BOP installed on the well

At some time or other you will bump into a set of BOPs. Providing that is, you work in
the oil field. I'm am sure the initials BOP mean something entity different in other
industries.

Here we see two singles 21 1/4 ram type BOPs made up that will be used on top hole
When people talk about the blowout preventers they will often refer to it as:
a) the Stack
b) the BOP's
c) the BOP all are the same but there are different type.
d) the BOPE this stands for Blowout Preventer Equipment
The BOP system are a set of valves installed on the wellhead to prevent the escape
of pressure either in the annular space between the casing and drill pipe or in open
hole ( hole with no drill pipe) during drilling, completion and workover operations.
Most BOP stack are designed with a triple ram configuration which provides positive
protection against blowouts and secures the well in emergencies. This permits work to
be carried out under pressure on surface equipment while the pipe is still in the
wellbore. The BOP is placed directly above the wellhead.
The BOP closure design consists of an hydraulic actuator assembly connected to each
of the two ram assemblies. This allows the rams to be hydraulically compressed
around the line from opposite sides which effects a seal thus containing well pressure
below the rams.
Older bops would need the the choke and kill lines on different level or two kill lines
so that pressure could be equalized in the event of stripping but now days bops are
being designed with this in mind and the pressure across the rams is equalized,
through an integral equalizer assembly located between each ram assembly. This
takes place prior to hydraulic retraction of the rams and opening of the valve.
This system enables the well bore pressure to be equalized from the bottom to the top
of each ram assembly. Ram assemblies may be interchanged to create different
configurations. Manual overrides which operate the rams in case of hydraulic failure
are also part of the system with handles and . These overrides can also hold the rams
mechanically locked in the closed position.
An innovative attribute on the BOP is the plumbing feature. Single point open and
close ports in each modular body permit operation of both hydraulic for each set of
rams.
BOPs are available in nominal sizes from 3 1/16" to 30" , with working pressure
ratings from 5000 PSI to 20000 PSI. The BOPs are useable in both standard and sour
environments. Standard ram assembly configurations would normally be as such :
!) Pipe seal rams - set of rams that serve to seal around the top string isolating the

well bore pressure below the rams

2) Shear/seal rams - top set of rams that serve to shear the tubing and seal off well
pressure3) Pipe seal rams - set of rams that serve to seal around the top string
isolating the well bore pressure below the rams
metal seal adapters, in conjunction with O-rings or rubber are used to make a metal
to metal seal on the body to body connection. This configuration results in a highly
effective seal at both low and high pressures.
All BOP connections subjected to well pressure must be flanged, welded, or clamped
Fill-up line installed above the uppermost preventer.
BOP open and closing lines with a pressure rate above that of the maximum
pressure rating of that of the accumulator maximum pressure and to be steel
coated.
If a repair or replacement of the BOP is required after testing, the work must be
performed prior to drilling out the casing shoe.
When the BOP cannot function to secure the hole, the hole has to be secured using
cement, retrievable packer or a bridge plug packer, or other acceptable approved
method to assure safe well conditions.
Minimum standards for choke manifold equipment.
All choke lines shall be straight lines unless turns use tee blocks or are targeted with
running tees, and must be anchored to prevent whip and reduce vibration.
Choke manifold equipment configuration must be functionally. The configuration of
the chokes may vary.
All valves (except chokes) in the kill line choke manifold, and choke line must be of
a type that does not restrict the flow (full opening) and that allows a straight
through flow.
Pressure gauges in the well control system shall be a type designed for drilling fluid
service
Minimum standards for pressure accumulator system.
2M system accumulator must have sufficient capacity to close all BOP's and retain
200 psi above pre-charge. Nitrogen bottles that meet manufacturer's specifications.
3M system accumulator must have sufficient capacity to open the hydraulicallycontrolled choke line valve (if installed), close all rams plus the annual preventer,
and retain a minimum of 200 psi above pre-charge on the closing manifold without
the use of the closing pumps. "this is a minimum requirement." The fluid reservoir
capacity must be double the usable fluid volume of the accumulator system capacity
and the fluid level to be maintained at the manufacturer's recommendations.

The system must have 2 independent power sources to close the preventers.
Nitrogen bottles (3 minimum) may be 1 of the independent power sources and, if
so, shall maintain a charge equal to the manufacturer's specifications.
5M and higher system accumulator must have sufficient capacity to open the
hydraulically-controlled gate valve (if installed) and close all rams plus the annular
preventer (for 3 ram systems add a 50 percent safety factor to compensate for any
fluid loss in the control system or preventers) and retain a minimum pressure of
200 psi above pre-charge on the closing manifold without use of the closing unit
pumps.
The fluid reservoir capacity shall be double the usable fluid volume of the
accumulator system capacity and the fluid level of the reservoir must be maintained
at the manufacturer's recommendations. Two independent sources of power must
be available for powering the closing unit pumps.
Sufficient nitrogen bottles are suitable as a backup power source only, and must be
recharged when the pressure falls below manufacturer's specifications.
Minimum standards for accumulator pre-charge pressure test.
This test should be conducted prior to connecting the closing unit to the BOP stack
and at least once every 6 months. The accumulator pressure must be corrected if
the measured pre charge pressure is found to be above or below the maximum or
minimum limit specified below (only nitrogen gas may be used to pre-charge):

Next we have the bit float the most common being the Baker "F" and "G"Both fit
inside the bit sub on top of the bit.
The Baker "F" Drill Pipe Float Valve provides a positive and instantaneous shut-off
against high or low pressure, assuring continuous control of fluid flow during
drilling.

