
never
therefore,
Science
what music
artistically
will be fifty or a
speaking,
it
will
hundred years hence, and,

be on the ascending or
the
descending branch of the parabola; the more so as
ITALIAN AND
aesthetic principles to
GERMAN
which the
But
have no absolute value.
MUSIC.
177
art successively
may
it
conforms
be said with cer-
tainty that no single thing will ever be accepted which
is
clearly contrary to the broad principles already established
by
science.
And
with this
my
task would be finished
but I do not wish to leave this interesting subject, or to

close this treatise, without touching
which
questions
and which belong
have
latterly
on some few other
been
to the artistic
much
agitated,
patrimony of modern
Europe.
2.
Much
has been said about the great substantial
difference separating the Italian
and German music.
The
and melodious; the

latter complicated, studied, obscure, and transcendental.
And it is sought to find in this one of the characteristic
former
called simple, intelligible,
is
features of difference
between the two nations.
It is true
that in the last and present centuries Italian musicians
have cultivated by choice melody and song, and it is also

true that in German music the study of harmony and
of choral and instrumental scoring has been carried to an
admirable degree of perfection; but
it
is
not true that
this has
always been the case, and
error to
endeavour to find in these facts a distinctive
characteristic of the
two
it
would be a great
nations.
In the Middle Ages matters were exactly reversed the

first centuries of polyphonic music were marked in
Italy
;
by immense complication.
most
artificial
17
Voices linked together in a
manner, different movements fused
to-
178
gether according to complicated and obscure rules, were

the
characteristics
polyphonic music up to
of Italian
the time of Palestrina.
The Protestant Keformation pro-
duced in Germany simple harmony and simple song, a

form of music at once clear, easy, and transparent. ISTo
is
comparison
possible as to simplicity between the
first
Protestant chants and the Italian music of this same
who
Palestrina,
the great reformer and
was, however,
simplifier of Italian polyphonic music.
After this epoch the two nations continued, in respect to style, almost on the
same
road.
Italy decidedly
took the lead, thanks to her enormous musical activity,
and
to the considerable
number
men
of
of real creative
power.
From
this
moment
Viadana wrote the
progress was rapid and continuous.

first
melodies, and added as their
accompaniment the continuous bass

latti
Carissimi and Scar-
be considered as the inventors of expressive

To this last true musical genius we owe the in-
may
recitative.
vention of the aria, which with
its first
and second part and

which the column
repetition represents in music almost that
represents in architecture.
In his operatic essays he intro-
duced the
and
from the
recitativo obligate,
first
his great disciples
thoroughly
initiated
effected.
and emulators Durante, Leo, and Greco

Thanks to their efforts, music threw
off its character of great severity,
mony and
by this the change

which
Italian style to the second, a change
counterpoint.
and
its rigid
rules of har-
In their hands, and in those of
DEVELOPMENT OF OPEKA.
the bold innovator Claudio Monteverde,
179
on the contrary,
it,
underwent considerable instrumental development, with

more broadly and freely distributed melody, followed by
accompaniments of greater simplicity and of freer scope.

For the austere movement was substituted clear, simple,
ingenuous sentiments plastic beauty, exact time, maintained with grace and fine discrimination in the midst of
;
most beautiful melodies, was the character assumed by music

in the seventeenth century, a character which
to be recognised in the ecclesiastical
all efforts,
notwithstanding
primitive.
This
music
the form
still
movement continued up
is
especially
whilst in opera,
remained very
to the eighteenth
Following close on church music, opera developed more and more, and with the history of this move-
century.
ment the names
of Pergolese, Piccini, Saccliini, Jomelli,
Cimarosa, and Paesidlo remain connected.

activity
was communicated
new form and
This creative
Germany, where
to
a surprising development.
it
Men
took
like
Hdndcl, Haydn, Bach, Gluck, Mozart, gave a wonderful

breadth of idea to music; but, with the exception of
Gluck, they
must be considered
as the fruitful
and genial
continuers of the Italian movement, which they carried
out in
much
themselves.
the same spirit as the Italian composers
To show how
little
the two differed,
we need
"
"
only compare the Matrimonio segreto of Cimarosa with

Mozart's " JSTozze di Figaro." One would say that they were
two works of the same

brothers in
art,
of
and composed by two

was the most facile, most
school,
which the
first
180
cheerful,
and most elegant
the second the broader, richer,
and more profound.

