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Project Report

On
HYBRID VEHICLE: DESIGN AND DEVELOPMENT
Submitted in the partial fulfillment of
Requirement for the award of the degree
Of

BACHELOR OF TECHNOLOGY
IN
Mechanical Engineering
UNDER THE GUIDANCE
OF
Mr. Arvinda Kumar Pandit
(Astt. Professor)

Submitted by
RISHI NAGWAL (0506940043)
VIKAS KUMAR (0506940055)
VIVEK PUNDIR (0506940060)
ASHISH SUHANEY (0606940010)

RADHA GOVIND ENGINEERING COLLEGE, MEERUT

U.P. TECHNICAL UNIVERSITY, LUCKNOW

SESSION-2009-10

Department of Mechanical Engineering

CERTIFICATE
This is to certify that the Project entitled Hybrid Vehicle:
Design and Development, being submitted by Mr. Rishi
Nagwal, Mr. Vikas Kumar, Mr. Vivek Pundir, Mr. Ashish Suhaney
in the partial fulfillment of the requirements for the award of the
degree

of

Bachelor

of

Technology

in

Mechanical

Engineering to Uttar Pradesh Technical University, Lucknow. The


same has been carried out under the supervision and guidance of Mr.
Arvinda Kumar Pandit during the academic session 2009-10.

Guide
Mr. Arvinda Kumar Pandit

(Astt. Professor)

Date:

ACKNOWLEDGEMENT
First of all, we would like to express my gratitude towards my project
guides Mr. Arvinda Kumar Pandit (Astt. Professor) for
giving us this opportunity to go through in enriching our project & without
his cooperation this project had not been possible. We take this opportunity
to thanks my guide for their valuable guidance and suggestions throughout
this project. We would like to thank for all the help & kind support extended
to us.
We are also thankful to our Head of Department Prof. C.P .Jain
for his valuable suggestions & tips. We also pay our sincere thanks to Prof.
B. K. Chaudhary, Mr. Yogesh Kumar (Astt. Professor),
Mr. Atul Sharma (Sr. Lecturer) & other faculty members of the
Department of Mechanical Engineering for their valuable suggestions and
support.
We would like to pay our special thanks to Mr. Arvinda Kumar
Pandit (Astt. Professor), for his valuable suggestions and kind help
throughout the project work as Project coordinator.
Last but not the least, we pay special thanks to Prof. (Dr.) J.K.
Lal (Director), for their support.
We are also thankful to all those people who were knowingly or
unknowingly involved in this project.
SUBMITTED BY

Rishi Nagwal

Vikas Kumar
Vivek Pundir
Ashish Suhaney

TABLE OF CONTENTS
Certificate
Acknowledgement
Abstract
List of Figures
CHAPTER 1: Introduction and Literature review
1.1: Introduction

1.2: Literature review and Background


1.2.1: Literature Review
1.2.2 : Background
1.2.2.1 Instruction
1.2.2.2 Hybrid vehicles
1.2.2.3:Types of hybrid vehicles
a.

Solar vehicles

1.2.2.4: Hybrid components


a.

Series

b.

Parallel

1.2.2.5: Linear alternator


a.

Theory

b.

Applications

1.2.2.6: Working of Hybrid vehicles


1.2.2.7: Fuel
1.2.2.8: Maintenance
1.2.2.9: Running instructions
CHAPTER 2: Description of Gasoline Direct Injection Engine (GDI)
2.1: Gasoline direct injection system
a. Theory of operation
b. In two strokes engines
2.2: Advantages of hybrid car over convention cars
a. Hybrid car saves gases
b. Hybrid car are eco friendly

c. Tax incentives for hybrid cars


2.3: Hybrid cars are excellent choice
2.4: Power sources
2.5: Vehicles Type
a. Two wheeled and Cycle type
b. Heavy vehicles
c. Rail Transport
d. Commercial vehicles
2.6: Hybrid electrics
2.7: Hybrid Hydraulic
a. Customer and Programs
b. Ships
c. Aircraft
2.8: Engine type
2.9: CORBEV
a. Hybrid fuel
b. Fluid power hybrid
2.10: Hybrid vehicle power unit and how they work
a. Parallel hybrid
b. Series hybrid
CHAPTER 3: Environmental Issues
3.1: Environmental issues
a. Fuel consumption and emissions reductions
b. Hybrid vehicle emissions
c. Environmental impact of hybrid car battery
3.2: Tips on improving fuel economy
3.3: Raw materials storage
3.4: Objective of project
CHAPTER4: DesignProcedure
4.1: List of components
4.2: Design of engine
4.3: Top view and Bottom view of hybrid vehicle
CHAPTER 5: Solar cell
5.1: How solar cells work

5.2: Converting photons to electrons


5.3: Silicon
a. Silicon in solar cell
b. N-type plus P-type silicon
c. Finishing the cell
d. Powering of house
5.4: Obstacles
5.5: Deep cycle batteries
5.6: Conversion of DC to AC
5.7: DC Motor
Chapter 3:Development Phase
Chapter 4:Result and Discussion
Chapter 5:Scope of future work

References

CHAPTER 1

Introduction and
Literature Review

1.1. Introduction
The project propeller car works on the principle of laws of motion. The propeller blade at
the front of vehicle will force the car to move forward as the air will flow at the back.
(Fig. No. 9: Air propeller car/aircraft). The engine will operate with the hand start
motion and to be fuelled with a specified fuel as explained at 1.2.2.7.
The car comprises of a geared motor: say 100 rpm, 12V DC connected with the steering
control wheel. The steering control wheel will change the direction and is controlled
by a RF remote control. The power is transmitted to all the four wheels - rear wheel
and front wheel, when driven with the propeller of the car and when driven with solar
power, the power is transmitted only to the rear wheel. Another gear motor of same
specification as in rear wheel will operate the braking mechanism and it operated via
RF remote.
When we start the engine and place the car on surface, the car will move forward and the
RF remote for steering wheel will change its direction to the left and right. If someone
needs to create a sudden brake, the RF control key can be activated for the same to make
shoe brake operate.

1.2. Literature Review and Background


1.2.1 Literature Review:
The first Direct Injection System was developed by Bosch, and was introduced by Goliath
and Guttered in 1952. The Mercedes-Benz 300SL (1955), the first sports car used Direct
Injection method for injecting fuel. The fuel injectors were placed into the bores of the
cylinder wall used by the spark plugs in other Mercedes-Benz six-cylinder engines (the
spark plugs were relocated to the cylinder head). Later, more mainstream applications of
fuel injection favored less expensive indirect injection methods.
During the late 1970's, the Ford Motor Company developed a stratified-charge engine
they called "ProCo" (programmed combustion),[10] utilizing a unique high pressure pump
and direct injectors. One hundred Crown Victoria cars were built at Ford's Atlanta
Assembly in Hapeville, Georgia utilizing a ProCo V8 engine. The project was canceled
for several reasons; electronic controls, a key element, were in their infancy; pump and
injector costs were extremely high; and lean combustion produced nitrogen oxides in
excess of near future EPA limits. Also, the three way catalytic converter was proven to be
a more cost effective solution.
It was not until 1996 that gasoline direct injection reappeared in the automotive market.
Mitsubishi Motors was the first with a GDI engine in the Japanese market
Galant/Legnum's 4G93 1.8 L straight-4, which it subsequently brought to Europe in 1997
in the Mitsubishi Carisma,although Europe's high-sulphur fuel led to emissions problems,
and fuel efficiency was less than expected. It also developed the first six cylinder GDI
power plant, the 6G74 3.5 L V6, in 1997. Mitsubishi applied this technology widely,
producing over one million GDI engines in four families by 2001, PSA Peugeot Citron
and Hyundai Motors both licensed Mitsubishi's GDI technology in 1999, the latter using
the first GDI V8. DaimlerChrysler produced a special engine for 2000, offered only in
markets with low sulphur fuel.[citation needed]
Although other companies have since developed gasoline direct injection engines, GDI
(with an uppercase final "I") remains a registered trademark of Mitsubishi Motors.

Toyota introduced direct injection engine D4 (Toyota AZ engine) in 2000 Toyota Avensis.
Toyota's 2GR-FSE V6 uses a combination of direct and indirect injection. It uses two
injectors per cylinder, a traditional port injector and a new direct injector.
Later GDI engines have been tuned and marketed for their high performance.
Volkswagen/Audi introduced their GDI engine in 2001, under the product name Fuel
Stratified Injection (FSI), the technology adapted from Audi's Le Mans prototype racecar.
Alfa Romeo introduced their first direct injection engine JTS in 2002, and today the
technology is used on almost every Alfa Romeo engine.
BMW introduced GDI V12 BMW N73 engine in 2003. This initial BMW system used
low-pressure injectors and could not enter lean-burn mode, but the company introduced
its second-generation High Precision Injection system on the updated N52 straight-6 in
2006. This system surpasses many others with a wider envelope of lean-burn time,
increasing overall efficiency.[11] PSA is cooperating with BMW on a new line of engines
which will make its first appearance in the 2007 MINI Cooper S.
General Motors had planned to produce a full range of GDI engines by 2002, but so far
only two such engines have been introduced in 2004, a version of the 2.2 L Ecotec
used by the Opel Vectra and in 2005, a 2.0 L Ecotec with VVT technology for the Pontiac
Solstice GXP, the Vauxhall GT, the Opel Speedster, and the Saturn Sky Red Line. The
forthcoming 2008 Cadillac CTS and Cadillac STS will also be available GDI 3.6 L LLT
engine due out in the fall of 2007.
In 2004 Isuzu Motors produced the first GDI engine sold in a mainstream American
vehicle. Standard on the 2004 Axiom and optional on the 2004 Rodeo. Isuzu claimed the
benefit of GDI is that the vaporizing fuel has a cooling effect, allowing a higher
compression ratio (10.3 to 1 versus 9.1 to 1) that boosts output by 20 horsepower (15 kW)
and that 0-to-60 times drop from 8.9 to just 7.5 seconds, with the quarter-mile being cut
from 16.5 seconds to 15.8 ticks.[12]
Mazda uses their own version of direct injection in the Mazda speed 6 / Mazda 6 MPS,
the CX-7 sport-Ute, and the new Mazda speed 3. It is referred to as Direct Injection Spark
Ignition.