A fast-acting plunger opens when the kelly is pulled out of the hole, then closes,
eliminating breakage of a wet joint.
The plunger type valve also prevents flow back when adding joints and keeps
cuttings out of the drill pipe, preventing bit plugging while making connections.
The likelihood of having to pull a wet string with its attendant safety hazards and
expensive down time is eliminated.
For normal drilling operations, the durable Model "F" is the most economical choice
and is available in all sizes.

Type "G" Drill Pipe Float Valves are made of normalized, quenched, and tempered
alloy steel to resist wear and erosion.

The flapper valve opens fully during circulation, providing an unrestricted bore
through the valve, thereby effectively prolonging the life of the valve and drill collar,
as there is no diversion of fluid against the drill collar ID.

When circulation stops, the flapper closes instantly to prevent cuttings from
entering the drill string and plugging the bit.
The valve opens when the first joint is raised out of the hole assuring the first joints
drain and are not pulled wet. This saves mud and avoids safety hazards and down
time.
The flapper type valve complements primary blowout prevention equipment to
provide complete internal pressure control.

Removing The BOP:

The initial test of a bop is when it is install or on a test stump before installation, however even when tes
be retested to insure the new connecting flange is holding.
Off-hole maintenance is the key to reliable well control, but it is possible a time will come when the BOP
repairs while in use over an open hole and live well.

I have read in many papers, the BOP is the primary well control equipment, this is wrong; it is not the p
the secondary equipment.)

The drilling or workover fluid in the wellbore is the primary well control, over the years I have been invol
can do or can't do with or without a BOP.

To clear up any misunderstanding as to what is meant by well control and the well control barriers let me

Current regulations in certain drilling markets require three containment barriers for temporary abandon
there has to be two safety barriers per well. If one barrier is to be removed a second barrier must be in
removed.

By removing the BOPs or should it malfunction you have in-fact only one barrier. I could very easily tell o
picked up to free up a wear bushing, and the hours spent trying to stab back and hammer up the bolts w

For a BOP to be removed from a well the well must be in a secure condition. Drilling fluid alone is not sec
set.

Any repairs above the shear rams can be done over the hole by usin
barrier. As an added safety precaution and providing there is a drilli
and the bottom rams a kill string can be run in the hole to the casin
rams.

The kill line must always to be installed below the shear rams, it is t
circulating / choke line down to the well head. By doing this you can
hole full should it be losing fluid.

Not to long a go I had a letter from a consultant asking me "Why us

blind/shear and the bottom rams" Well Jess if you still read the site
dose not take to much imagination to see a second good reason.?
Drilling Spool

However let me just say it is not good drilling practice to kill a well using the bottom rams. However I ha
"If it can happen, it will happen" and as an ex Boy Scout there is nothing wrong with being prepared.

Although hanging off a drill string is common practise on sub sea wells hanging pipe off on a jack up or l
now day, but was a regular practice in bad whether area in the passed and I can assure you it will not da
where in the manufactures manual that will tell you just what can be hung off. +/- 250000 lbs

If the repair work is below the shear ram the hole will have to be plugged. In most case's the quickest w
bridge plug then change out the BOP.

Retrievable Bridge Plugs such as the T725 TS-U high pressure packer style retrievable bridge plug can be
retrieving tool. Its large internal bypass system allows for multiple setting and releasing under extreme

The plug setting operation requires the setting string to be picked up, turn one quarter to the right at the
and retrieving tool has a spring load design that minimizes the possibility of the bridge plug coming free

The strong compression spring keeps the bridge plug J-pins securely locked in the retrieving tool jay unt
spring allowing the retrieving tool to be removed.

To release from the set down, apply right hand torque and pick up. The bypass system will allow pressur
slips are pulled on and released from the casing wall.

This and other retrievable bridge plugs are extremely easy to run by the drilling crew and have the adde
shallow or deep. Sets or releases are one quarter turn to right, with the retrieving tool being guider over
equalizes before the upper slips are released.

A tip when running such a plug, It is advisable to cover the top of the plug before any work commences
down the wellbore allowing it to settle over the retrieving stem. 3 or 4 foot of sand will catch any junk dr
going down the side and later picked or washed up.

I tend to favour the storm valve. Again you can run some of the drillstring into the hole and hang it off u
inside BOP installed below. For this to be effective you must have a minimum weight below the storm va
thumb you can work this out. Take the area of the inside diameter of the casing and multiply it by 1000.
Although some people like to run a kill string made up of tubing, the idea of hanging of on the wellhead

problems. The lock down bolts are not designed for this and I have my doubt as to if they can take the m
take.

I say this from the experience of seeing the bolts shear while an annular test was being preformed on a
been completed and before the bops were removed (the pressure being applied at the time of the test w

POWer ability..