3. The distance between the German and Italian music
is
most evident in the case of the works of Gluck and
Beethoven on the one hand, and the works of Rossini on
the other.
Whilst in the middle of the
two schools did not
much from
differ
last
century the
each other, and
the Italian music then closely resembled the German, the
executive part of the art took a different direction in Italy.
The
last
century
is
the century of grand Italian song.
Italy surprised the world

singers she produced, and
by the number
by
of distinguished
the serious and solid method
on which her schools of singing were organised. These

singers overran Europe, passing from triumph to triumph,
feted
But
by all, and idolised in an almost incredible manner.

was precisely the great importance to which the
it
Italian school of singing rose

its
downfall in real value.
which became the cause of
The
singers began to consider
themselves as the thing of greatest importance,
and
as the
on which the grandeur of Italian music reposed.

For them the composition was the pretext their principal
It then came about
aim, to shine as much as possible.
basis
that the music being too simple to afford

of shining, they substituted for
them the means
simple melody a more
complicated form, interpolating turns and shakes, cadences
and ornamentations
of every kind, to the manifest detri-
ment
of the composer
great
masters of that time submitted to this state of
and of musical good
taste.
The
TWO
ROSSINI'S
things, being powerless to
who thought
remedy
Then came
it.
Rossini,
better to write complicated melodies with
it
cadences,
scales,
181
STYLES.
and
difficulties
of every sort himself,
since thus alone could good taste be even partially saved.
He
acted like certain politicians,
the head of a
able to control
movement
in the
but
suffer
it
hope
themselves at
of being thus better
it.
The richness and variety

able
who put
is
of his forms are truly admir-
evident that true musical conception must
under these continued shakes and turns.
There
is
only one purpose for which this light and varied style
seems fitted, and that is for comic opera; and in this
respect Eossini has left an undying model of grace and
freshness in the
"
Barbiere di Siviglia."
in the style of grand opera, Eossini
almost completely.
His
last opera,
In his
later works,
abandoned
this style
"
Guglielmo
Tell," is
entirely without ornamentation, and in some parts

for example, in the trio
second act
But
this
rises to
as,
and in the conspiracy in the
an incomparable elevation.
more chaste and
was formed away from
Italy,
correct style
of Eossini's
by tendencies and
ideas
from those that there held sway.

Tor Italy,
the alienation was effected, and could not easily be again
undone. Under his more important successors, as Bellini
different
and
song
Donizetti,
music acquired the character of simple
often deep arid feeling, often light, superficial, and
cloying.
The impression which the composer of "Norma" has
182
produced, and
felt
still
produces by his beautiful and deeply-
melodies, the interest that Donizetti inspires
by the
elegance of style displayed in his best works, ought not

to
make
us lose sight of the fact that the superabundance
melody is not suited to the requirements of the modern

Save for many very beautiful exceptions, sentistage.
of
mentality took the place of real sentiment

expression was
sought
after.
to a great extent obscured,
Then came
who
Verdi,
and dramatic
and often never

felt
that this
continual melody would at last corrupt all minds.
For
melody he substituted movement, which was

not yet dramatic feeling, but contained strength and
vigour, even though it were sometimes in a rather rugged
beautiful
form.
This style of writing was pleasingly in accord-
ance with the national aspirations.
Italy at that time
was awaking to a new life she felt the want of movement and strong emotions. Patriotism therefore laid
;
hold of the music of Verdi,
and used and abused
it
freely.
and the school of singing