1.2.2 Back ground of hybrid vehicles


1.2.2.1 Instructions:
Connect the tank to the engine using a transparent fuel tube. The level of fuel should be
equal to the fuel intake when the tank is in filled position. The tank sizes for the DIESEL
ENGINES are as follows:
1. 5C.C.----45 to 50 CC

2. 5C.C.----70 to 75CC

3. 2C.C----90 to 95C.C.
.
Fill up the fuel tank & connect the tube to the approximate fuel setting of the engines
first start, open two & a half turn right from the closed position. Now choke the engine by
putting the finger over the air intake & rotate the propeller 2-3 times. Adjust the
compression setting screw such that when the propeller is flicked a jerk is felt on fingers;
out if the jerk is too high then set the compression low by unscrewing the compression
setting screw.[10]
When the engine fire, it is not necessary that it will keep running. The propeller may
oscillate or he engine may start reverse this means compression is higher, then it is
needed to turn the compression screw back. In this case it is also possible that there is
some excess fuel in the engine, to remove the same turn back the compression setting
screw & flick hard several times. [10]
While starting the engine, the compression setting screw is sent back from its actual
running position, so when the engine misfires or run unevenly after start, screw the
compression setting screw until the engine fires evenly. If the sound of the engine further
changes to as a damped sound that means the engine is over compressed, the compression
setting screw should be turned back until engine sounds evenly. [10]
If the engine did not speed up & the exhaust is too oily that means fuel setting is rich, the
time the fuel needle should be closed down until engine runs to maximum R.P.M. On the
other if the engine runs with the short bursts only, this means engine needs more fuel &
fuel needle should be opened until a smooth running is achieved. [10]

Weather mounting the engine on a test bench or a model, the engine should be firmly
mounted. A loose mounting may cause hazards & a power loss during running due to
heavy vibration. [10]
1.2.2.2 HYBRID VEHICLES
A hybrid vehicle uses multiple propulsion systems to provide motive power. This most
commonly refers to gasoline-electric hybrid vehicles, which use gasoline (petrol) and
electric batteries for the energy used to power internal-combustion engines (ICEs) and
electric motors. These motors are usually relatively small and would be considered
"underpowered" by themselves, but they can provide a normal driving experience when
used in combination during acceleration and other maneuvers that require greater power.
[3]
A car, which has a combination of two different ideas, can be called as a hybrid, but the
cars, which combine two energy sources for its running is popularly named as hybrid car
Hybrid Cars use a rechargeable energy storage system to supplement fossil fuel energy
for vehicle propulsion. Hybrid engines are smaller and more efficient than traditional fuel
engines. Some hybrid vehicles use regenerative braking to generate electricity while
travailing. The term "Hybrid Vehicle" can also refer to a vehicle engine that uses a
combination of different fuels such as petroleum and ethanol. The articles on this page are
on the topic of Hybrid vehicles and related technologies. [3]
To be simple, the conventional cars run on a single fuel source such as gasoline, petrol
and diesel. The energy efficiency of the cars was insufficient to meet the future needs, in
the highly energy depleting situation. The search for alternative resources is intensive and
one of them, electric cars were a success, but its limitation was the inadequacy for a long
drive and difficulty for frequent recharges. Hybrid cars were a better solution since it
combines the benefits of both types of cars. Now, most of the hybrid cars use the engine
that work in combination of gasoline and electricity. [3]

Hybrid gasoline/electric (and diesel/electric) vehicles are becoming increasingly popular


in the United States. Hybrids combine a gasoline (or diesel) engine with an electrical

motor system to improve efficiency. If their use becomes more widespread, they could
help improve the overall efficiency of the vehicle fleet and could help limit oil
consumption.
Further, they could do so without significant changes to existing infrastructure, which has
been a key barrier to the expanded use of alternative fuel vehicles. In model year 2006
Ford, General Motors, Honda, Nissan, and Toyota will offer vehicles with hybrid power
trains. At the present time, only hybrid passenger cars, sport utility vehicles (SUVs), and
pickups are available in the United States, but hybrid versions of other vehicle models
and classes are expected in the near future.[3]
Because of their energy and environmental benefits, some states have provided drivers of
hybrid vehicles an exemption from high occupancy vehicle (HOV) lane requirements.
1.2.2.3 Types of hybrid vehicles

Solar vehicles

Electric Vehicles

ICE-Hybrid

Fuel cell Hybrid

a. Solar Vehicles:
Electric vehicle powered by solar energy obtained from solar panels on the surface of
the car

Fig No: 1 Solar Arrangement [7]

Hybrid vehicle is a vehicle using an on-board rechargeable energy storage system (RESS)
and a fueled propulsion power source for vehicle propulsion. They are low-polluting and
low-petroleum consuming cars. The different propulsion power systems may have
common subsystems or components. [7]

Fig. No.: 2 Structural diagram of hybrid car [7]

The term commonly refers to petroleum-electric hybrid vehicles, also called Hybridelectric Vehicle (HEV) which uses gasoline (petrol) or diesel to power internalcombustion engines, and electric batteries to power electric motors. Nearly all hybrids
still require gasoline and diesel as their sole fuel source though other fuels such as ethanol
or plant based oils have also seen occasional use. Hybrid cars also use Hydrogen gas. [7]
1.2.2.4 Hybrid component:
There are many ways to create an electric-internal combustion hybrid. The variety of
electric-ICE designs can be differentiated by how the electric and combustion portions of
the power train connect, at what times each portion is in operation, and what percent of
the power is provided by each hybrid component. Two major categories are series hybrids
and parallel hybrids. [5]
a. Series:
In a series design, the internal combustion engine is not directly connected to the drive
train at all, but powers an electrical generator instead. This is similar to the operation of
diesel-electric train locomotives, except that as of 2006, A series hybrid is similar to an

electric car which is recharged by electricity from a stationary fossil fuel power plant,
except that the power plant is carried on board. [5]

Fig No: 3 Series hybrid [5]

Electricity from the generator is fed to the motor or motors that actually move the car and
excess energy can be used to charge batteries. When large amounts of power are required,
electricity comes from both the battery pack and the engine-generator section. Because
electrical motors can operate quite efficiently over a wide range of speeds, this design
removes or reduces the need for a complex transmission. The internal combustion engine
can also be finely tuned to operate at its most efficient speed whenever it is running, for a
great gain in efficiency. Separate small electric motors installed at each wheel are featured
in some prototypes and concept cars; this allows the possibility of easily controlling the
power delivered to each wheel, and therefore simplifies traction control, all wheel drive,
and similar features. [5]
Still, series hybrids are useful in driving cycles that incorporate many stops and starts,
such as for delivery vehicles, or stop and go city driving. It is likely that some fuel cell
cars will use a series-style setup, with the fuel cells replacing the engine-generator
section; this would eliminate the loss of efficiency inherent in converting the mechanical
output of an internal combustion engine to electrical power. [5]

b. Parallel:
Parallel systems, which are most commonly produced at present, connect both the
electrical and internal combustion systems to the mechanical transmission. They can be
subcategorized depending upon how balanced the different portions are at providing
motive power. In some cases, the internal combustion engine is the dominant portion and
is used for primary power, with the motor turning on only when a boost is needed. Others
can run with just the electric system operating alone. Most designs combine a large
electrical generator and a motor into one unit, often situated between the internal
combustion engine and the transmission, in the location of the flywheel, replacing both
the conventional starter motor and the generator or alternator. [5]

Fig No: 4 Parallel hybrid [5]

A large battery pack is required, providing a higher voltage than the normal automotive
12 volts. Accessories such as power steering and air conditioning are powered by electric
motors, so that they continue to function when the internal combustion engine is stopped;
this offers the possibility of further efficiency gains, by modulating the electrical power
delivered to these systems, rather than having them run directly from the engine at a
speed which depends on engine speed. [5]

1.2.2.5 Linear alternator:


A linear alternator is essentially a linear motor used as an electrical generator. (An
alternator is a type of alternating current (AC) electrical generator.) The devices are often
physically equivalent.[4]
The principal difference is in how they are used and which direction the energy flows. An
alternator converts mechanical energy to electrical energy, whereas a motor converts
electrical energy to mechanical energy. Like most electric motors and electric generators,
the linear alternator works by the principle of electromagnetic induction. However, most
alternators work with rotary motion, whereas "linear" alternators work with "linear"
motion (i.e. motion in a straight line).[4]

Fig No: 5 Layouts of Hybrid Vehicles [4]

a. Theory
When a magnet moves in relation to a coil of wire, this changes the magnetic flux passing
through the coil, and thus induces the flow of an electric current, which can be used to do
work. A linear alternator is most commonly used to convert reciprocating motion directly
into electrical energy. This short-cut eliminates the need for a crank or linkage that would
otherwise be required to convert a reciprocating motion to a rotary motion in order to be
compatible with a rotary generator.[4]
b. Applications:
The simplest type of linear alternator is the Faraday Flashlight. This is a torch (UK) or
flashlight (USA) which contains a coil and a permanent magnet. When the appliance is
shaken back and forth, the magnet oscillates through the coil and induces an electric

current. This current is used to charge a capacitor, thus storing energy for later use. The
appliance can then produce light, usually from a, until the capacitor is discharged. It can
then be re-charged by further shaking.[4]
Other devices are under development which use linear alternators to generate electricity;
these devices include the opposed-piston free-piston engine, and the free-piston Sterling
engine.[4]
1.2.2.6 Working of hybrids Vehicle:

Hybrid-electric vehicles (HEVs) combine the benefits of gasoline engines and electric
motors and can be configured to obtain different objectives, such as improved fuel
economy, increased power, or additional auxiliary power for electronic devices and power
tools. [1]

Fig No 6 Working of hybrid vehicles [1]

1.2.2.7 FUEL:

The fuel mixture recommended by us for all our diesel engines is as follows:
40% Paraffin Oil (Kerosene)
30% Anesthetic or Solvent Either
27-30% Castor Oil
2-3% ignitions improvers like Amyl Nitrate can be used.