Accumulator
working
pressure
rating

Minimum
acceptable
operating
pressure

Desired
precharge
pressure

Maximum
acceptable
pre-charge
pressure

Minimum
acceptable
pre-charge
pressure

1,500 psi

1,500 psi

750 psi

800 psi

700 psi

2,000 psi

2,000 psi

1,000 psi

1,100 psi

900 psi

3,000 psi

3,000 psi

1,000 psi

1,100 psi

900 psi

Power for the closing unit pumps must be available to the unit at all times so
that the pumps will automatically start when the closing valve manifold
pressure has decreased to the pre-set level.
Minimum standards for accumulator pump capacity.
Each BOP closing unit must be equipped with a sufficient number and sizes
of pumps so that, with the accumulator system isolated from service, the
pumps will be capable of opening the hydraulically-operated gate valve (if
equipped), plus closing the annular preventer on the smallest size drill pipe
in use, and maintained a minimum of 200 psi above specified accumulator
pre-charge pressure. See well control accumulator system for more details
on pump sizing.
Minimum standards and provisions for locking devices.
A manual locking device (i.e., hand wheels) or automatic locking devices
must be installed on all systems of 2M or greater. A valve should be installed
in the closing line as close as possible to the annular preventer to act as a
locking device. This valve must be maintained in the open position and
closed only when the power source for the accumulator system is
inoperative.
Minimum standards provisions for remote controls.

Remote controls shall be readily accessible to the driller.

Remote controls for all 3M or greater systems shall be capable of closing all
preventers.
Remote controls for 5M or greater systems shall be capable of both opening
and closing all preventers.
Master controls must be at the accumulator and must be capable of opening
and closing all preventers and the choke line valve (if so equipped).
No remote control for a 2M system is required.
A second remote control should be installed within or just beside the
toolpusher office and should be function testes along with all other test
Minimum standards and enforcement provisions for well control equipment
testing.
All tests described below should be perform using clear water or an
appropriate clear liquid for subfreezing temperatures with a viscosity similar
to water.
Ram type preventers and associated equipment must be tested to approved
stack working pressure if isolated by a test plug or to 80 percent of internal
yield pressure of casing if BOP stack is not isolated from casing. I.E "test
cup". Pressure should be maintained for at least 15 minutes or until
requirements of test are met, whichever is longer. If a test plug is utilized,
no bleed-off of pressure is acceptable. For a test not utilizing a test plug, if a
decline in pressure of more than 10 percent in 30 minutes occurs, the test
must be considered to have failed. The valves on casing head below test
plug must be open during test of BOP stack.
Annular type preventers must be tested to 60 percent of rated working
pressure. Pressure Must be maintained at least 15 minutes or until
provisions of test are met, whichever is longer.
As a minimum, an test should be performed:
A. When initially installed:
B. Whenever any seal subject to test pressure is broken:
C. Following related repairs:
D. At 14-day intervals:
E. Before any drill stem testing unless recently teste

Oil well

From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia

Jump to: navigation, search

This article needs additional citations for verification.
Please help improve this article by adding reliable references. Unsourced material may be challenged
and removed. (February 2008)

The pumpjack, such as this one located south of Midland, Texas, is a common sight in
West Texas.
An oil well is a general term for any boring through the earth's surface that is designed to
find and acquire petroleum oil hydrocarbons. Usually some natural gas is produced along
with the oil. A well that is designed to produce mainly or only gas may be termed a gas
well.

Contents
[hide]

1 History
2 Life of a well
o 2.1 Drilling
o 2.2 Completion
o 2.3 Production
o 2.4 Abandonment
3 Types of wells
4 Cost
5 Reefs
6 See also
7 References

8 External links

[edit] History

Oil extraction in Boryslav in Galicia in 1909.

The earliest known oil wells were drilled in China in 347 CE. They had depths of up to
about 800 feet (240 m) and were drilled using bits attached to bamboo poles.[1] The oil
was burned to evaporate brine and produce salt. By the 10th century, extensive bamboo
pipelines connected oil wells with salt springs. The ancient records of China and Japan
are said to contain many allusions to the use of natural gas for lighting and heating.
Petroleum was known as burning water in Japan in the 7th century.[2]
The Middle East's petroleum industry was established by the 8th century, when the streets
of the newly constructed Baghdad were paved with tar, derived from petroleum that
became accessible from natural fields in the region. Petroleum was distilled by the
Persian alchemist Muhammad ibn Zakarya Rzi (Rhazes) in the 9th century, producing
chemicals such as kerosene in the alembic (al-ambiq),[3][verification needed] and which was
mainly used for kerosene lamps.[4] Arab and Persian chemists also distilled crude oil in
order to produce flammable products for military purposes. Through Islamic Spain,
distillation became available in Western Europe by the 12th century.[2]
Some sources claim that from the 9th century, oil fields were exploited in the area around
modern Baku, Azerbaijan, to produce naphtha for the petroleum industry. These fields
were described by Marco Polo in the 13th century, who described the output of those oil
wells as hundreds of shiploads. When Marco Polo in 1264 visited the Azerbaijani city of
Baku, on the shores of the Caspian Sea, he saw oil being collected from seeps. He wrote
that "on the confines toward Geirgine there is a fountain from which oil springs in great
abundance, inasmuch as a hundred shiploads might be taken from it at one time."

1904 oil well fire at Bibi-Eibat.