Verdi
has
all
it
entirely popular,
But musical good
suffered immensely.
taste
Latterly,
considerably modified his style of writing,
and has openly drawn nearer

has at
made
to the
German
school, or
events diminished the great distance which
formerly separated our school of music from the Ger-
man school.
From " Nabucco
"
and
"
Ernani
"
to
"
"
Rigoletto
" II Ballo in
Maschera," and from these to
progress in this direction
is
continuous.
"
and
Aida," the
These examples,
MUSIC AS A MEANS OF DRAMATIC EXPRESSION.

besides being well
interest
4.
was
183
known, are discussed everywhere with
and eagerness.
Although the rupture came from the Italian

brought about on the side of Germany.
side, it
Gluck
first
introduced and developed wonderfully the conception of
dramatic music, which proposes as its object to adapt the

music better to the words, and to create a musical work
of art
capable of producing on the hearers the same
sensations that the text which accompanies
In this respect music

artistic effects.
is
it
produces.
an inexhaustible mine of truly
It is superior in
many
sometimes in the expression of the
points to poetry
terrible,
and sometimes
in the expression of the really gentle emotions.
To prove
this, it is enough to recall in modern works the love scene

between Faust and Marguerite described musically by
Gounod, to conclude that the grand poetry of Goethe has

not only not suffered here, but that the effect is somewhat
modified and idealised rather than diminished.
We
need
only recall again the duet between Raoul and Valentina, in

"Gli Ugonotti," in which all emotions from patriotism to love,
and from love
to terror, are described with vividness
and
incomparable feeling, which, in spite of some exaggerations,

strike us profoundly
"Der
lastly,
the terrible scene in Weber s
Freischutz," where terror
degree of musical expression.
is
carried to the highest
Music, which in
respects remains inferior to poetry, shows
other hand, superior to
it
in others
and feeling are strongly marked.
itself,
many
on the
where dramatic
effect
184
A greater separation took place, caused by Beethoven, the

great
and true creator of modern instrumental music.
From
this
time the German school separated more and
more from the common road
had trodden in company

Mendelssohn, Schuman, and
it
with
the
lastly
Wagner, are only a continuous gradation on this
Italian
school.
Music acquired a more and more instrumental

To use
character, and free singing became obscured.
path.
a celebrated phrase, which
is
perhaps exaggerated, but
which sharply depicts the actual state of things, it may

be said that in Italian music the orchestra had become
a big guitar, only intended to accompany the singing;
but
may
it
singers
also
be said that in the German music the
had become walking
orchestral instruments.
It
must, however, be admitted that whilst Italian music has
undergone in this century a sensible decline, in Germany

The study of harmony and
it has remained elevated.
and
movements
orchestral
deep dramatic feeling and
grand
expression, notwithstanding
some too
realistic
exaggera-
have been brought to a high

intellectual
influence of Richard
the
of
perfection by
degree
tions
and some
Wagner.
We
trivialities,
owe
it
to him, that for libretti
almost
always insipid, and which served as bare excuses for the

musical part of the work has been substituted a more
masculine and independent form of poetry.
The
closer
union of poetry and music, in which both arts advance

with regular step without one being smothered by the
other,
constitutes
perhaps the
most
salient
and most
MUSIC OF THE FUTURE.

lutiful character of his
lofty,
most
rich,
music, which
185
is
almost always
and which transports us
to
an ideal
sphere.
I say this in spite of all the clamour which has been

raised on both sides of the Alps against the
It
future."
too refined,
calculation
"
music of the
reproached with being too studied and

and with leaning not towards feeling, but
is
and combination.
But we need only
listen
to
it
with attention and
without prejudice to be convinced of the greatness and
number
to
"
"
of the beauties
which
The prelude
contains.
it
Lohengrin," the song to the swan,
many
passages in
Tannhaiiser," and other things prove the contrary.
This
music has had the great and sad privilege of exciting,

almost incredibly, passions in its favour and against it
but when these passions have grown calm, I believe that

it will be impossible to deny to it the character of a great
musical
poem whose
limits will extend far
national circle for which

