Professional Documents
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W.
Erickson
Department
of
Electrical,
Computer,
and
Energy
Engineering
University
of
Colorado,
Boulder
Introduction to Inverters
Robert W. Erickson
Department of Electrical, Computer, and Energy Engineering
University of Colorado, Boulder
A Basic Single-Phase
Inverter Circuit
Two ways to generate
a PWM sinusoid
DC power source
Modied
Sine-Wave
Inverter
The
Modified
Sine
Wave
Inverter
Modied Sine-Wave Inverter
vac(t)
H-bridge switches at the
vac(t) has a
output
frequency
vac(t) has a + VHVDC
rectangular
Waveform is highly
rectangular
waveformwith
nonsinusoidal,
waveform
significant harmonics
Inverter
transistors
Some ac loads can
Inverter
switch
60 Hz, transistors
VHVDC
tolerate
thisat
waveform,
switch at 60 Hz,
T =cannot
8.33 msec
others
T = 8.33 msec
Inexpensive, efficient
vac(t)
+DT/2
VHVDC
DT/2
T/2
T/2
VHVDC
4
4
Two
ways
to
generate
a
PWM
s
Two
ways
to
generate
a
PWM
sinusoid
ways to
to generate
generate aa PWM
PWM sinusoid
sinusoid
oo ways
The True Sine Wave
Inverter
Two
ways to generate a PWM si
Use of PWM with high
frequency switching to produce
a sinusoidal ac voltage having
low harmonic content. Typically
an L-C filter is included to meet
EMI requirements
left and
and right
right sides
sides
left
me (complementary)
(complementary)
me
ve signals
signals
ve
(2d(t) 1)
1) VVg
== (2d(t)
g
v(t) = (2d(t) 1) Vg
Two-level waveform
Two-level waveform
waveform
Two-level
ne side,
side, while
while other
other
ne
tches at
at 60
60 Hz
Hz
tches
d(t) VVg
== d(t)
bb
(a)
Switches
1a and
are right
drivensides
by the same
Operate
left1band
gate with
drive same
signal,(complementary)
and conduct during d
(a)
Operate left and right sides
interval
gate drive signals
with
Switchessame
2a and(complementary)
2b are driven by the
v(t) = (2d(t) 1) Vg
complement
andsignals
conduct during d interval
gate drive
vac(t)
v (t)
vacac(t)
Power Electronics
LabThree-level
6
6
waveform
Three-level waveform
Two-level wav
Two-level wav
t
t
6
6
6
Three-level w
Three-level w
Grid-tied inverter:
Inverter regulates its ac current
Inverter
Inverter
Vdc
AC
load
dinv
Vdc
vac(t)
PWM
PWM
iac(t)
Phase-locked loop
H3
H3
Gc3(s)
Gc3(s)
+
vref(t) Sinusoidal
reference
vac(t)
dinv
vac(t)
iref(t)
Vcontrol
Sinusoid
unit amplitude
phase-locked to vac
Reactive power
For a standalone application, the inverter must be capable of supplying
whatever current waveform is demanded by the ac load
Reactive load, in which current is phase-shifted relative to voltage
Distorted current
In most grid-tied applications, the inverter supplies a low-THD current
waveform to the grid, with power factor very close to unity.
Improved efficiency
This opens the possibility of simpler converter topologies using singlequadrant switches
pac(t)
Ppv
vc(t)
An Inverter System
vpv(t)
vbus(t)
DC-DC
Inverter
EMI
PV
vac(t)
H1
vac(t)
dinv
PWM
PWM
ibus
Gc3(s)
vbus(t)
iac(t)
Phase-locked loop
H3
Gc3(s)
MPPT
vpv(t)
Vref-pv
H2
iref(t)
Vref-bus
Gc2(s)
Sinusoid
unit amplitude
phase-locked to vac
Standards
IEEE 1547: standard for connecting a renewable energy source to the utility grid
Current harmonic limit (THD < 5%)
Anti-islanding (detect loss of grid, shut down within 1 sec)
Disconnection when grid frequency or grid voltage is out of bounds
National Electric Code
UL 1741
Weighted Efficiency standards: California Energy Commission (CEC)
Power level,
% of rated
Weight
100%
0.05
75%
0.53
50%
0.21
30%
0.12
20%
0.05
10%
0.04
Microinverters
One inverter per panel
Mounted on or near the panelon roof
MPPT on per-panel basis
Conventional AC wiring reduces
Balance-of-system cost
Straightforward expandability
Reliability? Efficiency?
Rated temperature?
Enphase
microinverter,
2008
PV
Cells
i
v
v(t)
i(t)
Pac
Energy
storage
DC-DC
Converter
DC-AC
Inverter
iac
+
Microinverter
power train:
DC-DC converter
(high boost ratio)
vcap
vac
Pdc
Pac
vac(t)
iac(t)
Central box
Microinverter
Microinverter
Power stage
MPPT Current
control
Anti-islanding
Power stage
MPPT Current
control
Anti-islanding
Roof
AC
Transient
protection
AC
utility
AC
disconnect
Communications
Computer
Smart grid
Energy storage
capacitor
Inverter
Rooftop system
Microinverters
include most or all
of grid interface
control
Central box
boosts the low PV input voltage to a higher voltage. The inverter stage generates the AC current that is injected to the
AC line. Despite various new topologies that have been demonstrated in recent literature [5], the typical low-cost
micro-inverter is still designed either as a full-bridge stage, or as a buck stage with an unfolder stage. The unfolder
Microinverter Approaches
stage, if present, switches at the zero-crossings of the line voltage to convert the rectified sinusoid at the buck output
to a full sinusoid on the AC line.