Shallow pits were dug at the Baku seeps in ancient times to facilitate collecting oil, and
hand-dug holes up to 35 metres (115 ft) deep were in use by 1594. These holes were
essentially oil wells. Apparently 116 of these wells in 1830 produced 3,840 metric tons
(about 28000 barrels) of oil. Also, offshore drilling started up at Baku at Bibi-Eibat field
in 1846, about the same time that the first offshore oil well was drilled in 1896 at the
Summerland Oil Field on the California Coast.
The earliest oil wells in modern times were drilled percussively, by hammering a cable
tool into the earth. Soon after, cable tools were replaced with rotary drilling, which could
drill boreholes to much greater depths and in less time. The record-depth Kola Borehole
used non-rotary mud motor drilling to achieve a depth of over 12,000 metres (39,000 ft).
Until the 1970s, most oil wells were vertical, although lithological and mechanical
imperfections cause most wells to deviate at least slightly from true vertical. However,
modern directional drilling technologies allow for strongly deviated wells which can,
given sufficient depth and with the proper tools, actually become horizontal. This is of
great value as the reservoir rocks which contain hydrocarbons are usually horizontal, or
sub-horizontal; a horizontal wellbore placed in a production zone has more surface area
in the production zone than a vertical well, resulting in a higher production rate. The use
of deviated and horizontal drilling has also made it possible to reach reservoirs several
kilometers or miles away from the drilling location (extended reach drilling), allowing for
the production of hydrocarbons located below locations that are either difficult to place a
drilling rig on, environmentally sensitive, or populated.

[edit] Life of a well

A schematic of a typical oil well being produced by a pumpjack, which is used to produce
the remaining recoverable oil after natural pressure is no longer suficient to raise oil to
the surface.
The creation and life of a well can be divided up into five segments:

Planning
Drilling
Completion
Production
Abandonment

[edit] Drilling
See also: Boring (earth)
The well is created by drilling a hole 5 to 36 inches (127.0 mm to 914.4 mm) in diameter
into the earth with a drilling rig that rotates a drill string with a bit attached. After the hole
is drilled, sections of steel pipe (casing), slightly smaller in diameter than the borehole,
are placed in the hole. Cement may be placed between the outside of the casing and the
borehole. The casing provides structural integrity to the newly drilled wellbore, in
addition to isolating potentially dangerous high pressure zones from each other and from
the surface.
With these zones safely isolated and the formation protected by the casing, the well can
be drilled deeper (into potentially more-unstable and violent formations) with a smaller
bit, and also cased with a smaller size casing. Modern wells often have two to five sets of
subsequently smaller hole sizes drilled inside one another, each cemented with casing.

Mud log in process, a common way to study the lithology when drilling oil wells.
To drill the well

The drill bit, aided by the weight of thick walled pipes called "drill collars" above
it, cuts into the rock. There are different types of drill bit; some cause the rock to

disintegrate by compressive failure, while others shear slices off the rock as the
bit turns.
Drilling fluid, a.k.a. "mud", is pumped down the inside of the drill pipe and exits
at the drill bit. Drilling mud is a complex mixture of fluids, solids and chemicals
that must be carefully tailored to provide the correct physical and chemical
characteristics required to safely drill the well. Particular functions of the drilling
mud include cooling the bit, lifting rock cuttings to the surface, preventing
destabilisation of the rock in the wellbore walls and overcoming the pressure of
fluids inside the rock so that these fluids do not enter the wellbore.
The generated rock "cuttings" are swept up by the drilling fluid as it circulates
back to surface outside the drill pipe. The fluid then goes through "shakers" which
strain the cuttings from the good fluid which is returned to the pit. Watching for
abnormalities in the returning cuttings and monitoring pit volume or rate of
returning fluid are imperative to catch "kicks" early. A "kick" is when the
formation pressure at the depth of the bit is more than the hydrostatic head of the
mud above, which if not controlled temporarily by closing the blowout preventers
and ultimately by increasing the density of the drilling fluid would allow
formation fluids and mud to come up through the drill pipe uncontrollably.
The pipe or drill string to which the bit is attached is gradually lengthened as the
well gets deeper by screwing in additional 30-foot (9 m) sections or "joints" of
pipe under the kelly or topdrive at the surface. This process is called making a
connection. Usually, joints are combined into three joints equaling one stand.
Some smaller rigs only use two joints and some rigs can handle stands of four
joints.

This process is all facilitated by a drilling rig which contains all necessary equipment to
circulate the drilling fluid, hoist and turn the pipe, control downhole, remove cuttings
from the drilling fluid, and generate on-site power for these operations.

Modern driller Argentina.

[edit] Completion
Main article: Completion (oil and gas wells)

After drilling and casing the well, it must be 'completed'. Completion is the process in
which the well is enabled to produce oil or gas.
In a cased-hole completion, small holes called perforations are made in the portion of the
casing which passed through the production zone, to provide a path for the oil to flow
from the surrounding rock into the production tubing. In open hole completion, often
'sand screens' or a 'gravel pack' is installed in the last drilled, uncased reservoir section.
These maintain structural integrity of the wellbore in the absence of casing, while still
allowing flow from the reservoir into the wellbore. Screens also control the migration of
formation sands into production tubulars and surface equipment, which can cause
washouts and other problems, particularly from unconsolidated sand formations in
offshore fields.
After a flow path is made, acids and fracturing fluids are pumped into the well to fracture,
clean, or otherwise prepare and stimulate the reservoir rock to optimally produce
hydrocarbons into the wellbore. Finally, the area above the reservoir section of the well is
packed off inside the casing, and connected to the surface via a smaller diameter pipe
called tubing. This arrangement provides a redundant barrier to leaks of hydrocarbons as
well as allowing damaged sections to be replaced. Also, the smaller crossectional area of
the tubing produces reservoir fluids at an increased velocity in order to minimize liquid
fallback that would create additional back pressure, and shields the casing from corrosive
well fluids.
In many wells, the natural pressure of the subsurface reservoir is high enough for the oil
or gas to flow to the surface. However, this is not always the case, especially in depleted
fields where the pressures have been lowered by other producing wells, or in low
permeability oil reservoirs. Installing a smaller diameter tubing may be enough to help
the production, but artificial lift methods may also be needed. Common solutions include
downhole pumps, gas lift, or surface pump jacks. Many new systems in the last ten years
have been introduced for well completion. Multiple packer systems with frac ports or port
collars in an all in one system have cut completion costs and improved production,
especially in the case of horizontal wells. These new systems allow casings to run into the
lateral zone with proper packer/frac port placement for optimal hydrocarbon recovery.