5.
tant
Finally,
we must
agent in
exercised
by
it
was
beyond the
written.
take into account a third impor-
musical history
that
is,
the influence
Paris on the conduct of musical ideas.
If
we except opera comique (which must not be confounded

with the Italian opera buffo), in which Gretry, Boieldieu,
Herold, Auler, and others excelled,
it
may
be said that the
French have never been true creators in music.

withstanding
the art
is
this,
great
Not-
the influence of Paris on the history of
and incontestable.
Placed, as
it
were,
THE THSOKY OF SOUND.
186
midway between the two musical

splendours of Parisian
life
and
its
nations, thanks to the
mania
for
amusement,
Paris became one of the important centres where
grave musical problems were worked out.
It
many
was there
that arose the struggle between Ghick's severe music and
the melodious music of Piccini.
It
Italian Cherulini found a highly
was there that the
honoured
post,
with his
tendency towards German music. It was there that Meyer-
abandoning his first style, created "Eoberto il Diavolo,"

"
" Gli
Prophete," which by their granUgonotti," and the
leer,
deur of conception will

it is
make
his
fame immortal.
Finally,
there that the best Italian masters have gone in search
of competent criticism,
Rossini's
" Don
"Guglielmo
fined
Tell," Donizetti's
Sebastian," finally,
in this manner.
and have modified
their style.
"Favorita" and
most of Verdi's works, have arisen
The influence
of Paris
may
be thus de-
that she insists on the creation of a type of music
which should contain the good points of the German and

Italian schools without their exaggeration.
therefore eminently eclectic,
is
problems by clinging closely to dramatic music.
of its
It
This school
and has found the solution
melody and song, but

those cases in which it is compatible with
thus maintained the
limited
it
to
dramatic expression.
Italian
It has
adopted the grand choral
and orchestral movements of Germany, giving them a

suitable importance.
Lastly, it tried to obtain an inti-
mate
relation
between words and music, with the
desire,
INFLUENCE OF PARIS.
187
rather expressed than carried out, of subordinating neither

to the other.
The character of
this school is best recognised in the
who have written dramatic operas.

himself in his " Masaniello," have
Auler,
Halevy, Gounod,
French
composers
trodden this path.

eclectic
Whatever may usually be thought of
things, the
eclecticism
been of real importance.
It
of.
the Paris school has
must be considered
as
an
earnest and partly successful attempt to unite from one
common
point of
were very
view two schools whose
different.
And
tendencies
from this attempt have arisen
noble ideas and grand works of art which will exert a true
and great influence even on

6.
As
posterity.
for the future itself, it
scientific critic to
wish to foresee
is
not for a musical or
its steps.
I shall there-
fore take care not to give an opinion on the subject.
That which
it
was important
for us to demonstrate
was
that music has been developed according to certain rules
which depended on unknown laws of nature since discovered, that it cannot be separated from these laws, and
that within
them there
the efforts of
human
is
field large
fancy.
THE END.
enough
for all
INDEX.
Dissonant intervals,
Dome, invention
95.
of the, 114.
Arch, invention of the, 114.
compared to music, 112;

Greek, 114; Roman, 114; Gothic style
Architecture,
of, 114.
Aria, invention of the,

Art in music, 176.
178.
Baptistery of Pisa, reflection of sound in

the, 43.
experiment illustrating the

production of, 79 production of, by
means of bells, 80 proof that an
instrument is not properly tuned, 82;
piano-forte, 139; organ, 140; illustration of theory of, 150.
Beethoven's place in modern music, 184.
Biblical music, 115.
Beats, 78;
Ear of Dionysius,
41.
Ecclesiastical music, 121 ; effect of Luther's Reformation on, 122.

Echo, conditions necessary for its production, 43; monosyllabic, 44; dissyllabic, 44 ; trisyllabic, 44 ; examples of, 44.
Elastic body, vibration of a particle of
an, 5.
Exact scale, adapted to wind instruments, 142 ; ancient Italian music
performed
Fifth,
in, 144.
harmony of
the, 89; ratio of the,
100.
Flats, their relation to semi-tones, 1&3.
Fourth,
Chants, Ambrosian and Gregorian, 121.
Chords, consonant, 101; major perfect,
102-106; minor perfect, 102-106; inverting the, 106, 107.

