Chapter 1

Introduction
A. Background
Before delving into the computational methods of reconstructing the
respiratory models, we first discuss the respiratory system from a functional
point of view. In addition, descriptions, locations, geometry, and naming
conventions for the anatomical parts are discussed in order to establish a basis
for decision-making when reconstructing the model. This chapter provides the
fundamentals of the anatomy and physiology of the respiratory system and
may be skipped if the reader has an established background in this eld.
The primary function of the respiratory system is gas exchange. Oxygen
(which we need for our cells to function) from the external environment is
transferred into our bloodstream while carbon dioxide (a waste product of
cellular function) is expelled into the outside air. The billions of tissue cells in
our body lie too far from the inhaled air to exchange gases directly, and
instead blood circulates the oxygen to the cells. This occurs during each breath
we take where oxygen first enters the nose or mouth during inhalation. The air
passes through the larynx and the trachea which then splits into two bronchi.
Each bronchus bifurcates into two smaller branches forming bronchial tubes.
These tubes form a multitude of pathways within the lung and terminating at
the end with a connection to tiny sacs called alveoli. The exchange of gases
takes place at the alveoli, where oxygen (O2) diffuses into the lung capillaries
in exchange for carbon dioxide (CO2). Exhalation begins after the gas
exchange and the air containing CO 2 begins the return journey through the
bronchial pathways and back out to the external environment through the nose
or mouth. Secondary functions of the respiratory system include ltering,
warming, and humidifying the inhaled air. This includes the vocal cords in the
larynx for sound production, lungs for control (or homeostasis) of body pH
levels, and the olfactory bulbs in the nose for smell.

The respiratory system can be separated into regions based on function or

anatomy.Functionally there is the conducting zone (nose to bronchioles),
which consists of the respiratory organs that form a path to conduct the
inhaled air into the deep lung region. The respiratory zone (alveolar duct to
alveoli) consists of the alveoli and the tiny passageways that open into them
where the gas exchange takes place. Anatomically, the respiratory system can
be divided into the upper and lower respiratory tract. The upper respiratory
tract includes the organs located outside of the chest cavity (thorax) area (i.e.
nose, pharynx, larynx), whereas the lower respiratory tract includes the organs
located almost entirely within it (i.e. trachea, bronchi, bronchiole, alveolar
duct, alveoli). In the next section, the individual respiratory organs are
discussed.
B. Research Question
1. What is definition of respiration system?
2. What is Equipment - respirators in humans ?
3. How is Breathing process ?
4. What is Organs Respiratory In Humans?
5. How is Human Respiratory Mechanism ?
6. How is Respiratory Air Volume?
7. How is Scheme breathing air?
8. How is Gases in the Air Breathing ?
9. How is O2 and CO2 exchange in Respiratory ?
10. What is Energy And Breathing?
11. What else Respiratory System Disorders
12. What is Pulmonary tuberculosis ?

CHAPTER II
Discussion
A. Respiration System
a. Definitions Respiration

Definition of respiration is a process starting from oxygen uptake,

expenditure of carbohydrates to energy use in the body. Man in breathing
oxygen in the breathing free air and disposing of carbon dioxide into the
environment.

Respiration can be divided into two types, namely:

External respiration is between O2 and CO2 exchange between the

blood and air.

Respiration in which an exchange of O2 and CO2 from the
bloodstream into the body's cells.

In taking a breath into the body and exhale air into the breathing done in
two ways, namely:
1. Respiration / Respiratory Chest
The muscles between the ribs outside contracts or shrinks
The ribs lifted up
Enlarged chest cavity resulting in air pressure in a small chest so
that air into the body.
2. Respiration / Respiratory Stomach
A diaphragmatic muscles in the abdominal contraction
Diaphragm flat
The volume of the chest cavity becomes large resulting in air
pressure in the chest shrink so air come into the lungs.