[edit] Production
The production stage is the most important stage of a well's life, when the oil and gas are
produced. By this time, the oil rigs and workover rigs used to drill and complete the well
have moved off the wellbore, and the top is usually outfitted with a collection of valves
called a Christmas tree or Production trees. These valves regulate pressures, control
flows, and allow access to the wellbore in case further completion work is needed. From
the outlet valve of the production tree, the flow can be connected to a distribution
network of pipelines and tanks to supply the product to refineries, natural gas compressor
stations, or oil export terminals.

As long as the pressure in the reservoir remains high enough, the production tree is all
that is required to produce the well. If the pressure depletes and it is considered
economically viable, an artificial lift method mentioned in the completions section can be
employed.
Workovers are often necessary in older wells, which may need smaller diameter tubing,
scale or paraffin removal, acid matrix jobs, or completing new zones of interest in a
shallower reservoir. Such remedial work can be performed using workover rigs also
known as pulling units or completion rigs to pull and replace tubing, or by the use of
well intervention techniques utilizing coiled tubing. Depending on the type of lift system
and wellhead a rod rig or flushby can be used to change a pump without pulling the
tubing.
Enhanced recovery methods such as water flooding, steam flooding, or CO2 flooding may
be used to increase reservoir pressure and provide a "sweep" effect to push hydrocarbons
out of the reservoir. Such methods require the use of injection wells (often chosen from
old production wells in a carefully determined pattern), and are used when facing
problems with reservoir pressure depletion, high oil viscosity, or can even be employed
early in a field's life. In certain cases depending on the reservoir's geomechanics
reservoir engineers may determine that ultimate recoverable oil may be increased by
applying a waterflooding strategy early in the field's development rather than later. Such
enhanced recovery techniques are often called "tertiary recovery".

[edit] Abandonment
A well is said to reach an "economic limit" when its production rate does not cover the
expenses, including taxes.[5]
The economic limit for oil and gas wells can be expressed using these formulae:
Oil fields:
Gas fields:
Where:
ELoil is an oil well's economic limit in oil barrels per month (bbls/month).
ELgas is a gas well's economic limit in thousand standard cubic feet per month
(MSCF/month).
Po,Pg are the current prices of oil and gas in dollars per barrels and dollars per MSCF
respectively.
LOE is the lease operating expenses in dollars per well per month.
WI working interest, as a fraction.[6]
NRI net revenue interest, as a fraction.
GOR gas/oil ratio as bbls/MSCF.
Y condensate yield as barrel/million standard cubic feet.

T production and severance taxes, as a fraction.

[5]

When the economic limit is raised, the life of the well is shortened and proven oil
reserves are lost. Conversely, when the economic limit is lowered, the life of the well is
lengthened.
When the economic limit is reached, the well becomes a liability and is abandoned. In
this process, tubing is removed from the well and sections of well bore are filled with
cement to isolate the flow path between gas and water zones from each other, as well as
the surface. Completely filling the well bore with cement is costly and unnecessary. The
surface around the wellhead is then excavated, and the wellhead and casing are cut off, a
cap is welded in place and then buried.
At the economic limit there often is still a significant amount of unrecoverable oil left in
the reservoir. It might be tempting to defer physical abandonment for an extended period
of time, hoping that the oil price will go up or that new supplemental recovery techniques
will be perfected. However, lease provisions and governmental regulations usually
require quick abandonment; liability and tax concerns also may favor abandonment.
In theory an abandoned well can be reentered and restored to production (or converted to
injection service for supplemental recovery or for downhole hydrocarbons storage), but
reentry often proves to be difficult mechanically and not cost effective.

[edit] Types of wells

A natural gas well in the southeast Lost Hills Field, California, US.
Fossil-fuel wells come in many varieties. By produced fluid, there can be wells that
produce oil, wells that produce oil and natural gas, or wells that only produce natural gas.
Natural gas is almost always a byproduct of producing oil, since the small, light gas
carbon chains come out of solution as they undergo pressure reduction from the reservoir
to the surface, similar to uncapping a bottle of soda pop where the carbon dioxide
effervesces. Unwanted natural gas can be a disposal problem at the well site. If there is