Clarionet, 20; curves obtained by sounding a note on the, 159.
its
position in the
harmonic
series, 90; ratio of the, 100.

185; eclectic character of,
French music,
186,187.
Fundamental note, 12,71; octave of the,

recurrence of the, 124; preponderance of the, 169.
12;
Comparison between works of Glnck

and Beethoven and of Rossini, 180,
181.
Consonant chords, theory
of, 101; rule

for the production of, 101; perfect,
102; character of music formed only
of, 109.
intervals, 95.
David, Psalms of, 115.

Discords, 109; how regarded in the time
of Palest rina, 110.
Dissonances, secondary, 107.
18
Galileo's
ment,
discovery
regarding
move-
1.
German music,
peculiarities of, 177; ele-
vation of, 184.

Goethe's poetry, 183.
Greek melody, richness of, 121.
Greek music, 115; development of musical scale of, 116; lyre of Orpheus, 117.
Harmonic
series, 71; laws of the, 72;

notes not found in the, 87; notes con-
INDEX.
190
sonant with each other, 89; position

of the fourth in the, 90; notes beproduction of,
longing to the, 163
;
Sc-ebeck's siren, 163; indispensable connection with musical sounds,
by
165.
Harmonics, detection by resonators, 165;

of the tonic and fifth, 167 KOnig's
;
detection
of, 171 ; vowel, 173.

of, 123.
Harmony, origin
Helmholtz's double siren, 96-99; experiments on harmonicon, 141.

History of music, phenomena manifest
in the, 111.
Human
voice, modulations of the, 57 ;

limits of the, 68, 69; notes of the,
142 timbre of the, 147 ; harmonics of
;
the, 166, 171, 173.
Inverted chords, the resource of Palestrina, 106; examples of, 107.

Isochronism, law of, 2, 48.
Italian music, peculiarities of, 177, 178; in
the last century, 180
orchestra
of,
184.
Minor
sixth, limit of dissonant notes, 92

ratio of the, 100.
third, the inverted octave of
sixth, 91, 92; ratio of the, 100.
the
Music, secret of impression on the human heart, 111; instrumental, 111;

immaterial character of, 112; architecture likened to, 112, 114 unfailing
characters of, 113; primitive, 115;
development of Greek, 115; as a
means of dramatic expression, 183 ;
ecclesiastical, 121
polyphonic, 121,
;
122
Palestrina's influence on, 123
transformation of Greek scales into

modern, 123; Palestrina's, 124; ancient Italian, 144, 178; future, 185,
187; Parisian influence on, 185-187;
science in relation to, 175; art in relation to, 176 ; difference between
Italian and German, 177, 180; in the
Middle Aues, 177; development of
operatic, 178, 179 ; Rossini's two
styles, 181.
Musical innovations, opposition
to, 88.
intervals, 111, 128; varieties of, 129.

scales, 113; their study a means of
judging of national development, 113.

sounds, 74, 75; law of simple ratio,
notes in unison, 76 inter75, 76
ference of notes, 77; apparatus for
producing interference, 77; beats, 78;
82, 139, 140; third characteristic dif-
Keyless trumpet, limits of the, 87.

KOnig's harmonic detector, 171.
ference of, 146; timbre, how caused,

169 noises accompanying, 169 ; compound character of, 166.
;
Law
of simple ratio, 75, 76, 87.

of interference, 78.
of the harmonic series. 72, 166.
Limits to audible sound, 67; music limited to a
few notes,
87.
of, 122.
Madrigals, development
Major perfect chord, composition of
102; pieces founded on the, 104.
the,
scale, ratio of the, 127 ; characters

of the, 131; pieces founded on the,
131.
sixth, ratio expressed by the, 90;
ratio of the, 100.
importance in the scale.
third, 84
91 ; Pythagorean third, 91 ; ratio of
;
12.
Noise, as distinguished from musical

sounds, 46, 47.
ObOe, 20.
Octave, of the fundamental note, 12;
number of vibrations per second in
the, 26; ratio of the, 85 harmony of
fundamental note with, 86; voices
of women, 86 fifth of the, 86 number of vibrations in a second made
by the. 100; no new notes found in
;
of, 144;
the, 167.
Organ, 19; beats on the, 140; principle

of construction of the, 137; value of
the, 143.
Orpheus's
the, 100.
Melody, cultivation
Nodes,
lyre, 117.
movement
substituted for, 182 Greek, 121.