Normally, humans need more than 300 liters of oxygen per day. In the
state of the body to work hard then the oxygen or O2 required becomes
multiplied times and could be up to 10 to 15 kalilipat. When oxygen is
translucent membranes of the alveoli, hemoglobin binds oxygen will be
adjusted to the large number of small air pressure.
In the arteries, can achieve the oxygen pressure of 100 mmHg with 19 cc
of oxygen. While the veins pressure is only 40 millimeters of mercury with
12 cc of oxygen. The oxygen that we produce in the body of
approximately 200 cc in which each liter of blood capable of dissolving
4.3 cc of carbon dioxide / CO2. CO2 produced will be out of the tissues to
the lungs with the help of blood.
Chemical processes Respiration On Human Body:

Disposal of CO2 from the lungs: H + HCO 3 ---> H2CO3 ---> H2 +

CO2
The binding of oxygen by hemoglobin: Hb + O2 ---> HbO2
The separation of oxygen from hemoglobin to the liquid cell: HbO2

---> Hb + O2
Transporting carbon dioxide in the body: CO2 + H2O ---> H2 + CO2

Tools respiratory function oxygen-containing air to enter and remove the

air containing carbon dioxide and water vapor.
Interest breathing process is to obtain energy. In the event of breathing
energy release occurred.
Human Respiratory System consists of:
1. Nose
2. Pharynx
3. The trachea
4. Bronchus
5. Bronkiouls
6. lungs
b. Equipment - respirators in humans
1. Nasal cavity (cavity Nasalis)

Air from outside will enter through the nasal cavity (nasal cavity).
Plated nasal cavity mucous membrane, in which there are oil glands
(sebaceous glands) and sweat glands (glands sudorifera). The mucous
membranes catches foreign matter entering through the respiratory tract. In
addition, there are also short and thick hair which serves to filter dirt
particles in with the air. There is also a Konka who had a lot of blood
capillaries that serve the air warms masuk.Di the back of the nasal cavity is
connected with the nasopharynx via two holes called choanae.
On the surface of the nasal cavity are tiny hairs and mucous
membrane that serves to filter the air that goes into the nasal cavity.
2. The pharynx (throat)
Incoming air from the nasal cavity into the pharynx. The pharynx
is a ramification 2 channels, namely respiratory tract (nasofarings) on the
front and the digestive tract (orofarings) at the rear.
On the back of the pharynx (posterior) are the larynx (throat)
where lay the vocal folds (vocal cords). The entry of air through the
pharynx will cause the vocal cords vibrate and audible as sound.
Eating, talking can result in food into the respiratory tract because
of the respiratory tract when it is open. Nevertheless, our nerves would
arrange for events to swallow, breathe, and speak not occur
simultaneously, resulting in health problems. The main function of the
pharynx is to provide a channel for the air in and out and also as a street
food and beverages ingested, pharynx also provides a reverberation
chamber (resonance) for voice conversations.
3. Rod throat (trachea)
Throat a pipe length of 10 cm, located mostly in the neck and in
the chest cavity portion (piston). The walls are thin and stiff throat,
surrounded by a ring of cartilage, and on the inside of the cavity ciliated.
Cilia-cilia function to filter foreign objects into the respiratory tract.
Windpipe (trachea) located at the front of the esophagus. Within
the chest cavity, trachea branched into two bronchus (bronchus). In the

lung, bronchus branches again into very small channels called bronchioles.
End of the bronchioles in the form of tiny bubbles called bubble lung
(alveoli).
4. The base throat (larynx)
The larynx is a channel surrounded by cartilage. The larynx is
located between the oropharynx and trachea, front lariofaring. One of the
cartilage of the larynx called the epiglottis. Epiglottis located at the tip of
the base of the larynx.
Larynx diselaputi by mucous membranes composed of stratified
epithelium flat thick enough to withstand vibrations of the larynx voice.
The main function of the larynx is the voice and also as a place of entry
and exit of air.
The base of the throat, composed by some cartilage that forms the
Adam's apple. The base of the throat can be closed by a valve base of the
throat (epiglottis). At the time of swallowing food, the valve closes the
base of the throat and the breathing valve opening time. At the base of the
throat there is a membrane sound will vibrate when air from the lungs, for
example, when we speak.
5. Branch Trunk Throat (bronchi)
Windpipe (trachea) branched into two parts, namely the right
bronchus and bronchus left. Bronchial mucosa layer structure similar to
the trachea, bronchus cartilage only irregularly shaped and in the larger
bronchi cartilage rings encircling the lumen perfectly. Bronchi branch out
further into bronchioles.
Windpipe branched into two bronchi, the bronchus to the left and
the right. Both bronchi into the lungs, the bronchi branch off again into the
bronchioles. Bronchus to the right (primary bronchus) branched into three
lobar bronchi (secondary bronchi), while the left bronchus branched into
two bronchioles. The branches of the smallest bubbles into the lungs, or
alveoli. Alveolar wall contains blood capillaries, through the blood