not a market for natural gas near the wellhead it is virtually valueless since it must be
piped to the end user. Until recently, such unwanted gas was burned off at the wellsite,
but due to environmental concerns this practice is becoming less common.[citation needed]
Often, unwanted (or 'stranded' gas without a market) gas is pumped back into the
reservoir with an 'injection' well for disposal or repressurizing the producing formation.
Another solution is to export the natural gas as a liquid.[7] Gas-to-liquid, (GTL) is a
developing technology that converts stranded natural gas into synthetic gasoline, diesel or
jet fuel through the Fischer-Tropsch process developed in World War II Germany. Such
fuels can be transported through conventional pipelines and tankers to users. Proponents
claim GTL fuels burn cleaner than comparable petroleum fuels. Most major international
oil companies are in advanced development stages of GTL production, e.g. the 140,000
bbl/d (22,000 m3/d) Pearl GTL plant in Qatar, scheduled to come online in 2011. In
locations such as the United States with a high natural gas demand, pipelines are
constructed to take the gas from the wellsite to the end consumer.
Another obvious way to classify oil wells is by land or offshore wells. There is very little
difference in the well itself. An offshore well targets a reservoir that happens to be
underneath an ocean. Due to logistics, drilling an offshore well is far more costly than an
onshore well. By far the most common type is the onshore well. These wells dot the
Southern and Central Great Plains, Southwestern United States, and are the most
common wells in the Middle East.
Another way to classify oil wells is by their purpose in contributing to the development
of a resource. They can be characterized as:

production wells are drilled primarily for producing oil or gas, once the producing
structure and characteristics are determined
appraisal wells are used to assess characteristics (such as flow rate) of a proven
hydrocarbon accumulation
exploration wells are drilled purely for exploratory (information gathering)
purposes in a new area
wildcat wells are those drilled outside of and not in the vicinity of known oil or
gas fields.

At a producing well site, active wells may be further categorised as:

oil producers producing predominantly liquid hydrocarbons, but mostly with

some associated gas.
gas producers producing almost entirely gaseous hydrocarbons.
water injectors injecting water into the formation to maintain reservoir pressure or
simply to dispose of water produced with the hydrocarbons because even after
treatment, it would be too oily and too saline to be considered clean for dumping
overboard, let alone into a fresh water source, in the case of onshore wells.
Frequently water injection has an element of reservoir management and produced
water disposal.

aquifer producers intentionally producing reservoir water for re-injection to

manage pressure. This is in effect moving reservoir water from where it is not as
useful to where it is more useful. These wells will generally only be used if
produced water from the oil or gas producers is insufficient for reservoir
management purposes. Using aquifer produced water rather than water from other
sources is to preclude chemical incompatibility that might lead to reservoirplugging precipitates.
gas injectors injecting gas into the reservoir often as a means of disposal or
sequestering for later production, but also to maintain reservoir pressure.

Lahee classification [1]

New Field Wildcat (NFW) far from other producing fields and on a structure
that has not previously produced.
New Pool Wildcat (NPW) new pools on already producing structure.
Deeper Pool Test (DPT) on already producing structure and pool, but on a
deeper pay zone.
Shallower Pool Test (SPT) on already producing structure and pool, but on a
shallower pay zone.
Outpost (OUT) usually two or more locations from nearest productive area.
Development Well (DEV) can be on the extension of a pay zone, or between
existing wells (Infill).

[edit] Cost
The cost of a well depends mainly on the daily rate of the drilling rig, the extra services
required to drill the well, the duration of the well programme (including downtime and
weather time), and the remoteness of the location (logistic supply costs).
The daily rates of offshore drilling rigs vary by their capability, and the market
availability. Rig rates reported by industry web service[8] show that the deepwater water
floating drilling rigs are over twice that of the shallow water fleet, and rates for jackup
fleet can vary by factor of 3 depending upon capability.
With deepwater drilling rig rates in 2010 of around $420,000/day,[8] and similar additional
spread costs, a deep water well of duration of 100 days can cost around US$100 million.
With high performance jackup rig rates in 2010 of around $150,000,[8] and similar service
costs, a high pressure, high temperature well of duration 100 days can cost about US$30
million.
Onshore wells can be considerably cheaper, particularly if the field is at a shallow depth,
where costs range from less than $1 million to $15 million for deep and difficult wells.
[citation needed]

The total cost of an oil well mentioned does not include the costs associated with the risk
of explosion and leakage of oil. Those costs include the cost of protecting against such
disasters, the cost of the cleanup effort, and the hard-to-calculate cost of damage to the
company's image.

[edit] Reefs
This section requires expansion.
Offshore platforms, the well's supporting structure, produce artificial reefs.[citation needed]

[edit] See also

Hydraulic fracturing
Offshore drilling
Oil spill

[edit] References
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.
8.

^ ASTM timeline of oil

^ a b Joseph P. Riva Jr. and Gordon I. Atwater. "petroleum". Encyclopdia
Britannica. http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/454269/petroleum. Retrieved
2008-06-30.
^ Dr. Kasem Ajram (1992). The Miracle of Islam Science (2nd Edition ed.).
Knowledge House Publishers. ISBN 0-911119-43-4.
^ Zayn Bilkadi (University of California, Berkeley), "The Oil Weapons", Saudi
Aramco World, JanuaryFebruary 1995, pp. 207
^ a b Mohammed A. Mian, Petroleum Engineering Handbook for the Practicing
Engineer, Tulsa, Okla.: PennWell, 1992, p.447.
^ Oilfield Glossary - "working interest"
^ Gas to liquid
^ a b c Rigzone - Rig day rates : http://www.rigzone.com/data/dayrates/

[edit] External links

Schlumberger Oilfield Glossary

The History of the Oil Industry
"Black Gold" Popular Mechanics, January 1930 - large photo article on oil
drilling in the 1920s and 1930s
"World's Deepest Well" Popular Science, August 1938, article on the late 1930s
technology of drilling oil wells