The commercially available fuels can also be used. For some applications like racing
some fuel mixture may be found better then the recommended, but in that case please
check that the oil content, for a new engine should be not less there 30% & for a used
engine it should not go below 25%. The fuel lower oil content is not recommended as it
lowers engine life. However 30% is enough for the good running of the engine, adding
more oil will not provide benefit. [10]

1.2.2.8Alternative Fuel
At the dawn of the automobile age, gasoline was the up-and-coming "alternative fuel" -vying with electric batteries and steam power. Gas ultimately won out, of course. But
now that we're running out of distilled dinosaur juice -- or at the very least, getting
sick of being at the mercy of OPEC -- a variety of 21st century alternatives to
gasoline are entering the pipeline (so to speak).[3]

1.2.2.8.a E85/ethanol
Essentially, alcohol created from vegetable matter and mixed with gasoline or used
undiluted and "straight up." E85 is the commercial name for the mix that is currently
available at a growing number of gas stations around the country. It is 85 percent ethanol
and 15 percent gasoline. GM and Ford both offer E85 compatible new cars and trucks
designed to safely use this fuel (they can also run on regular gas).
The advantages of ethanol/E85 include lower emissions of unburned hydrocarbons
(which form the precursors of smog) and the potential for a significant reduction in U.S.
dependence on non-renewable, petroleum-based fuels. Also, most vehicles can be set up
to operate on E85/ethanol at relatively low cost and there is no loss of performance or
power. Ethanol fuel also degrades quickly in water and therefore presents a much lower
risk to the environment than an oil or gasoline spill.[1]
1.2.2.8.b Biodiesel

Vegetable oil can cook your fries as well as power the vehicle that gets you to the drivethru. An interesting historical fact is that diesel engines were originally designed to run on
vegetable oil, not petroleum-based diesel fuel. Engines can still run on vegetable oil and
help keep the air cleaner and reduce our country's dependence on the oil cartels by doing
so. Biodiesel is not the same as raw vegetable oil (though that can be run in diesel
engines, too). It is, however, made from raw vegetable oil. Its chief advantage over raw
vegetable oil is that it can be used in any compression-ignition (diesel) engine with little
or no modification necessary. The use of raw vegetable oil in diesels requires pre-heaters
and other fuel system upgrades. Biodiesel is also less toxic than table salt -- and degrades
as fast as sugar.[1]

1.2.2.9 Maintenance:

These engine do no require any internal maintenance if instructions are followed. The
three screws on the cylinder head of the engine should be checked & tightened (if
required) occasionally, but the care should be taken that these screws are not over
tightened. [6]
If by chance your engine meets a crash landing which makes your engine burry in loose
soil or sand then takes it to an expert for proper cleaning unless you feel that you can
thoroughly clean it using kerosene or diesel for further running. After every hazard
landing always check the pitch & balance of your propeller.
These engines never needs decarburizing, the carbon produced in engine is self thrown
out of the engine with the exhaust during running. [6]
1.2.2.10 Running Instructions:
Before leaving our workshop each of the ENGINE is test run up to 12000 R.P.M. at least
for five minutes, these engines do not need any running in & are ready to be fitted on a
model.
For test running of the engine without model, never hold the engine itself in a vice, it can
distant the engines crankcase. Use an engine test bench for it screw the engine tight to
the piece of wood & then hold piece very firmly in vice.

Choose the appropriate propeller from the chart & fit to the engine so that the piston
travel upwards, closing the exhaust ports & began to compress the gas there, at that
position the upper end of propeller should be showing TWO O CLOCK. This will help
in flicking from right to left (i.e. in anticlockwise direction). [3]

CHAPTER 2: Gasoline Direct Injection Engine


2.1 Gasoline Direct Injection:
Gasoline direct injection or GDI is a variant of fuel injection employed in modern twoand four- stroke petrol engines. The gasoline is highly pressurized, and injected via a
common rail fuel line directly into the combustion chamber of each cylinder, as opposed
to conventional multi point fuel injection that happens in the intake tract, or cylinder port.
GDI enables stratified charge (ultra lean burn) combustion for improved fuel efficiency
and emission levels at low load.[10]
a. Theory of operation:
The major advantages of a GDI engine are increased fuel efficiency and high power
output. This is achieved by the precise control over amount of fuel and injection timings
which are varied according to the load conditions. In addition, there are no throttling
losses when compared to a conventional fuel injected or carbureted engine, which greatly
improves efficiency in engines without a throttle plate.[10]
The engine management system continually chooses among three combustion modes:
ultra lean burn, stoichiometric, and full power output. Each mode is characterized by the
air-fuel ratio. The stoichiometric air-fuel ratio for petrol (gasoline) is 14.7 to 1 by weight,
but ultra lean mode can involve ratios as high as 65 to 1. These leaner mixtures, much
leaner than in a conventional engine, reduce fuel consumption.

Ultra lean mode is used for light-load running conditions, when little or no
acceleration is required. The fuel is not injected at the intake stroke but rather at
the latter stages of the compression stroke, so that the small amount of air-fuel
mixture is optimally placed near the spark plug. This stratified charge is
surrounded by mostly air which keeps the fuel away from the cylinder walls for
lowest emissions. The combustion takes place in a toroidal cavity on the piston's

surface. This technique enables the use of ultra-lean mixtures impossible with
carburetors or conventional fuel injection.

Stoichiometric mode is used for moderate load conditions. Fuel is injected during
the intake stroke, creating a homogeneous fuel-air mixture in the cylinder. From
the stoichiometric ratio, an optimum burn results in clean exhaust readily further
cleaned by the catalytic converter.

Full power mode is used for rapid acceleration and heavy loads (as when
climbing a hill). The air-fuel mixture is homogeneous and the ratio is slightly
richer than stoichiometric, which helps prevent pinging. The fuel is injected
during the intake stroke.

Direct injection may also be accompanied by other engine technologies such as variable
valve timing and tuned or variable length intake manifolding. Water injection or (more
commonly) exhaust gas recirculation can help reduce the high NOx emissions that result
from burning ultra lean mixtures.[10]
b. In two-stroke engines:
The benefits of direct injection are even more pronounced in two-stroke engines, because
it eliminates much of the pollution they cause. In conventional two-strokes, the exhaust
and intake ports are both open at the same time, at the bottom of the piston stroke. A large
portion of the fuel/air mixture entering the cylinder from the crankcase through the intake
ports goes directly out, unburned, through the exhaust port. With direct injection, only air
comes from the crankcase, and fuel is not injected until the piston rises and all ports are
closed. [10]
Two types of GDI are used in two-strokes: low-pressure air-assisted, and high pressure.
The former, developed by Orbital Engine Corporation of Australia (now Orbital
Corporation) injects a mixture of fuel and compressed air into the combustion chamber.
When the air expands it atomizes the fuel into 8-micrometre droplets, very small relative
to the 20 to 30-micrometre fuel droplets in other direct injection systems. The Orbital
system is used in motor scooters manufactured by Aprilia, Piaggio, Peugeot and Kymco,
in outboard motors manufactured by Mercury and Tohatsu, and in personal watercraft
manufactured by Bombardier. [10]

In the early 1990s, Ficht GmbH of Kirchseeon, Germany developed a high-pressure direct
injector for use with two stroke engines. This injector was unique in that it did not require
a high pressure pump but was still capable of generating enough pressure to inject into a
closed combustion chamber. Outboard Marine Corporation (OMC) licensed the
technology in 1995 and introduced it on a production outboard engine in 1996. OMC
purchased a controlling interest in Ficht in 1998. Beset by extensive warranty claims for
its Ficht outboards, OMC declared bankruptcy in December of 2000 and the engine
manufacturing portion and brands (Evinrude Outboard Motors and Johnson Outboards),
including the Ficht technology, were purchased by Bombardier in 2001.[10]
Evinrude introduced the E-Tech system, an improvement to the Ficht fuel injection, in
2003, based on U.S. patent 6,398,511. In 2004, Evinrude received the EPA Clean Air
Excellence Award for their outboards utilizing the E-Tech system. [10]
Yamaha also has a high-pressure direct injection system for two-stroke outboards. It
differs from the Ficht/E-Tech and Orbital direct injection systems because it uses a
separate, belt driven, high pressure, mechanical fuel pump to generate the pressure
necessary for injection in a closed chamber. This is similar to most current 4-stroke
automotive designs. EnviroFit, a non-profit corporation sponsored by Colorado State
University, has developed direct injection retrofit kits for two-stroke motorcycles in a
project to reduce air pollution in Southeast Asia, using technology developed by Orbital
Corporation of Australia.
EnviroFit, a non-profit corporation sponsored by Colorado State University, has
developed direct injection retrofit kits for two-stroke motorcycles in a project to reduce
air pollution in Southeast Asia, using technology developed by Orbital Corporation of
Australia. The World Health Organization says air pollution in Southeast Asia and the
Pacific causes 537,000 premature deaths each year. The 100-million two-stroke taxis and
motorcycles in that part of the world are a major cause.