capillaries in the alveolar air is oxygen and diffuses into the blood. The
main function is to provide a way for bronchial air in and out of the lungs.
6. Lung (Pulmo)
The lungs are located in the upper chest cavity, on the side limited
by muscle and rib and at the bottom is limited by strong muscular
diaphragm. The lungs are two parts namely the right lung (pulmonary
dekster) consisting of three lobes and the left lung (pulmonary sinister)
consisting of two lobes. The lungs are covered by two thin membrane,
called the pleura. Tunica menyelaputi direct part in the lungs called the
pleura (pleural visceralis) and membrane menyelaputi chest cavity
adjacent to the outer ribs called the pleura (parietal pleura). Lungs are
composed of bronchioles, alveoli, elastic tissue, and blood vessels.
Bronchioles have no cartilage, but ronga bronchial ciliated and on the
edges still have a ciliated epithelium cuboid. Each terminal bronchioles
branch out further into the respiratory bronchioles, then into a wall of the
duct alveolar ducts alveolaris.Pada mangandung bubbles called alveoli.
Lung capacity
The air out of the lungs during breathing commonly called the
breathing air (air tidal). Breathing air volume in adults is approximately
500 ml. Tidal air volume at normal breathing adults approximately 500 ml.
when breathing deeply in the volume of air that we can pull up to 1,500
ml. This air conditioned called complementary. When we inhale as strong
as possible, the volume of air that can be exhaled also about 1500 ml. This
air is called air supplementary. Although it has exhale as strong as
possible, but there was still some air in the lung volume is approximately
1500 mL. The remaining air is called residual air. Thus, total lung capacity
= vital capacity + residual volume = 4500 ml / women and 5500 ml / man.
Gas exchange in the Alveolus
Oxygen needed for the oxidation is taken from the air we breathe
when we breathe. At the time of breathable air to enter through the
respiratory tract and akhirnyan into the alveoli. Oxygen contained in

alveolar diffuse alveolar penetrate the cell wall. Finally into the blood
vessel and tied up by the hemoglobin contained in the blood is
oxyhemoglobin. Subsequently circulated by the blood throughout the
body.
Oxygen is released into the body's cells so that oxyhemoglobin
back into hemoglobin. Carbon dioxide from breathing transported by the
blood through the blood vessels that eventually reached the alveolar From
alveolar carbon dioxide released through the respiratory tract when we
exhale.
Thus the alveolar gas exchange occurs, namely oxygen entry and
exit karnbondioksida.
c. Breathing process
Respiration process includes two processes, namely inhale and
exhale or inspiration or expiration. As you inhale, the diaphragm muscle to
contract, from the position of curved up into a straight. At the same time,
the muscles of the ribs was contracted. Berkontraksinya result of both types
of these muscles is the expansion of the chest cavity so that the pressure
within the chest cavity is reduced and the inlet air. When exhaling, the
diaphragm muscle and rib muscles go limp. As a result, the chest cavity
decreases and the air pressure in the lungs rises so the air out. Thus, the air
flows from a large pressurized to a pressure smaller.
Breathing types based on the organ involved in the events of
inspiration and expiration, people often refer to chest breathing and
abdominal breathing. Actually chest breathing and abdominal breathing
occur simultaneously. (1) Respiratory chest occurs due to muscle
contractions between the ribs, so that the ribs rose and the volume of the
chest cavity enlarges and air pressure decreases (inhalation) .Relaksasi the
muscles between the ribs, costa decline, volume small, dilated pressure (e
kshalasi). (2) abdominal breathing occurs due to contraction / relaxation of
the diaphragm muscle (flat and curved), the volume of the chest cavity