[show]v d ePetroleum industry

Major petroleum
companies

Major services
companies

Exploration

Drilling

Supermajors

BP Chevron ConocoPhillips
ExxonMobil Royal Dutch Shell
Total

National oil
companies

ADNOC CNPC Iraq National Oil

Company Kuwait Petroleum
Corporation NIOC Petrobras
Petronas PDVSA Qatar Petroleum
Rosneft Saudi Aramco Sonatrach

Other integrated

BG Group Eni Gazprom (Gazprom

Neft) Lukoil Nippon Oil Repsol
YPF Sinopec Statoil
Surgutneftegas TNK-BP

AMEC Baker Hughes CH2M HILL Ensco International

GE Oil & Gas Halliburton Petrofac Schlumberger
Transocean Weatherford International Wood Group

Petroleum engineering (Reservoir simulation Seismic to simulation)

Petroleum geology Geophysics Seismic (Seismic inversion)
Petrophysics Core sampling
Completion (Squeeze job) Drilling engineering Underbalanced
drilling Directional drilling (Measurement Geosteering) Drilling fluid
Drill stem test Tracers Well logging
Technical challenges: Differential sticking Drilling fluid invasion
Blowouts Lost circulation

Artificial lift (Pumpjack Submersible pump (ESP) Gas lift) Enhanced

oil recovery (EOR) (Steam injection Gas reinjection) Pipeline transport
Production
Petroleum product Water injection Well intervention Upstream
Midstream Downstream Refining
Agreements: Production sharing agreements Concessions

Retrieved from "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Oil_well"

Categories: Petroleum production | Petroleum | Oil wells | Fossil fuels | Drilling
technology | Chinese inventions | Russian inventions | American inventions
Hidden categories: Articles needing additional references from February 2008 | All
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Well test
From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia

Jump to: navigation, search

This article discusses water well testing; the testing of other wells, eg. petroleum wells,
is a separate field.
A well test is conducted to evaluate the amount of water that can be pumped from a
particular water well. More specifically, a well test will allow prediction of the maximum
rate at which water can be pumped from a well, and the distance that the water level in
the well will fall for a given pumping rate and duration of pumping.
Well testing differs from aquifer testing in that the behaviour of the well is primarily of
concern in the former, while the characteristics of the aquifer (the geological formation or
unit that supplies water to the well) are quantified in the latter.
When water is pumped from a well the water level in the well falls. This fall is called
drawdown. The amount of water that can be pumped is limited by the drawdown
produced. Typically, drawdown also increases with the length of time that the pumping
continues.

Contents
[hide]

1 Well losses vs. aquifer losses

2 Well efficiency
3 Specific capacity
4 References

5 See also

[edit] Well losses vs. aquifer losses

The components of observed drawdown in a pumping well were first described by Jacob
(1947), and the test was refined independently by Hantush (1964) and Bierschenk (1963)
as consisting of two related components,

s = BQ + CQ2,
where s is drawdown (units of length e.g., m), Q is the pumping rate (units of volume
flowrate e.g., m/day), B is the aquifer loss coefficient (which increases with time as
predicted by the Theis solution) and C is the well loss coefficient (which is constant for a
given flow rate).
The first term of the equation (BQ) describes the linear component of the drawdown; i.e.,
the part in which doubling the pumping rate doubles the drawdown.
The second term (CQ2) describes what is often called the 'well losses'; the non-linear
component of the drawdown. To quantify this it is necessary to pump the well at several
different flow rates (commonly called steps). Rorabaugh (1953) added to this analysis by
making the exponent an arbitrary power (usually between 1.5 and 3.5).
To analyze this equation, both sides are divided by the discharge rate (Q), leaving s / Q
on the left side, which is commonly referred to as specific drawdown. The right hand side
of the equation becomes that of a straight line. Plotting the specific drawdown after a set
amount of time (t) since the beginning of each step of the test (since drawdown will
continue to increase with time) versus pumping rate should produce a straight line.
Fitting a straight line through the observed data, the slope of the best fit line will be C
(well losses) and the intercept of this line with Q = 0 will be B (aquifer losses). This
process is fitting an idealized model to real world data, and seeing what parameters in the
model make it fit reality best. The assumption is then made that these fitted parameters
best represent reality (given the assumptions that went into the model are true).
The relationship above is for fully penetrating wells in confined aquifers (the same
assumptions used in the Theis solution for determining aquifer characteristics in an
aquifer test).

[edit] Well efficiency

Often the well efficiency is determined from this sort of test, this is a percentage
indicating the fraction of total observed drawdown in a pumping well which is due to
aquifer losses (as opposed to being due to flow through the well screen and inside the
borehole). A perfectly efficient well, with perfect well screen and where the water flows
inside the well in a frictionless manner would have 100% efficiency. Unfortunately well
efficiency is hard to compare between wells because it depends on the characteristics of
the aquifer too (the same amount of well losses compared to a more transmissive aquifer
would give a lower efficiency).

[edit] Specific capacity

Specific capacity is a quantity that which a water well can produce per unit of
drawdown. It is normally obtained from a step drawdown test. Specific capacity is
expressed as:
where

Sc is the specific capacity ([L2T1]; m/day or USgal/day/ft)

Q is the pumping rate ([L3T1]; m/day or USgal/day), and
h0 h is the drawdown ([L]; m or ft)
The specific capacity of a well is also a function of the pumping rate it is determined at.
Due to non-linear well losses the specific capacity will decrease with higher pumping
rates. This complication makes the absolute value of specific capacity of little use; though
it is useful for comparing the efficiency of the same well through time (e.g., to see if the
well requires rehabilitation).