Fig no: 7

diagram of engine

2.2 Advantages of hybrid cars over convention cars


Due to the rising cost of fuel and the environmental damage it causes to our planet, many
car owners or buyers are looking for an alternative way to save money. Let's face it, fuel
supply is finite and the prices of gas are only going to rise higher and higher. That is
where a hybrid car has its advantages
Hybrid cars have been gaining in popularity in recent years. With lower cost of
production and new hybrid car technology being developed, owning a hybrid car is
becoming affordable to everyone.

a. Hybrid Cars Saves Gas


The obvious advantage of using hybrid cars is that it saves gas. Combining the cleaner
energy of an electric motor with the long range capacity of a gasoline engine allows a
hybrid car to save as much as 30 miles a gallon. One feature of hybrid cars is that the
gasoline engine is shut off automatically when the car stops. This also helps in saving
fuel. That is also the reason why hybrid cars are so quiet why it is stationary. The gasoline
engine is automatically turned on when you step on the accelerator pedal.
b. Hybrid Cars Are Environment Friendly
Hybrid cars emit lower toxic emissions compared to conventional gasolinepowered cars due to less gasoline being burned. It is environmentally friendly, causes less
pollution and releases less carbon dioxide into the atmosphere. If you do not know,
carbon dioxide is one of the primary reasons for rising global warming. For example, the
Toyota Prius can reduce tailpipe emissions by up to ninety percent and the greenhouse gas
emissions by as much as fifty percent.
c. Tax Incentives for Hybrid Cars
Due to world political pressures around the world to reduce greenhouse emissions,
President Bush signed an agreement in 2005 to provide huge tax relief to hybrid car
buyers. The tax incentive varies by model and are based on two factors
1. How fuel efficient the hybrid car is compared to a conventional car in 2002 with the
same weight class.
2. How much gasoline the hybrid car can save in its lifetime compared with an equivalent
conventional car. Hybrid car manufacturers are continually researching for more ways to
reduce fuel consumption and better fuel efficiency. Also as more hybrid cars are being
adopted, the cost of hybrid cars will reduce making it more affordable for everyone.

2.3 Hybrid cars are an excellent choice:


Many car manufacturers are making hybrid cars because they are small and fuel-efficient.
They are powered by a combination of an efficient gas engine and by electric motor that
helps with accelerations. Batteries that recharge automatically power the electric motor.
On this site you will find a large selection of topics covered with expert advice and tips
for anyone considering the purchase of hybrid cars. Or if your looking to purchase Hybrid
Cars and Vehicles Sale then click the link.
A hybrid vehicle is a vehicle that uses two or more distinct power sources to move the vehicle. [1]
The term most commonly refers to hybrid electric vehicles (HEVs), which combine an internal
combustion engine and one or more electric motors.

2.4 Power sources:


Power sources include:

On-board or out-board rechargeable energy storage system (RESS)

Gasoline or Diesel fuel

Hydrogen

Compressed air

Liquid nitrogen

Human powered e.g. pedaling or rowing

Wind

Compressed or liquefied natural gas

Solar

Waste heat from internal combustion engine. This can be converted to steam or
electricity (e.g. via Sterling engine) to increase vehicle propulsion

Coal, wood, Biochar or other solid combustibles

Electromagnetic fields, Radio waves .

2.5 Vehicle type


a. Two-wheeled and cycle-type vehicles
Mopeds and electric bicycles are a simple form of a hybrid, as power is delivered both via
an internal combustion engine or electric motor and the rider's muscles. Early prototypes
of motorcycles in the late 1800s used the same principles.

In a parallel hybrid bicycle human and motor power are mechanically coupled at
the pedal drive train or at the rear or the front wheel, e.g. using a hub motor, a
roller pressing onto a tire, or a connection to a wheel using a transmission
element. Human and motor torques are added together. Almost all manufactured
models are of this type. See Motorized bicycles, Mopeds and for more
information.

In a series hybrid bicycle (SH) the user powers a generator using the pedals. This
is converted into electricity and can be fed directly to the motor giving a chainless
bicycle but also to charge a battery. The motor draws power from the battery and
must be able to deliver the full mechanical torque required because none is
available from the pedals. SH bicycles are commercially available, because they
are very simple in theory and manufacturing.
The first known prototype and publication of an SH bicycle is by Augustus Kinzel
(US Patent 3'884'317) in 1975. In 1994 Bernie Macdonald conceived the
Electrolyte SH lightweight vehicle which used power electronics allowing
regenerative braking and pedaling while stationary. In 1995 Thomas Mller
designed a "Fahrrad mit elektromagnetischem Antrieb" in his 1995 diploma thesis
and built a functional vehicle. In 1996 Jrg Blatter and Andreas Fuchs of Berne
University of Applied Sciences built an SH bicycle and in 1998 mounted the
system onto a Leitra tricycle (European patent EP 1165188). In 1999 Harald
Kutzke described his concept of the "active bicycle": the aim is to approach the
ideal bicycle weighing nothing and having no drag by electronic compensation.
Until 2005 Fuchs and colleagues built several prototype SH tricycles and
quadricycles.

b. Heavy vehicles
Hybrid power trains are used for diesel-electric or turbo-electric railway locomotives,
buses, heavy goods vehicles, mobile hydraulic machinery, and ships. Typically some form
of heat engine (usually diesel) drives an electric generator or hydraulic pump which
powers one or more electric or hydraulic motors. There are advantages in distributing
power through wires or pipes rather than mechanical elements especially when multiple
drives e.g. driven wheels or propellers are required. There is power lost in the
double conversion from typically diesel fuel to electricity to power an electric or
hydraulic motor. With large vehicles the advantages often outweigh the disadvantages
especially as the conversion losses typically decrease with size. With the exception of non
nuclear submarines, presently there is no or relatively little energy storage capacity on
most heavy vehicles, e.g. auxiliary batteries and hydraulic accumulatorsthis is
changing.
c.Rail transport
Europe
An example of a typical "hybrid" is the new Auto rail grande capacity (AGC or highcapacity railcar) built by the Canadian company Bombardier for service in France. This
has dual mode (diesel and electric motors) and dual voltage capabilities (1500 and 25000
V) allowing it to be used on many different rail systems.
Japan
The first operational prototype of a hybrid train engine with significant energy storage
and energy regeneration capability was introduced in Japan as the KiHa E200. It utilizes
battery packs of lithium ion batteries mounted on the roof to store recovered energy.
North America
In the U.S., General Electric introduced a prototype railroad engine with their
"Ecomagination" technology in 2007. They store energy in a large set of sodium nickel
chloride (Na-NiCl2) batteries to capture and store energy normally dissipated during

dynamic braking or coasting downhill. They expect at least a 10% reduction in fuel use
with this system and are now spending about $2 billion/yr on hybrid research.[6]
Variants of the typical diesel electric locomotive include the Green Goat (GG) and Green
Kid (GK) switching/yard engines built by Canada's Rail power Technologies. They utilize
a large set of heavy duty long life (~10 yr) rechargeable lead acid (Pba) batteries and 1000
to 2000 HP electric motors as the primary motive sources and a new clean burning diesel
generator (~160 Hp) for recharging the batteries that is used only as needed. No power or
fuel are wasted for idlingtypically 6085% of the time for these type locomotives. It is
unclear if dynamic braking (regenerative) power is recaptured for reuse; but in principle it
should be easily utilized.
Since these engines typical need extra weight for traction purposes anyway the battery
pack's weight is a negligible penalty. In addition the diesel generator and battery package
are normally built on an existing "retired" "yard" locomotive's frame for significant
additional cost savings. The existing motors and running gear are all rebuilt and reused.
Diesel fuel savings of 4060% and up to 80% pollution reductions are claimed over that
of a "typical" older switching/yard engine. The same advantages that existing hybrid cars
have for use with frequent starts and stops and idle periods apply to typical switching
yard use. "Green Goat" locomotives have been purchased by Canadian Pacific Railway,
BNSF Railway, Kansas City Southern Railway and Union Pacific Railroad among others.
Cranes
Rail power Technologies Corp. engineers working with TSI Terminal Systems Inc. in
Vancouver, British Columbia are testing a hybrid diesel electric power unit with battery
storage for use in Rubber Tired Gantry (RTG) cranes. RTG cranes are typically used for
loading and unloading shipping containers onto trains or trucks in ports and container
storage yards. The energy used to lift the containers can be partially regained when they
are lowered. Diesel fuel and emission reductions of 5070% are predicted by Rail power
engineers. First systems are expected to be operational in 2007.

d. Commercial Vehicles
Early hybrid systems are being investigated for trucks and other heavy highway vehicles
with some operational trucks and buses starting to come into use. The main obstacles
seem to be smaller fleet sizes and the extra costs of a hybrid system are yet compensated
for by fuel savings, but with the price of oil set to continue on its upward trend, the
tipping point may be reached by the end of 1995. Advances in technology and lowered
battery cost and higher capacity etc. developed in the hybrid car industry are already
filtering into truck use as Toyota, Ford, GM and others introduce hybrid pickups and
SUVs. Kenworth Truck Company recently introduced a hybrid-electric truck, called the
Kenworth T270 Class 6 that for city usage seems to be competitive. FedEx and others are
starting to invest in hybrid delivery type vehiclesparticularly for city use where hybrid
technology may pay off first.[1] Since 2002, the U.S. military has been testing serial hybrid
Humvees and have found them to deliver faster acceleration, a stealth mode with low
thermal

signature/

near

silent

operation,

and

greater

fuel

economy.