H-bridge inverter
lowest possible peak current in DCM, and as a result the switching frequency in BCM is maximal. Equation (1) also
predicts that the switching frequency of BCM increases at low output powers, creating a switching frequency profile
that causes disproportional switching losses at low powers. This is demonstrated by the last expression in equation (1)
Fig. 2. Illustration of the inductor current in BCM, showing soft switching transitions (ZVS, ZCS) and the variations in switching
frequency over the line cycle.
DCM:
fs t
vout t
2 L iout t
BCM:
fs t
vout t
2 L iout t
v t
1 out
vdc t
1
2iout t
i pk t
vout t
vdc t
v t
Rout
1 out
2L
vdc t
, where Rout
vout t
iout t
Fig. 3. Distribution of losses in BCM. The vertical bars represent average losses over an AC line cycle. The losses are shown in percent
the average
AC outputat
power.
Switching
losses
dominateThe
at low
powers.
3 shows how the totalrelative
loss into BCM
distributes
various
output
powers.
losses
in this figure are averaged
over a line cycle, and are shown in percent relative to the cycle averaged output power. The total loss is composed of
BCM waveform. The DC operating points are selected with constant ratio of voltage and current vout/iout = Rout, and
thus reside on the same output sinusoid. The efficiency is computed according to the calibrated loss model presented
in section IV, with conditions as follows: Rout = 215.1 , average AC power of 225 W, bus voltage of vbus = 425 V,
and an inductor of 300H built on a PQ 26/20 core. Each curve is label by its output power pout = voutiout, which is
Discontinuous
conduction
mode
(DCM)
given in percent relative to the maximal instantaneous output power of 450 W.
each operating point, using the calibrated loss model. The resulting efficiency data is averaged according to the CEC
efficiency formula (see section V). Typical results of this simulation are shown in Fig. 10, for a PQ 26/20 magnetic
core, and conditions as detailed in Table I.
350
450
550
650
750
850
inductance [H]
Fig. 10. Weighted CEC efficiency with a PQ 26/20 magnetic core, for a BCM controller and the proposed constant peak current
controller.
200
400
DC output power pout [W]
600
Fig. 14. Efficiency measurements at DC operating points, for various average AC powers
Fig. 12.
Inverter
waveforms
at efficiency
a DC operating
Ch1 (yellow)
cycle-by-cycle
capacitor over
voltagea vline
int(t) , Ch2 (blue) auxiliary
At each
power
level,
the AC
is point.
computed
by averaging
theintegration
DC efficiencies
cycle. The results
are
winding voltage sensor, at comparator output, Ch4 (green) inductor current iL(t). Conditions: Vdc= 426.8 V, Idc= 0.98 A, vout= 330.1 V, iout=
A.
again averaged by the CEC weighted average formula 1.259
to obtain
the overall CEC efficiency. The AC efficiency is
computed by equation (9), and the results are summarized in Table II.
/ ac
AC line voltage
pout t dt
AC efficiency
0
AC
/ ac
pout t
DC
pout t
where pout t
Pac sin 2
ac
(9)
Current reference
dt
In this equation, Pac is the average AC power, pout(t) is the output power at a DC operating point, and DC(pout) is the
inductor current
efficiency at those operating points, as shown in Fig. 14. The weighted CEC efficiency is found toInstantaneous
be 99.15 %.
Fig. 13. Inverter waveforms over a line cycle. Ch1 (yellow) AC line voltage sensor, Ch2 (blue) AC current iac(t), Ch3 (magenta) reference
signal iref(t), Ch4 (green) inductor current
iL(t). Conditions:
Vdc= 425 V, Idc= 0.462 A, Rload=253
TABLE
II
CEC Efficiency
CEC
Average
average AC
average AC
power
weight
loss over
power P
The efficiency of the inverter
points.efficiency
These tests are done with a power supply
levelis measured at static DCac operating
AC cycle
100resistor
%
0.05
300 W
2.6 W
99.13 %
at the input and a variable load
(R
load) at the output. To increase the accuracy of the measurements, the meters
75 %
0.53
225 W
1.97 W
99.12 %
at the input and output are filtered
The1.26
efficiency
results
50 % by large
0.21 EMI inductors.
150 W
W
99.16
% are shown in Fig. 14. The various
30 %
0.12
90 W
0.7 W
99.22 %
curves in the figure correspond
to
tests
with
different
average
AC
powers
(P
ac). At each such test the load resistor is
20 %
0.05
60 W
0.45 W
99.24
%
10 instantaneous
%
0.04 output
30power
W
0.24 W in the99.2
% 0 2Pac.
set to Rload=Vac,rms2/Pac, and the
is scanned
range
photon
Charge separation
Electric eld created by diode structure separates holes and electrons
Open circuit voltage Voc depends on diode characteristic, Voc < Egap/q
Modeling nonidealities:
R1 : defects and other
leakage current mechanisms
R2 : contact resistance and
other series resistances
Cell characteristic
Cell output power is Ppv = IpvVpv
At the maximum power point
(MPP):
Vpv = Vmp
Ipv = Imp
At the short circuit point:
Ipv = Isc = I0
Ppv = 0
At the open circuit point:
Vpv = Voc
Ppv = 0
I-V curve
with partial
shading
A well-known approach"
Basic algorithm!
!
Measure power"
Loop:"
Perturb the operating point in
some direction"
Wait for system to settle"
Measure power"
Did the power increase?"
Yes: retain direction for next
perturbation"
N: reverse direction for next
perturbation"
Repeat"
Control Issues:
MPPT by Perturb-and-Observe
,
,
Magnied view
()
()