Membrane vibrations, 16.
Minor perfect chord, composition of the,
pieces founded on the, 105;
102, 103
Mozart's reluctance to the use of the,
;
105.
srale,
ed on
form of the, 130; music foundthe, 131.
Palestrina. resource of, 106; music of,

107, 144.
Pendulum, law of the, 1.

Periodic movements, importance assigned by physics to, 1; illustration
INDEX.
how
of, 1,2; examples of compound, 2, 3;

decomposition of curves, 162.
Phonantograph. description of Scott's,
156-158; defects of the, 158 ; curves

traced by the, 159, 160.
Piano-forte, range of notes of the, OS
principle of construction of the, 137,
138; beats on the, 139, 140; confined
to drawing-room, 142; defects of the,
distinguished, 45; distinction

between noise and, 46, 47 ; loudnuss
of musical, 47^49; law of resonance,
54; sounding-boards, 54, 55; pitch of
musical. 59 ; limit of audible, 0(5, 7
Despretz's results, 67; quality of,
146 its formation, 4, 5 accompanied
by vibration of sounding body, (i, 27;
subjective character of, 27; its transmission,^; velocity of, 83; method
of determining velocity of, 34.
Sounding-boards, 54; Helmholtz's resonator, 55 ; of stringed instruments,
;
143.
Plate vibration, 14; Chladni's figures, 15.

Poetic inspiration, 176.
Pythagorean scale, formation of the, 119,
128; transformation of the, 120; modern scale compared with the, 127.
57, 58.
Sounding-pipe vibration,
flue-pipes, 17, 20;
pipes, 18, 20.
16;
exan-ple of
examples of reed-
Speaking-tubes, 32.
St. Paul's Cathedral, construction of the
Resonance of sound,
how
40;
dome
remedied,
Resonators, description of Helmholtz's,

55; spherical, 56; detection of harmonics by means of, 165; use of
Helmholtz's, 171.
Resultant notes, related to beats, 82;
name uiven by Tartini to, 82; observed by means of organ-pipes, 83;
rule for observing, 84; importance in
theory of music, 85; fundamental
note reinforced by, 86; studied by
means
of, 41.
Stringed instruments, notes of, 142.

String vibrations, 9, 10; demonstration
transverse and longitudinal,
of, 10
11 use in music of transverse vibrademonstration of transtions, 11
verse vibrations. 11
fundamental
note, 12; octave, 12; node of, 12; ex-
40, 41.
periment by means of riders,
12;
com-
character of, 152

momentary
Slex
lamination of a string, 153, 154
;
form of a vibrating
string, 155.
of, 101.
scale, 137; influence of Sebastian Bach, 137; progress in instrumental music due to, 138 comparison of exact, scale with, 138-142; re-
Temperate
Savart's bell, 53.
Scale, development of the Greek musical,
116: Scotch and Chinese, 118; Py-
properties of
modern, 125; major and minor, 125;
characters of major and minor, 131
temperate, 137.
Seventh harmonic, not used in practical
music, 93; effect of its introduction
into music, 94; represents the line
of demarcation between harmonics
lation to piano-forte, 143.
thagorean, 119, 120;
Timbre, causes that produce,
147; illustration, 148; tuning-fork vibrations,

148; Lissajous's method of showing
vibrations, 149-152; Phonautograph,
156-159; due to the harmonics which
and discords,
accompany the fundamental note,

166; of vowels, 174; laws of timbre at
the basis of instrumentation, 175.
Tones, whole, 128; minor, 128; major,
128; semi-tones, 129.
Transmission of sound, 28; an elastic
medium necessary for the, 29; demonstration that air may be the medium for the, 30, 31; all 'elastic bodies
capable of the, 31 experiment on the,
94.
Sharp, relation to semi-tones, 133.