2.6 Hybrid Electric


Eaton's hybrid-electric power systems consist of an automated clutch, electric
motor/generator,

motor

controller/inverter,

energy

storage,

automated

manual

transmission and an integrated supervisory hybrid control module. Hybrid electric


systems have much higher energy storage capacity, and generally have low to moderate
power capabilities. Hybrid electric systems can also provide engine off PTO capability for
those needing worksite hydraulic operations and an auxiliary electric power source from
the vehicle, making them valuable in vehicles whose workday takes them off the highway
and to a jobsite, where the trucks power is used to operate other tools and equipment.
Hybrid electric vehicles require an unprecedented level of integration and partnership
between truck makers, engine manufacturers, and suppliers of the drive train and major
electrical components. Eatons strategy includes early and significant collaboration with
truck OEMs, engine manufacturers and key technology/component suppliers.
Beginning in 2007, Eaton began offering complete, integrated Hybrid Drive Units to
truck OEMs that include an automated clutch, electric motor/generator, motor
controller/inverter, energy storage, automated manual transmission, and an integrated

supervisory hybrid control module for the utility, telecom, municipality and other
medium-duty

city

delivery

vocations.

2.7 Hybrid Hydraulic


In a parallel hybrid hydraulic system, the conventional vehicle power train is
supplemented by the addition of the hydraulic system. The Eaton Hydraulic Launch
Assist (HLA) is best suited for vehicles that operate in stop and go duty cycles.
Examples include refuse trucks and buses. Key elements of the value proposition include
improved fuel economy through regeneration of braking energy, longer brake life, and
increased productivity due to the extra power the HLA system provides. Fuel economy
and emissions reductions in the 20-30% range and paybacks in 2-3 years are possible with
this technology. Eaton plans to commercialize the HLA system in refuse trucks in 2009.
a. Customers and Programs
Eaton provides its hybrid power systems to major truck OEMs such as International
Truck and Engine, PACCAR and Freightliner. Eaton hybrid diesel electric systems have
been available as a published power train option in North America since 2007. Eaton
plans to offer complete, integrated Hybrid power systems to truck OEMs that include an
automated clutch, electric motor/generator, motor controller/inverter, energy storage,
automated manual transmission and an integrated supervisory Hybrid Control Module.
b.Ships
Ships with both mast-mounted sails and steam engines were an early form of hybrid
vehicle. Another example is the diesel-electric submarine. This runs on batteries when
submerged and the batteries can be re-charged by the diesel engine when the craft is on
the surface.
Newer hybrid ship-propulsion schemes include large towing kites manufactured by
companies such as Skysails. Towing kites can fly at heights several times higher than the
tallest ship masts, capturing stronger and steadier winds.

c. Aircraft
Delta Air Lines is going to be turning their Boeing 737NGs into hybrids in early 2010 by
mounting the Wheel Tug ground propulsion system on their fleet of Boeing 737NGs
[12]

. By using the APU, which is powered by a turbine, to power a Chorus Motor mounted

on the landing gear for ground movement, Delta Air Lines will be creating a hybrid
configuration by ceasing to use the main engines for anything but flight and take-off.
2.8 Engine type
When the term hybrid vehicle is used, it most often refers to a Hybrid electric vehicle.
These encompass such vehicles as the AHS2 (Chevrolet Tahoe, GMC Yukon,
Chevrolet Silverado, Cadillac Escalade, and the Saturn Vue), Toyota Prius,
Toyota Camry Hybrid, Ford Escape Hybrid, Toyota Highlander Hybrid,
Honda Insight, Honda Civic Hybrid and others. A petroleum-electric hybrid
most commonly uses internal combustion engines (generally gasoline or Diesel
engines, powered by a variety of fuels) and electric batteries to power electric
motors. There are many types of petroleum-electric hybrid drive trains, from
Full hybrid to Mild hybrid, which offer varying advantages and disadvantages.
While liquid fuel/electric hybrids date back to the late 1800s, the braking regenerative
hybrid was invented by David Arthurs, an electrical engineer from Springdale, Arkansas
in 1978-79. His home-converted Opel GT was reported to get as much as 75MPG and
plans are still sold to this original design, and the "Mother Earth News" modified version
on their website. The (PEV)plug-in-electric-vehicle is becoming more and more popular.
It has the distance that we need in America and other locations with wide expanses with
no services. You can plug in and charge the batteries as well as charge them when you are
on the go from the engine.
2.9 continuously outboard recharged battery electric vehicle (CORBEV)
Given suitable infrastructure, permissions and vehicles, BEVs can be recharged while the
user drives. The BEV establishes contact with an electrified rail, plate or overhead wires
on the highway via an attached conducting wheel or other similar mechanism (see

Conduit currassent collection). The BEV's batteries are recharged by this processon the
highwayand can then be used normally on other roads until the battery is discharged.
This provides the advantage, in principle, of virtually unrestricted highway range as long
as you stay where you have BEV infrastructure access. Since many destinations are
within 100 km of a major highway, this may reduce the need for expensive battery
systems. Unfortunately private use of the existing electrical system is nearly universally
prohibited.
The technology for such electrical infrastructure is old and, outside of some cities, is not
widely distributed (see Conduit current collection, trams, electric rail, trolleys, third rail).
Updating the required electrical and infrastructure costs can be funded, in principle, by
toll revenue, gasoline or other taxes.

a. Hybrid fuel (dual mode)


In addition to vehicles that use two or more different devices for propulsion, some also
consider vehicles that use distinct energy sources or input types ("fuels") using the same
engine to be hybrids, although to avoid confusion with hybrids as described above and to
use correctly the terms, these are perhaps more correctly described as dual mode vehicles:

Some electric trolleybuses can switch between an on board diesel engine and
overhead electrical power depending on conditions (see dual mode bus). In
principle, this could be combined with a battery subsystem to create a true plug-in
hybrid trolleybus, although as of 2006, no such design seems to have been
announced.

Flexible-fuel vehicles can use a mixture of input fuels mixed in one tank
typically gasoline and ethanol, or methanol, or biobutanol.

Bi-fuel vehicle:Liquified petroleum gas and natural gas are very different from
petroleum or diesel and cannot be used in the same tanks, so it would be
impossible to build an (LPG or NG) flexible fuel system. Instead vehicles are built
with two, parallel, fuel systems feeding one engine. While the duplicated tanks
cost space in some applications, the increased range and flexibility where (LPG or
NG) infrastructure is incomplete may be a significant incentive to purchase.

Some vehicles have been modified to use another fuel source if it is available,
such as cars modified to run on auto gas (LPG) and diesels modified to run on
waste vegetable oil that has not been processed into biodiesel.

Power-assist mechanisms for bicycles and other human-powered vehicles are also
included.

b.Fluid power hybrid


Hydraulic and pneumatic hybrid vehicles use an engine to charge a pressure accumulator
to drive the wheels via hydraulic or pneumatic (i.e. compressed air) drive units. The
energy recovery rate is higher and therefore the system is more efficient than battery
charged hybrids, demonstrating a 60% to 70% increase in energy economy in EPA testing
[12]

. Under tests done by the EPA, a hydraulic hybrid Ford Expedition returned 32 miles

per US gallon (7.4 L/100 km; 38 mpg-imp) City, and 22 miles per US gallon (11 L/100 km;
26 mpg-imp) highway. UPS currently has two trucks in service with this technology.
While the system has faster and more efficient charge/discharge cycling and is cheaper
than gas-electric hybrids, the accumulator size dictates total energy storage capacity and
requires more space than a battery.
2.10 Hybrid vehicle power units and how they work

a. Parallel hybrid
In a parallel hybrid an electric motor and an internal combustion engine are installed so
that they can both individually or together power the vehicle. Typical passenger car
installations such as those from Toyota and Lexus use electric power for reversing, and
low speed low throttle opening work because it uses less energy and does not require any
energy while the car is idle, making hybrid vehicles ideal for urban and suburban
environments. As the vehicle speed increases or the acceleration demanded is higher, the
internal combustion engine starts and both power units work together in parallel (hence
the name). Internal combustion engines deliver more power for a given motor weight,
making them better suited for higher speeds. The installed electric motors and battery
capacity may offer a range of 3-5 km in pure electric mode, at speeds of up to 40 km/h.