enlarges, the lungs inflate pressure decreases (inhalation) .Melengkung

volume shrinking chest cavity, lungs shrink, big pressure / exhalation.
d. Organs Respiratory In Humans
1. Nose
The nose consists of the nostrils, nasal cavity, and the tip of the nasal
cavity. Nasal cavity has a lot of blood capillaries, and always damp with
mucus produced by the mucosa. In the filtered air from the nose foreign
objects that are not in the form of gas from entering the lungs. Besides air
temperature is also adjustable to fit the body temperature.
2. Pharynx
The pharynx is the area behind the nasal cavity, which is the entry of
air dsri ronggs nose. In the room there is a valve (epiglottis) in charge of
organizing the turn of the respiratory air travel and food.
3. Larynx
Larynx / stem throat / voice box. The larynx consists of cartilage, the
Adam's apple, epiglottis, (cartilage coverings) and cartilage trikoid (signet
ring) that is located at the bottom. The vocal cords located in the inner wall
of the larynx.
4. Trachea
The trachea or windpipe is a band composed of smooth muscle and
cartilage in the form of letters 'C' on a very regular distances. Tracheal wall
composed of three layers of epithelial tissues that can produce mucus that is
useful for the capture and return of foreign objects into the upper respiratory
tract before entering the lungs along with air penafasan.
5. Bronchus
Is a branch of the windpipe which amount pair, the one leading to
the left lung and the other to the right lung. Bronchial wall consists of
connective tissue layer, a layer of epithelial tissue, smooth muscle and
cartilage ring. Position bronchi leading horizontally from the left over to the
right. This is one reason why the right lung more susceptible to disease.
6. Bronchioles

Bronkeolus is a branch of the bronchial walls are thinner and thinner

channel. Bronkeolus branches into finer sections.
7. Alveolus
End of respiratory tract in the form of bubbles. Sanat aleolus thin
wall thickness silapis cell, damp and adjacent to kapiler- blood capillaries.
Alveolar allows the extent of their surface area plays an important role in
gas exchange. At the alveolar this is an exchange of gases O2 from free air
to the blood cells, whereas the CO2 perukaran of the body's cells to the
atmosphere occurs.
8. Lungs
The lungs are located in the chest cavity bounded by the muscles of
the chest and ribs, the bottom is limited by dafragma strong muscles. The
lungs are himpunana of bronkeulus, saccus alveolar and alveolar. Among
membranes and lungs are lymph fluid that serves to protect the lungs at the
time of inflation and deflation. Inflate and collapse of the lungs caused by
the change tekana chest cavity.
Right Lung
lobulated three
right bronchus branched three
The left lung
lobulated two
Bronkuis left forked
more horizontal position
Wrapped by lapisanpleura which serves to avoid friction during breathing
e. Human Respiratory Mechanism.
Breathing in humans can be classified into two, namely:
1) Respiratory chest
In chest breathing muscles erperan important are the muscles
between the ribs. Rib muscles can be divided into two, namely the outer
rib muscles that play a role in lifting the ribs and rib in which serves to
lower or return the ribs to its original position. When the muscles between
the ribs outside contracts, then the ribs would be lifted so that the large

10

volume bertanbah chest. Increases the amount will menybabkan pressure

in the chest cavity is smaller than the pressure outside the chest cavity.
Because of the small uada pressure in the chest cavity causing the flow of
air to flow from outside the body and into the body, this process is called
the 'inspiration'
While in the process of espirasi occurs when the contraction of the
muscle inside, ribs back into position semuladan cause the air pressure in
the body increases. So that the air in the lungs under pressure in the chest
cavity, and the air flow pushed to the outside of the body, this process is
called 'espirasi'.
2) Respiratory stomach
At this breathing muscles that play an active role is the diaphragm
muscle and the muscle wall of the abdomen. When the diaphragm muscle
to contract, the diaphragm will be a horizontal position. It causes the chest
cavity volume increase in size so that the air pressure is getting smaller.
Decrease in air pressure causes the expansion of the lungs, so that the air
flowing into the lungs (inspiration).
Breathing is a process that happens automatically, even in a state of
falling asleep even karma respiratory system is affected by the autonomic
nervous system.
According to the site of the respiratory gas exchange can be
divided into two types, namely external breathing and deep breathing.
Breathing the air outside is the exchange that occurs between the
air in the alveoli with blood in the capillaries, whereas the deep breathing
is breathing that occurs between the blood in the capillaries of the body's
cells.
Sign discharge of air in the lung is influenced by differences in air
pressure in the chest cavity with air pressure outside the body. If the
pressure outside the chest cavity bigger then the air will enter. Conversely,
if the pressure in the chest cavity is greater, the air will come out.