[edit] References

Bierschenk, William H., 1963. Determining well efficiency by multiple stepdrawdown tests. International Association of Scientific Hydrology, 64:493-507.
Hantush, Mahdi S., 1964. Advances in Hydroscience, chapter Hydraulics of Wells,
pp 281-442. Academic Press.
Jacob, C.E., 1947. Drawdown test to determine effective radius of artesian well.
Transactions, American Society of Civil Engineers, 112(2312):1047-1070.
Rorabaugh, M.I., 1953. Graphical and theoretical analysis of step-drawdown test
of artesian wells. Transactions, American Society of Civil Engineers, 79(separate
362):1-23.

Additional references on pumping test analysis methods other than the one described
above (typically referred to as the Hantush-Bierschenk method) can be found in the
general references on aquifer tests and hydrogeology.

[edit] See also

Hydrogeology
Aquifer and Groundwater

[hide]v d ePhysical aquifer properties used in hydrogeology

hydraulic head hydraulic conductivity storativity porosity water content
Retrieved from "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Well_test"
Categories: Aquifers | Hydrology | Hydraulic engineering | Water wells

The ability to analyze reservoir charac-teristics during under-balanced opera-tions

increases the opportunities to minimize reservoir damage, determine reservoir potential,
and maximize production. Planning, data-gathering capabili- ties, and a complete
understanding of underbalanced drilling dynamics are critical to success.
Several record-setting projects in the past 18 months have resulted in lowered costs and
increased production, while new technologies have shed light on the value of pressure
control in the pay interval, particularly on wells with prolific production potential.

Fig. 1. Negative effect of an overbalanced event in a generalized example.

Click here to enlarge image

null
To be assured of true underbalanced drilling throughout the pay intervals, it is essential to
use fit-for-purpose equipment, data acquisition, data management, and wellbore and
reservoir modeling simulators to provide analysis and control of the activity downhole at
the pay interval. Figure 1 reflects a composite of field cases depicted by the reservoir
analysis from this kind of capability. As pay is intersected in an underbalanced
environment, the service produces a quantified reservoir characterization. As sometimes
happens, an unplanned pressure event throws the system into overbalance, even for a
relatively short period of time. After underbalanced conditions are returned, the damage
to the reservoir can be determined. In Damage Rate No. 1, the analysis determines a 5fold reduction in rate. After an effort to "blow out the damage" with greater drawdown
pressures, Damage Rate No. 2 reflects 2 1/2-fold reduction. The most significant
observation is that for this case the damaged formation never cleans up to original rates
over the observed period. When modeled, the information from the result and the
resulting loss of productivity is quantified, value giving the operator an evaluation of the
production lost because of overbalance. Typically, the loss of production over the life of
the well exceeds the cost of the analysis.

Reservoirs previously deemed non-commercial (indicated by the top red

arrows) make significant contributions to total production rates when not
exposed to the damage of overbalanced drilling.

Click here to enlarge image

null

The reservoir difference

Understanding the reservoir in this environment constitutes "testing while drilling"
ability. The process begins with preliminary analysis of offset well data and design of
testing procedures to maximize the reservoir information to be obtained during the
drilling process. The Insite system of data acquisition and data management brings the
data to one platform from all data sources, after which a reservoir model allows analysis
of pressure and rate data to determine reservoir productivity. One of the components of
this reservoir model, TimeSplice, transposes and corrects the surface rate data to the
bottom hole, taking into account the injection and production lag times. The analytical
transient reservoir model uses the bottom-hole pressure corresponding to each traversed
layer, in conjunction with other input data, to calculate the rate from each productive
zone. The numerical reservoir simulator component can be used to characterize the
reservoir more accurately. Reservoir engineers and geologists work together to interpret
the results from the predictions and to advise on-site engineers of additional testing
requirements or modifications to drilling plans.
This "testing while drilling" methodology yields important reservoir information that in
many cases changes the reservoir knowledge in a field. The capability allows well testing
to be done during the drilling phase, based on data obtained while drilling, as well as
from any testing designed to fit into the underbalanced application. Reservoirs that
previously were not sufficiently economic to merit testing are automatically tested during
the drilling phase, giving an abundance of reservoir knowledge to the asset manager. The
tools amalgamate several advanced techniques and methodologies. In some cases, zones

previously not "seen" or not deemed productive with conventional drilling were found to
contain reserves economically viable enough to justify completion.
By planning a campaign well in advance, operators can maximize production while
ensuring a safe environment. Three times in the past year, teams have experienced
sustained production rates of over 40 MMcf/d produced while drilling operations were
underway. In five projects where Halliburton teams provided project management and
equipment, the operators saw production exceed the conventional overbalanced
benchmarks in their respective fields in six out of seven wells. Three of the wells also
beat the expected underbalanced dividend, setting record production rates. The one case
where failure to beat the overbalanced benchmark occurred was in a near-balanced
operation. Near balance does not, by design, achieve underbalanced pressures throughout
the pay interval and does not offer the same potential for production success. In several
projects, reservoirs were re-evaluated for increased reserves due to higher-than-expected
produc-tion rates (up to ten-fold higher) coupled with reduced decline rates.

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