Beyond this, the internal combustion engine is needed to either provide increased power
or to re-charge the batteries.
The Toyota Prius combines two drive train designs, working as a series-parallel hybrid,
while the Ford Escape Hybrid uses a parallel drive train.
How the Prius works? Starting: The engine and motor convert fuel (gasoline) to energy
stored in battery. Passing: The engine and motor are both used to propel the vehicle.
Stopping: Regenerative braking converts energy into electricity stored in the battery.
Cruising: The battery provides all the necessary energy. The engine is dormant.
On the open road, the primary power source is the internal combustion engine (partly to
maximize the life of the batteries), but when maximum power is required, for example to
overtake, the electric motor is used to maximize the available power for a short time,
giving the effect of having a larger engine than that actually installed.
The fuel consumption benefits of a hybrid electric vehicle against an internal combustion
vehicle of similar performance come through the recovery of braking energy, stored in the
battery by the motor/generator for use at the next start which in a conventional vehicle
would have been dissipated as heat from the brakes. Additionally, the ability to shut off
the engine while the electric motor is running brings further savings. The larger the motor,
and the battery, the more braking energy it can recover before conventional brakes are
necessary to achieve the required retardation. However, a weight/space compromise
determines the limits of energy recovery possible in a given installation.
b.Series Hybrid
The Chevrolet Volt concept car is a series plug-in hybrid. The fuel engine power is
exclusively used to generate electricity and not used directly for drive wheel propulsion.
A series hybrid uses electric drives powered by a single-speed internal combustion
engine. While operating at its most efficient single speed, the combustion engine drives
an electric generator instead of directly driving the wheels. This engine can do any
combination of the following: charge a battery, charge a capacitor, directly power the
electric motor. When large amounts of power and torque are required, the electric motor
can draw electricity from a combination of batteries, capacitors, and the generator. A

series hybrid does not require batteries in its design as a capacitor can act as a storage
device.
There are three main options for series hybrid electric motors: Permanent Magnet, 3Phase AC Induction, Multi-Phase AC Induction. Permanent Magnet motors, like those
found in the Prius, degrade in performance at higher temperatures and require a cooling
system in the design. They allow for regenerative braking, and this comes with a safety
trade off as any time there is motion by the magnets, they produce voltage. Permanent
magnets also require rare earth which is expensive and difficult to source.
In contrast, 3-Phase AC Induction motors can be air cooled and therefore has better
stamina, but have less power density which means that the weight saved from removing
the cooling system is replaced with heavier and more complex gearing for the drive train.
This more complex transmission gearing is also needed to compensate for the fact that a
standard 3-Phase AC Induction motor can be either low-speed high-torque (like a
standard vehicles starter) or a high-speed low-torque (like a standard vehicles alternator)
but not both.
A Multi-Phase AC Induction motor (called a Chorus Motor) co-opts the harmonics that
limit motor performance, which means a that it can smoothly change from behaving like a
high-torque low-speed motor to behaving like a low-torque high-speed motor, without the
need for efficiency robbing physical gearing that would be required to compensate for a
3-Phase AC Induction motors lower power density. The January 2009 issue of Motor
Trend magazine discusses this third choice and its use in planes and vehicles.
Furthermore, by co-opting the harmonics that limit standard motor performance, greater
torque can be generated by this motor; up to 10 times the torque of a standard motor. This
extra torque can be generated for short 'burst' or 'startup' torque requirements, which
means that the Chorus Motor used in a series hybrid, can both be smaller and be sized for
its 'average' torque requirements while still providing the acceleration torque needed for
occasional circumstances like joining a highway from a dead stop. This motor is presently
only being used in Wheel Tug and it's use turns an airplane into a series hybrid with a
turbine in the APU generating the electricity needed to power the Chorus Motor in the
Wheel Tug

There are currently no series production plug-in hybrids, but GM, for example, with the
Chevrolet Volt is pushing forward towards a series product introduction in 2-3 years.
As a first subtype we can distinguish the mild hybrid. This subtype (available in parallel
and serial hybrid) uses a generally smaller electric motor only to assist

[14]

the engine

when it needs extra boost, again during brisk acceleration or when going up a hill. The
Honda Civic Hybrid and Honda Insight fall into the second category. Further examples
are the recently announced Mercedes S and BMW 7-Series mild hybrids.
The main improvement in fuel consumption over a conventional vehicle with the same
performance is possible by the installation of a smaller internal combustion engine, with
smaller internal losses and lower weight. There are also savings through energy recovery
through the motor/generator on the overrun and while decelerating. This electrical energy
may be used to drive the a/c, power steering, and other auxiliaries electrically as and
when needed as opposed to continuously with traditional belt-driven pumps, reducing
mechanical losses and so improve the fuel consumption.
Manufacturers claim savings of approximately 15% fuel consumption against a
conventional vehicle of similar performance.
2.11 Plug-in hybrid electrical vehicle (PHEV)
Another subtype added to the hybrid market is the Plug-in Hybrid Electric Vehicle
(PHEV). The PHEV is usually a general fuel-electric (parallel or serial) hybrid with
increased energy storage capacity (usually Li-ion batteries). It may be connected to mains
electricity supply at the end of the journey to avoid charging using the on-board internal
combustion engine.
This concept is attractive to those seeking to minimize on-road emissions by avoiding - or
at least minimizing - the use of ICE during daily driving. As with pure electric vehicles,
the total emission saving, for example in CO2 terms, is dependent upon the energy source
of the electricity generating company.
For some users, this type of vehicle may also be financially attractive so long as the
electrical energy being used is cheaper than the petrol/diesel that they would have
otherwise used. Current tax systems in many European countries use mineral oil taxation

as a major income source. This is generally not the case for electricity, which is taxed
uniformly for the domestic customer; however he/she uses it. Some electricity suppliers
also offer price benefits for off-peak night users, which may further increase the
attractiveness of the plug-in option for commuters and urban motorists.

Fuel cell, electric hybrid


The fuel cell hybrid is generally an electric vehicle equipped with a fuel cell. The fuel
cells as well as the electric battery are both power sources, making the vehicle a hybrid.
Fuel cells use hydrogen as a fuel and power the electric battery when it is depleted. The
Ford Edge Hyeres Drive is an example of a fuel cell/electric hybrid.

CHAPTER 3 Environmental issues


3.1 Environmental issues:
a. Fuel consumption and emissions reductions
The hybrid vehicle typically achieves greater fuel economy and lower emissions
than conventional internal combustion engine vehicles (ICEVs), resulting in fewer
emissions being generated. These savings are primarily achieved by three elements of a
typical hybrid design:
1. Relying on both the engine and the electric motors for peak power needs resulting
in a smaller engine sized more for average usage rather than peak power usage.
2. Having significant battery storage capacity to store and reuse recaptured energy,
especially in stop-and-go traffic.
3. Recapturing significant amounts of energy normally wasted during braking etc.
(regenerative braking) This is a mechanism that reduces vehicle speed by
converting some of its kinetic energy into another useful form of energy,
dependent upon the power rating of the motor/generator.
Other techniques that are not necessarily 'hybrid' features, but that are frequently
found fuel saving measures on hybrid vehicles include;

1. Shutting down the engine during traffic stops or while coasting or other idle
periods;

2. Improving aerodynamics; (part of the reason that SUVs get such bad fuel
economy is the drag on the car. A box shaped car or truck has to exert more force
to move through the air causing more stress on the engine making it work harder).

Improving the shape and aerodynamics of a car is a good way to help better the
fuel economy and also improve handling at the same time.

3. Using low rolling resistance tires ; (tires were often made to give a quiet, smooth
ride, high grip etc. but efficiency was a lower priority. Tires cause mechanical
drag, once again making the engine work harder, consuming more fuel. Hybrid
cars may use special tires that are more inflated than regular tires and stiffer or by
choice of carcase structure and rubber compound have lower rolling resistance
while retaining acceptable grip, and so improving fuel economy whatever the
power source.
These features make a hybrid vehicle particularly efficient for city traffic where
there are frequent stops, coasting and idling periods. In addition noise emissions are
reduced, particularly at idling and low operating speeds, in comparison to conventional
engine vehicles. For continuous high speed highway use these features are much less
useful in reducing emissions.
b. Hybrid Vehicle Emissions:
Hybrid Vehicle emissions today are getting close to or even lower than the
recommended level set by the EPA (Environmental Protection Agency). The
recommended levels they suggest for a typical passenger vehicle should be equated to 5.5
metric tons of carbon dioxide. The three most popular hybrid vehicles, Honda Civic,
Honda Insight and Toyota Prius, set the standards even higher by producing 4.1, 3.5, and
3.5 tons showing a major improvement in carbon dioxide emissions.
c. Environmental impact of hybrid car battery:
Though hybrid cars take in substantially less petroleum than conventional cars,
there is still an issue regarding the environmental damage of the Hybrid car battery. Today
most Hybrid car batteries are one of two types: (1) nickel metal hydride, or (2) lithium
ion; both are regarded as more environmentally friendly than lead-based batteries. There
are many types of batteries. Some are far more toxic than others. While batteries like lead
acid or nickel cadmium are incredibly bad for the environment, the toxicity levels and
environmental impact of nickel metal hydride batteriesthe type currently used in
hybridsare much lower. Though substantially less toxic than conventional car batteries,

nickel-based batteries are known carcinogens, and have been shown to cause a variety of
teratogenic effects.
Although companies are funding research to use these safer less toxic batteries, the fact of
the matter is lead is so cheap, and money always plays a factor when dealing with
mass production of an item According to a 2003 report entitled, "Getting the Lead
Out," by Environmental Defense and the Ecology Center of Ann Arbor, Mich., an
estimated 2.6 million metric tons of lead can be found in the batteries of vehicles on
the road today. There's little argument that lead is extremely toxic. Scientific studies
show that long-term exposure to even tiny amounts of lead can cause brain and
kidney damage, hearing impairment, and learning problems in children. The auto
industry uses over one million metric tons of lead every year, with 90% going to
conventional lead-acid vehicle batteries. While lead recycling is a mature industry,
it's impossible to rescue every car battery from the dump. More than 40,000 metric
tons of leads are lost to landfills every year. According to the federal Toxic Release
Inventory, another 70,000 metric tons are released in the lead mining and
manufacturing process.
3.2: Tips on Improving Fuel Economy
1. Regular Car Maintenance will not only improve the fuel efficiency, but also
improve general performance of the car.
2. Maintain regular tire pressure. Refer to the psi numbers provided with the tires.
3. Carry lighter loads. More the weight, less the mileage. Remove all the
unnecessary items from your car. Use luggage carrier only when needed.
4. Drive efficiently. Driving aggressively leads to low fuel economy. Avoid race-car
type driving.
5. Cruise when on flat roads. The highest gear requires least power.
6. Avoid using the cruise control on hilly terrain.
7. Washing and waxing is supposed to improve the aerodynamics of the car, thus
improving the fuel economy.
8. Don't sit idle. When the car is idling, it is wasting fuel. It would be better if you
shut down the engine at a sustained stop.