11

In connection with the organs involved in the intake air (inspiration)

and expenditure of air (expiration), the respiratory mechanism divided into
two kinds, namely respiratory chest and abdominal breathing. Breathing
chest and abdomen occur simultaneously.
f. Respiratory Air Volume
Under normal circumstances, the volume of air a person's lungs
reaches 4500 cc. This air is known as the total capacity of the human
respiratory air.
Nevertheless, vital capacity air used in the process of breathing
reaches 3500 cc, 1000 cc which is the remainder of the air that can not be
used but always fill the lungs as a residual or remaining air. Vital capacity
is the maximum amount of air that a person can be removed after filling his
lungs to the maximum.
In normal circumstances, activities and ekpirasi inspiration or inhale
and exhale in breathing only uses about 500 cc of respiratory air volume
(capacity tidal = 500 cc). Tidal capacity is the amount of air in and out of
the lungs pare the normal breathing. In exceptional circumstances, the
inspiration and expiration in using approximately 1500 cc of air breathing
(expiratory reserve volume = inspiratory reserve volume = 1500 cc). See
the scheme following the breathing air.

g. Scheme breathing air

Air reserves inspirasi1500
Ordinary breathing air
Total

500
Total capacity expiratory

Capacity

reserve Air
1500
Air remainder (residue)
1000
12

vital capacity

Thus, the air used in the process of breathing has a volume of

between 500 cc to 3500 cc.
Of the 500 cc air inspiration / expiration usual, only about 350 cc
of air that reaches the alveoli, while the remaining filling respiratory tract.
Respiratory air volume can be measured with an instrument called
a spirometer.
The magnitude of the respiratory air volume can be influenced by several
factors, including the size of the respiratory tract, the ability and breathing
habits and health condition.
h. Gases in the Air Breathing
The percentage of primary gas in the breathing air in and out of the
lungs:
Gas

Nitrogen (N2)
Oxygen (O2)
Carbon dioxide

Outside air gas before

Air

in

the

The

air

coming

entering the lungs (%)

alveoli (%)

from the lungs (%)

79.01
20.95
0.04

80.7
13.8
5.5

79.6
16.4
4.0

(CO2)

Air exchange takes place in avelous and blood vessels that surround
it. Oxygen and carbon dioxide diffuses through the cells that make up the
walls avelous and capillary blood. Aveolus air contains higher oxygen and
carbon dioxide gas is lower than in the blood capillaries. Therefore, the
molecules tend to move from a higher concentration to lower, the oxygen
diffuses from the air aveolus into the blood and carbon dioxide diffuses
from the blood vessels into avelous. Transportation CO by blood can be
implemented through three ways: (1) carbon dioxide dissolved in the
plasma and form carbonic acid anhydrase enzyme. (2) Carbon dioxide is
bound to hemoglobin in the form of hemoglobin karbomino (3) Carbon
dioxide is bound in the cluster bicarbonate ion (HCO) through the
exchange of chloride process chain.

13

i. O2 and CO2 exchange in Respiratory

The amount of oxygen taken through breathing air depending on
your needs and it is usually affected by job type, body size, as well as the
number and type of food that is eaten.
The workers of the weight including athletes require more oxygen
than a light worker. Likewise, someone who has a larger body size and
need for more oxygen. Furthermore, a person who has a habit of eating
more meat will require more oxygen than a vegetarian.
In ordinary circumstances, people need about 300 cc of oxygen a
day (24 hours), or about 0.5 cc per minute. The need is directly
proportional to the volume of air inspired and expired usual except in
limited circumstances where the oxygen concentration of the inspired air is
reduced or because of other reasons, such as reduced blood hemoglobin
concentration.
Needed oxygen diffuses into the blood enter the blood capillaries
which surrounds the alveoli. Furthermore, most of the oxygen is bound by
the dye blood or blood pigment (hemoglobin) to be transported into the
cells of the body's tissues.
Hemoglobin contained in red blood grains or erythrocytes is
composed by hemin or hematin compounds containing elements such as
iron and globin protein.
Simply put, the binding of oxygen by hemoglobin can diperlihatkan according reversible reaction equation below:
HB4 + O2 4 O2oksihemoglobin Hb) in red clear
The reaction is influenced by the levels of O2, CO2, O2 pressure
(P O2), differences in levels of O2 in the network, and the levels of O2 in
the air. The process of diffusion of oxygen into the arteries as well as the
diffusion of CO2 from the artery is affected by the pressure of O2 in
inspired air.
The entire air pressure environment of about 1 atmosphere or 760
mm Hg, whereas the pressure of O2 in the neighborhood of about 160 mm