Siren, of Cagniard de la Tour, 60, 61;
counter connected with the, 63; use
of instrument, 64, 65
Helmholtz's
double, 96-100; Seebeck's, 163.
;
Solomon, music of, 115.

Sonometer, 10, 57; use of, 72. 73.
32,33.
Sound, results obtained by members of
the French Academy, 35; velocity of Transmission of vibratory movement, 29;
high and low notes, 36; Biot's exphenomena of interference, 30.
;
periments, 36
Regnault's experiments, 36; velocity through water,
37; ve'oc'ty in different bodies, 3739; reflection of, 39-41: utilising of
the reflection of, 41
elegant mode
of demonstrating the refection of, 42;
the echo, 43, 44; different sounds,
;
Transposition, 132-136.
Trumpet, keyless, 87; curves obtained by
sounding a note on the, 159.
Tuning-fork vibrations, 7; graphic method of illustrating, 8, 9, 59; effect pro-
duced by sounding together, 58; used

in tuning musical instruments, 69.
INDEX.
192
Uniform
pitch, its establishment in different countries, 69 ; pitch established by an international commission, 70.
Ventral segments, 13.

Vibration, amplitude of, 4^; sympathetic,
demonstrations of sympathetic,
49
;
pared to the compact movements of

soldiers, 6; likeness to the undisciplined movements of a crowd, 6;
of a bell, 6; of a tuning-fork, 7; of a
string, 9; transverse, 11; longitudinal, 11; plate or membrane, 14-16; of
liquid and gaseous bodies, 16; pitch
dependent on number of, 59; number

of, how determined, 59 ; limits of
musical notes, 68; tuning-fork, 148-
Violins, comparative value
of notes
50-52.
od, 22, 23; demonstration by means

of the manometric flame, 23, 24.
simple, 2; compound, 2, 3, 161;
complex, 2, 160; sonorous, 5; com-
of,
146; range
of, 68.
Vibrations of air in a pipe, methods of

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W
Weber's " Der Freischiitz,"
Wind
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THE INTERNATIONAL SCIENTIFIC

INTERNATIONAL SCIENTIFIC SERIES.

FORMS OP WATER A Familiar Exposition of

TYNDALL, LL. D., F. R.

PHYSICS AND POLITICS;

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MIND AND BODY The Theories of

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"Natural Selection" and "Inheritance" to Political Society.

One Volume, 12mo, and bound

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Their Nature, Influences, Uses, etc. By M. C. TOOKE, M. A., LL. D.

and a Table of Spectra in

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MONEY AND THE MECHANISM OF EXCHANGE.

Monsieur VAN EENBDEN.

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STUDENTS' TEXT-BOOK OF COLOR;

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ANIMAL LIFE AS AFFECTED BY THE NATURAL CONDITIONS OF

Or, Modern Chromatics. With

Applications to Art and Industry.

and numerous Engravings

A HISTORY OF THE GROWTH OF THE STEAM-ENGINE. By

ITS RELATION TO MUSIC. By ProWith numerous Illustrations. $1.50.

THE THEORY OF SOUND IN

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GENERAL PHYSIOLOGY OF MUSCLES AND NERVES. By

SUN. By C. A. YOUNG, Professor of Astronomy

Scientific Series- ^Continued.)

What they Are and what they Teach. By JOHN W. JODD,

in Comparative Moral Statistics.

SELLI, M.D., Professor

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THE BRAIN AND

of Observations of the Habits of

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THE ORGANS OF SPEECH AND THEIR APPLICATION IN THE

at the University of Zurich.

of Logic from the Practical Side.

SIDGWICK, B.A., Oxon.

AND WASPS. A Record

Essay in the Positive Psychology.

the Social Hymenoptera.