9. It is widely known that putting on the car's A/C affects the mileage. In addition,
keeping the car's windows down can also increase the drag generated by the car,
thus affecting the mileage further.
10. Take one long trip instead of several short ones. The engine is more efficient when
warm.
3.3 Raw materials shortage:
There is an impending shortage of many rare materials used in the manufacture of hybrid
cars.
For example, the rare earth element dysprosium is required to fabricate many of the
advanced electric motors and battery systems in hybrid propulsion systems. Neodymium
is another rare earth metal which is a crucial ingredient in high-strength magnets that are
found in permanent magnet electric motors all the rare earth elements in the world come
from China, and many analysts believe that an overall increase in Chinese electronics
manufacturing will consume this entire supply by 2012. In addition, export quotas on
Chinese Rare Earth exports have resulted in a generally shaky supply of those metals.
A few non-Chinese sources such as the advanced Hoidas Lake project in northern Canada
as well as Mt Weld in Australia are currently under development, however it is not known
if these sources will be developed before the shortage hits.

Alternative green vehicles


Other types of green vehicles include other vehicles that go fully or partly on alternative
energy sources than fossil fuel. Another option is to use alternative fuel composition (i.e.
biofuels) in conventional fossil fuel-based vehicles, making them go partly on renewable
energy sources.
Other approaches include personal rapid transit, a public transportation concept that offers
automated on-demand non-stop transportation, on a network of specially-built guide
ways.

3.4 Objective of the Project


There are the following points of project:
A Hybrid Car using Gasoline Direct Injection Engine and batteries charged by
solar energy.
To fit a gasoline direct injection engine with propeller blades at the front to get maximum
air thrust.
Electric vehicle powered by solar energy obtained from solar panels on the surface
of the car.

CHAPTER 4: Design/Experimental setup


4.1 LIST OF COMPONENTS
a : Frame
b : Steering system
c : Front and Rear axle
d : Braking system
e : Prime mover
f : Fuel system
g : Ignition system
h : Lubricating system
i : Gearbox assembly
j : Driveline system
k : Solar panel
l : Propeller fan
a. Frame:
It is the main structural component which supports all the chassis systems and the
body. It is generally made up of steel box section or channel section.
.b. Steering systems:
The movement of vehicle, directional stability and negotiation of curves are
accomplished by the steering system.
c. Front and Rear axle:
Front axle is a stationary beam of I-section. Two front wheels are connected to it
through stub axles and thus able to turn.
d. Braking systems:
This system can be operated by mechanical, hydraulic, pneumatic powers or their
combination. It helps in stopping the vehicle at a desired place or under emergency by
pressing brake.
e. Prime mover:
The propelling force required to run an auto vehicle comes from a power plant which
can be gasoline engine and solar power.

f. Fuel systems:
Purpose of fuel system is to supply fuel inside the cylinder for burning. We uses two types
of fuels
1. Gasoline direct injection
2. Solar power
In gasoline engine, a fuel injection pump pumps gasoline fuel to the injector, and gaseous
form is injected into cylinder by nozzles.
g. Ignition system:
Function of the system is to ignite the fuel within the cylinder. when the ignition switch is
made ON, the dc flows from the battery to the ignition coil which raises low voltage to
very high value.
h. Lubricating system:
This system helps in reducing the friction between two mating parts whether in rotary
motion or reciprocating.
i. Gear box system:
An auto vehicle requires max. Torque at its starts .Thereafter a gradual decrease in torque
accompanied with increase in speed is desired.
j. Driveline system:
A universal coupling, also known as Hookes joint, is used to connect gear box output
shaft with one end of propeller shaft and final drive with another end of propeller shaft.
k. Solar panel:
Solar panel is a device which is used to collect the solar energy from the sun. And transfer
it to the solar tracker.
l. propeller fan
A propeller is essentially a type of fan which transmits power by converting rotational
motion into thrust for propulsion of a vehicle such as an aircraft, ship, or submarine
through a fluid such as water or air, by rotating two or more twisted blades about a central
shaft, in a manner analogous to rotating a screw through a solid. The blades of a propeller
act as rotating wings (the blades of a propeller are in fact wings or airfoils), and produce
force through application of both Bernoulli's principle and Newton's third law, generating
a difference in pressure between the forward and rear surfaces of the airfoil-shaped blades
and by accelerating a mass of air rearward.

4.2 Components of engine

Fig.no.8 component of engine

4.3 Design of Engine

There is two stroke engine use in our project, designing of two stroke engine given
below-

Given DataSwept Volume = 2.5 center cubic


Speed of propeller fan (N) = 2000 rpm
Stroke length (L) = 15mm.
Bore diameter (d) = 15mm.
L/d=1
We know thatArea (

A=

1. Calculating the Indicate power(I.P) of engine-

Where,
Pm = mean effective pressure
=0.65 to 0.85 N/mm

(for diesel engine)

n = N (for two stroke engine)


Now,
"I.P= (0.652250.00152000)/(6010^3 )"

I.P = 0.057 kW

Ans

We know thatMechanical efficiency = Break power/Indicated power


= 0.8 (assume data)

2. calculating the break power (B.P)B.P = I.P mech


B.P = 0.0570.8=0.0456 kW

Ans

4.4 Top and Bottom view of Propeller base hybrid vehicle:

Bottom View

Front Wheel

Rear Wheel

Gear Motor (DC)


Fig no. 9 bottom view of vehicle

TOP VIEW

RFRFR
FRFRR

TO MOTOR

FUEL

ENGINE

TANK

Fig no 10: top view of hybrid vehicle

CHAPTER 5 Working of Solar cell


5.1 How Solar Cells Work
You've probably seen calculators that have solar cells -- calculators that never need
batteries, and in some cases don't even have an off button. As long as you have enough
light, they seem to work forever. You may have seen larger solar panels -- on emergency
road signs or call boxes, on buoys, even in parking lots to power lights. Although these
larger panels aren't as common as solar powered calculators, they're out there, and not that
hard to spot if you know where to look. There are solar cell arrays on satellites, where
they are used to power the electrical systems.
You have probably also been hearing about the "solar revolution" for the last 20 years -the idea that one day we will all use free electricity from the sun. This is a seductive
promise: On a bright, sunny day, the sun shines approximately 1,000 watts of energy per
square meter of the planet's surface, and if we could collect all of that energy we could
easily power our homes and offices for free.

Solar panels absorb energy to produce hydrogen at Sun Line

Fig no.11

5.2 Converting Photons to Electrons


The solar cells that you see on calculators and satellites are photovoltaic cells or modules
(modules are simply a group of cells electrically connected and packaged in one frame).
Photovoltaics, as the word implies (photo = light, voltaic = electricity), convert sunlight
directly into electricity. Once used almost exclusively in space, photovoltaics are used
more and more in less exotic ways. They could even power your house. How do these
devices work?
Photovoltaic (PV) cells are made of special materials called semiconductors such as
silicon, which is currently the most commonly used. Basically, when light strikes the cell,
a certain portion of it is absorbed within the semiconductor material. This means that the
energy of the absorbed light is transferred to the semiconductor. The energy knocks
electrons loose, allowing them to flow freely. PV cells also all have one or more electric
fields that act to force electrons freed by light absorption to flow in a certain direction.
This flow of electrons is a current, and by placing metal contacts on the top and bottom of
the PV cell, we can draw that current off to use externally. For example, the current can
power a calculator. This current, together with the cell's voltage (which is a result of its
built-in electric field or fields), defines the power (or wattage) that the solar cell can
produce.
That's the basic process, but there's really much more to it. Let's take a deeper look into
one example of a PV cell: the single crystal silicon cell.
5.3 Silicon
Silicon has some special chemical properties, especially in its crystalline form. An atom
of silicon has 14 electrons, arranged in three different shells. The first two shells, those
closest to the center, are completely full. The outer shell, however, is only half full,
having only four electrons. A silicon atom will always look for ways to fill up its last shell
(which would like to have eight electrons). To do this, it will share electrons with four of
its neighbor silicon atoms. It's like every atom holds hands with its neighbors, except that
in this case, each atom has four hands joined to four neighbors. That's what forms the
crystalline structure, and that structure turns out to be important to this type of PV cell.

a .Silicon in Solar Cells


A solar cell has silicon with impurities -- other atoms mixed in with the silicon atoms,
changing the way things work a bit. We usually think of impurities as something
undesirable, but in our case, our cell wouldn't work without them. These impurities are
actually put there on purpose. Consider silicon with an atom of phosphorous here and
there, maybe one for every million silicon atoms. Phosphorous has five electrons in its
outer shell, not four. It still bonds with its silicon neighbor atoms, but in a sense, the
phosphorous has one electron that doesn't have anyone to hold hands with. It doesn't form
part of a bond, but there is a positive proton in the phosphorous nucleus holding it in
place.
When energy is added to pure silicon, for example in the form of heat, it can cause a few
electrons to break free of their bonds and leave their atoms. A hole is left behind in each
case. These electrons then wander randomly around the crystalline lattice looking for
another hole to fall into. These electrons are called free carriers, and can carry electrical
current. There are so few of them in pure silicon, however, that they aren't very useful.
Our impure silicon with phosphorous atoms mixed in is a different story. It turns out that
it takes a lot less energy to knock loose one of our "extra" phosphorous electrons because
they aren't tied up in a bond -- their neighbors aren't holding them back. As a result, most
of these electrons do break free, and we have a lot more free carriers than we would have
in pure silicon. The process of adding impurities on purpose is called doping, and when
doped with phosphorous, the resulting silicon is called N-type ("n" for negative) because
of the prevalence of free electrons. N-type doped silicon is a much better conductor than
pure silicon.
Actually, only part of our solar cell is N-type. The other part is doped with boron, which
has only three electrons in its outer shell instead of four, to become P-type silicon.
Instead of having free electrons, P-type silicon ("p" for positive) has free holes. Holes
really are just the absence of electrons, so they carry the opposite (positive) charge. They
move around just like electrons do.
b. N-type Plus P-type Silicon
The interesting part starts when you put N-type silicon together with P-type silicon.
Remember that every PV cell has at least one electric field. Without an electric field, the

cell wouldn't work, and this field forms when the N-type and P-type silicon are in contact.
Suddenly, the free electrons in the N side, which have been looking all over for holes to
fall into, see all the free holes on the P side, and there's a mad rush to fill them in.
.