14

Hg. The pressure of oxygen in the environment is higher than the pressure
of oxygen in the alveoli of the lungs and the arteries are only 104 mm Hg.
Therefore, the oxygen can get into the lungs by diffusion.
From the lungs, O2 will flow through the pulmonary vein that his
O2 pressure 104 mm; leading to the heart. O2 runs through the heart of the
systemic arterial pressure of 104 mm hg O2 her head to body tissue, its O2
pressure 0-40 mm hg. In the network, O2 would be used. Of CO2 network
will flow through the systemic veins to the heart. CO2 pressure in the
tissues above 45 mm hg, higher than the systemic veins are only 45 mm
Hg. From the heart, CO2 flow through the pulmonary artery pressure of
O2 is the same ie 45 mm hg. CO2 comes from the pulmonary artery into
the lungs and then released into the air.
What is the minimum blood needed to meet the oxygen
requirements on the network? Every 100 mm3 of blood with oxygen
pressure of 100 mm Hg can transport 19 cc of oxygen. When the oxygen
pressure of only 40 mm Hg then there are only about 12 cc of oxygen to
survive in the blood veins. Thus the ability of hemoglobin to bind oxygen
is 7 cc per 100 mm3 of blood.
Transporting approximately 200 mm3 C02 out of the body usually takes
place according to the following equation:
1) 02 + H20 (carbonic anhydrase) H2CO3
Each liter of blood can dissolve only 4.3 cc of CO2 that affects the
blood pH to 4.5 due to the formation of carbonic acid.
Transporting CO2 by the blood can be implemented through three way
which is as follows.
Carbon dioxide dissolved in the plasma, and form carbonic acid
anhydrase enzymes (7% of all C
2) Carbon dioxide is bound to hemoglobin in the form karbomino
hemoglobin (23% of all CO2).

15

3) Carbon dioxide is bound in the cluster bicarbonate ion (HCO 3)

through the process of exchange of chloride chain (70% of all CO2).
The reaction is as follows.
CO2 + H2O H2CO3 H + + HCO-3
The disruption to the transport of CO2 can lead to symptoms of
acidosis due to lower levels in the blood alkaline. It could be due to the
state of pneumonia. Conversely, when the accumulation of basic salt in
the blood, the symptoms alkalosis.
j. Energy And Breathing
The energy produced by the breathing process will be used to form
the energy molecule, ATP (Adenosine Tri Phosphate). Furthermore, ATP
molecules are stored in cells and is the main energy source for the body's
activity. ATP derived from the overhaul of organic compounds such as
carbohydrates, proteins and fats. Sugar (glucose) from the breakdown of
carbohydrates in the body is first converted into a phosphate compound that
is catalyzed by the enzyme glucokinase. Furthermore, the phosphate
compound is converted to pyruvic acid and finally released in the form
HO and CO as a byproduct of the oxidation. The process of cell
respiration of glucose ingredient in broad outline, includes three phases,
namely the process glikosis, the Krebs cycle, and electron transfer.
In heavy workers or athletes of high activity, the formation of
anaerobic energy can be done. It is caused when the body lacks oxygen
supply there will be a reform process pyruvic acid into lactic acid which
will form 2 moles of ATP.
k. Respiratory frequency
The amount of air out of the lungs with each breath is called as
frequency of breathing. In general, human respiratory rate every minute as
much as 15-18 times. Fast or slow respiratory rate is influenced by several
factors, including:

Age. The increasing age of a person, the lower the frequency of this
pernapasannya.Hal related to energy needs.
16

Gender. In general, men have a higher respiratory rate than the

wanita.Kebutuhan oxygen and production of carbon dioxide is higher

in men than women.

Body temperature. The higher a person's body temperature, the faster
frequency aka breath, it is associated with a progressive increase in the

metabolic processes that occur in the body.

The position or the position of the body. The frequency of breathing
while sitting will be different than when squatting atatu berdiri.Hal is
closely related to the energy needed by the body organ as the pedestal

body weight.
Activity. Someone who Cleaner physical activity as a sportsman will
need more energy than people who diamatau relaxed, therefore, the
respiratory rate was also higher. Movement and breathing frequency is
governed by the respiratory center located in the brain. In addition,
respiratory rate stimulated by the concentration of carbon dioxide

(CO) in the blood.

l. In the Respiratory System Disorders
Human respiratory system composed of several organs may be
impaired. This disorder is usually a disorder or disease. Disease or disorder
that attacks the respiratory system it can cause breathing process. Here are
some examples of disorders of the human respiratory system.

Emphysema, a disease of the lungs. The lungs have swollen because of

his blood vessels intruding air.

Asthma, a respiratory disorder blockages caused by allergies, such as
dust, feathers, or hair. This disorder can be diturunkan.Kelainan also

can recur if the ambient temperature.

Tuberculosis (TB) is a lung disease caused by Mycobacterium
tuberculosis. The bacteria causing pimple on the alveolar walls. If the
disease is attacked and left more widespread, can cause cells to die
lungs. As a result of lung buds or shrink. This causes tuberculosis

sufferers often panting breath.

Infuenza (fu), is a disease caused by a virus infuenza. This disease
presents with symptoms of sneezing, fever, and runny nose.
17

Lung cancer. This disease is one of the most dangerous. The cancer
cells in the lungs continue to grow uncontrolled. This disease over time
can affect the entire body. One of the triggers of lung cancer is

smoking. Smoking can lead to lung cancer and lung damage.

Smoking can cause changes in the structure and function of the
respiratory tract and lung tissue. For example, the mucous cells enlarge
(called hypertrophy) and multiply mucous glands (called hyperplasia).
Can also occur mild inflammation, airway narrowing due to rising
penumpikan cells and mucus, and damage to the alveoli. Changes
anatomy respiratory tract causing impaired lung function.

B. Pulmonary tuberculosis
a. Definition
Pulmonary tuberculosis (TB) is a contagious bacterial infection that
involves the lungs. It may spread to other organs.
b. Causes
Pulmonary

tuberculosis

bacterium Mycobacterium

(TB)

tuberculosis

is
(M.

caused
tuberculosis).

by
TB

the
is

contagious. This means the bacteria is easily spread from an infected

person to someone else. You can get TB by breathing in air droplets from a
cough or sneeze of an infected person. The resulting lung infection is
called primary TB.
18

Most people recover from primary TB infection without further

evidence of the disease. The infection may stay inactive (dormant) for
years. In some people, it becomes active again (reactivates).
Most people who develop symptoms of a TB infection first became
infected in the past. In some cases, the disease becomes active within
weeks after the primary infection.
The following people are at high risk of active TB or reactivation
of TB:

Elderly
Infants
People with

weakened

immune

systems,

for

example

due

to HIV/AIDS, chemotherapy, diabetes, or medicines that weaken the

immune system

Your risk of catching TB increases if you:

Are around people who have TB (during overseas travel)

Live in crowded or unclean living conditions
Have poor nutrition

The following factors can increase the rate of TB infection in a population:

Increase in HIV infections

Increase in number of homeless people (poor environment and

nutrition)
Drug-resistant strains of TB

c. Symptoms
The primary stage of TB does not cause symptoms. When
symptoms of pulmonary TB occur, they can include:

19

Breathing difficulty
Chest pain
Cough (usually with mucus)
Coughing up blood
Excessive sweating, especially at night
Fatigue
Fever
Weight loss
Wheezing

d. Exams and Tests

The health care provider will perform a physical exam. This may show:

Clubbing of the fingers or toes (in people with advanced disease)

Swollen or tender lymph nodes in the neck or other areas
Fluid around a lung (pleural effusion)
Unusual breath sounds (crackles)

Tests that may be ordered include:

Bronchoscopy
Chest CT scan
Chest x-ray
Interferon-gamma release blood test, such as the QFT-Gold test to test

for TB infection (active or infection in the past)

Sputum examination and cultures
Thoracentesis
Tuberculin skin test (also called a PPD test)
Biopsy of the affected tissue (done rarely)

e. Treatment
The goal of treatment is to cure the infection with medicines that
fight the TB bacteria. Active pulmonary TB is treated with a combination
of many medicines (usually four medicines). The person takes the
medicines until lab tests show which medicines work best.