Fig no12 The effect of the electric field in a PV cell

This electric field acts as a diode, allowing (and even pushing) electrons to flow from the
P side to the N side, but not the other way around. It's like a hill -- electrons can easily go
down the hill (to the N side), but can't climb it (to the P side).
.

c.Finishing the Cell


There are a few more steps left before we can really use our cell. Silicon happens to be a
very shiny material, which means that it is very reflective. Photons that are reflected can't
be used by the cell. For that reason, an antireflective coating is applied to the top of the
cell to reduce reflection losses to less than 5 percent.
The final step is the glass cover plate that protects the cell from the elements. PV modules
are made by connecting several cells (usually 36) in series and parallel to achieve useful
levels of voltage and current, and putting them in a sturdy frame complete with a glass
cover and positive and negative terminals on the back.

Fig no.13 Basic structure of a generic silicon PV cell

Single crystal silicon isn't the only material used in PV cells. Polycrystalline silicon is
also used in an attempt to cut manufacturing costs, although resulting cells aren't as
efficient as single crystal silicon. Amorphous silicon, which has no crystalline structure, is
also used, again in an attempt to reduce production costs. Other materials used include
gallium arsenide, copper indium diselenide and cadmium telluride. Since different
materials have different band gaps, they seem to be "tuned" to different wavelengths, or
photons of different energies. One way efficiency has been improved is to use two or
more layers of different materials with different band gaps. The higher band gap material
is on the surface, absorbing high-energy photons while allowing lower-energy photons to
be absorbed by the lower band gap material beneath. This technique can result in much
higher efficiencies. Such cells, called multi-junction cells, can have more than one electric
field.
d.Powering a House
Now that we have our PV module, what do we do with it? What would you

have

to do to power your house with solar energy? Although it's not as simple as just
slapping some modules on your roof, it's not extremely difficult to do, either.
First of all, not every roof has the correct orientation or angle of inclination to take
advantage of the sun's energy. Non-tracking PV systems in the Northern Hemisphere
should point toward true south (this is the orientation). They should be inclined at an
angle equal to the area's latitude to absorb the maximum amount of energy year-round. A
different orientation and/or inclination could be used if you want to maximize energy

production for the morning or afternoon, and/or the summer or winter. Of course, the
modules should never be shaded by nearby trees or buildings, no matter the time of day or
the time of year. In a PV module, even if just one of its 36 cells is shaded, power
production will be reduced by more than half.
If you have a house with an unshaded, south-facing roof, you need to decide what size
system you need. This is complicated by the facts that your electricity production depends
on the weather, which is never completely predictable, and that your electricity demand
will also vary. These hurdles are fairly easy to clear. Meteorological data gives average
monthly sunlight levels for different geographical areas. This takes into account rainfall
and cloudy days, as well as altitude, humidity, and other more subtle factors. You should
design for the worst month, so that you'll have enough electricity all year. With that data,
and knowing your average household demand (your utility bill conveniently lets you
know how much energy you use every month),there are simple methods you can use to
determine just how many PV modules you'll need. You'll also need to decide on a system
voltage, which you can control by deciding how many modules to wire in series.
5.4 Obstacles
You may have already guessed a couple of problems that we'll have to solve. First,
what do we do when the sun isn't shining? Certainly, no one would accept only
having electricity during the day, and then only on clear days, if they have a
choice. We need energy storage -- batteries. Unfortunately, batteries add a lot of
cost and maintenance to the PV system. Currently, however, it's a necessity if
you want to be completely independent. One way around the problem is to
connect your house to the utility grid, buying power when you need it and
selling to them when you produce more than you need. This way, the utility acts
as a practically infinite storage system. The utility has to agree, of course, and in
most cases will buy power from you at a much lower price than their own selling
price. You will also need special equipment to make sure that the power you sell
to your utility is synchronous with theirs -- that it shares the same sinusoidal
waveform and frequency. Safety is an issue as well. The utility has to make sure
that if there's a power outage in your neighborhood; your PV system won't try
to feed electricity into lines that a lineman may think is dead. This is called
islanding.

If you decide to use batteries, keep in mind that they will have to be maintained, and then
replaced after a certain number of years. The PV modules should last 20 years or more,
but batteries just don't have that kind of useful life. Batteries in PV systems can also be
very dangerous because of the energy they store and the acidic electrolytes they contain,
so you'll need a well-ventilated, non-metallic enclosure for them.
5.5 Deep-cycle Batteries
What kinds of batteries are used in PV systems? Although several different kinds are
commonly used, the one characteristic that they should all have in common is that they
are deep-cycle batteries. Unlike your car battery, which is a shallow-cycle battery, deepcycle batteries can discharge more of their stored energy while still maintaining long life.
Car batteries discharge a large current for a very short time -- to start your car -- and are
then immediately recharged as you drive. PV batteries generally have to discharge a
smaller current for a longer period (such as all night), while being charged during the day.
The most commonly used deep-cycle batteries are lead-acid batteries (both sealed and
vented) and nickel-cadmium batteries. Nickel-cadmium batteries are more expensive, but
last longer and can be discharged more completely without harm. Even deep-cycle leadacid batteries can't be discharged 100 percent without seriously shortening battery life,
and generally, PV systems are designed to discharge lead-acid batteries no more than 40
percent or 50 percent.
Also, the use of batteries requires the installation of another component called a charge
controller. Batteries last a lot longer if care is taken so that they aren't overcharged or
drained too much. That's what a charge controller does. Once the batteries are fully
charged, the charge controller doesn't let current from the PV modules continue to flow
into them. Similarly, once the batteries have been drained to a certain predetermined
level, controlled by measuring battery voltage, many charge controllers will not allow
more current to be drained from the batteries until they have been recharged. The use of a
charge controller is essential for long battery life.

5.6 Conversion of DC to AC
The other problem is that the electricity generated by your PV modules, and extracted
from your batteries if you choose to use them, is direct current, while the electricity
supplied by your utility (and the kind that every appliance in your house uses) is
alternating current. You will need an inverter, a device that converts DC to AC. Most
large inverters will also allow you to automatically control how your system works. Some
PV modules, called AC modules, actually have an inverter already built into each
module, eliminating the need for a large, central inverter, and simplifying wiring issues.

General schematic of a residential PV system with battery


storage
Fig no.14

Throw in the mounting hardware, wiring, junction boxes, grounding equipment,


overcurrent protection, DC and AC disconnects and other accessories and you have
yourself a system. Electrical codes must be followed (there's a section in the National
Electrical Code just for PV), and it's highly recommended that the installation be done by
a licensed electrician who has experience with PV systems. Once installed, a PV system
requires very little maintenance (especially if no batteries are used), and will provide
electricity cleanly and quietly for 20 years or more.

If photovoltaic are such a wonderful source of free energy, then why doesn't the whole
world run on solar power? Some people have a flawed concept of solar energy.
While it's true that sunlight is free, the electricity generated by PV systems is not.
As you can see from our discussion of a household PV system, quite a bit of
hardware is needed. Currently, an installed PV system will cost somewhere around
$9 per peak Watt. To give you an idea of how much a house system would cost, let's
consider the Solar House -- a model residential home in Raleigh, North Carolina,
with a PV system set up by the North Carolina Solar Center to demonstrate the
technology. It's a fairly small home, and it is estimated that its 3.6-kW PV system
covers about half of the total electricity needs
(this system doesn't use batteries -- it's connected to the grid). Even so, at $9 per Watt,
this installed system would cost you around $32,000.

5.7 DC Motor
Faradays used oversets discovered, that electricity could be used to produce motion, to
build the world first electric motor in 1821. Ten years later, using the same logic in
reverse, faraday was interested in getting the motion produced by oversets
experiment to be continuous, rather then just a rotatory shift in position. In his
experiments, faraday thought in terms of magnetic lines of force. He visualized how
flux lines existing around a current carrying wire and a bar magnet. He was then
able to produce a device in which the different lines of force could interact a
produce continues rotation. The basic faradays motor uses a free-swinging wire that
circles around the end of a bar magnet. The bottom end of the wire is in a pool of
mercury. This allows the wire to rotate while keeping a complete electric circuit.

Fig no.15 Figure of D.C motor

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