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You may need to take many different pills at different times of the
day for 6 months or longer. It is very important that you take the pills the
way your provider instructed.
When people do not take their TB medicines like they are supposed
to, the infection can become much more difficult to treat. The TB bacteria
can become resistant to treatment. This means the medicines no longer
work.
If a person is not taking all the medicines as directed, a provider
may need to watch the person take the prescribed medicines. This
approach is called directly observed therapy. In this case, medicines may
be given 2 or 3 times a week.
You may need to stay at home or be admitted to a hospital for 2 to
4 weeks to avoid spreading the disease to others until you are no longer
contagious.
Your provider is required by law to report your TB illness to the
local health department. Your health care team will ensure that you receive
the best care.
f. Support Groups
You can ease the stress of illness by joining a support group.
Sharing with others who have common experiences and problems can help
you feel more in control.
g. Outlook (Prognosis)
Symptoms often improve in 2 to 3 weeks after starting treatment. A
chest x-ray will not show this improvement until weeks or months later.
Outlook is excellent if pulmonary TB is diagnosed early and effective
treatment is started quickly.
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h. Possible Complications
Pulmonary TB can cause permanent lung damage if not treated
early. It can also spread to other parts of the body.
Medicines used to treat TB may cause side effects, including:

Changes in vision
Orange- or brown-colored tears and urine
Rash
Liver inflammation

A vision test may be done before treatment so your doctor can monitor any
changes in the health of your eyes.
When to Contact a Medical Professional
Call your provider if:

You think or know you have been exposed to TB

You develop symptoms of TB
Your symptoms continue despite treatment
New symptoms develop

i. Prevention
TB is preventable, even in those who have been exposed to an
infected person. Skin testing for TB is used in high risk populations or in
people who may have been exposed to TB, such as health care workers.
People who have been exposed to TB should have a skin test as
soon as possible and have a follow-up test at a later date, if the first test is
negative.

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A positive skin test means you have come into contact with the TB
bacteria. It does not mean that you have active TB or are contagious. Talk
to your provider about how to prevent getting tuberculosis.
Prompt treatment is very important in preventing the spread of TB
from those who have active TB to those who have never been infected
with TB.
Some countries with a high incidence of TB give people a vaccine
called BCG to prevent TB. But, the effectiveness of this vaccine is limited
and it is not usually used in the United States.
People who have had BCG may still be skin tested for TB. Discuss
the test results (if positive) with your doctor.

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CHAPTER III
Closing
A. Conclusion
Definition of respiration is a process starting from oxygen uptake, expenditure of
carbohydrates to energy use in the body. Man in breathing oxygen in the breathing
free air and disposing of carbon dioxide into the environment.
Human Respiratory System consists of:
1. Nose
2. Pharynx
3. The trachea
4. Bronchus
5. Bronkiouls
6. Lungs
Human respiratory system composed of several organs may be impaired. This
disorder is usually a disorder or disease. Disease or disorder that attacks the
respiratory system it can cause breathing process. Here are some examples of
disorders of the human respiratory system.

Emphysema, a disease of the lungs. The lungs have swollen because of his
blood vessels intruding air.

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Asthma, a respiratory disorder blockages caused by allergies, such as dust,

feathers, or hair. This disorder can be diturunkan.Kelainan also can recur if

the ambient temperature.

Tuberculosis (TB) is a lung disease caused by Mycobacterium
tuberculosis. The bacteria causing pimple on the alveolar walls. If the
disease is attacked and left more widespread, can cause cells to die lungs.
As a result of lung buds or shrink. This causes tuberculosis sufferers often

panting breath.
Infuenza (flu), is a disease caused by a virus infuenza. This disease

presents with symptoms of sneezing, fever, and runny nose.

Lung cancer. This disease is one of the most dangerous. The cancer cells in
the lungs continue to grow uncontrolled. This disease over time can affect
the entire body. One of the triggers of lung cancer is smoking. Smoking

can lead to lung cancer and lung damage.

Smoking can cause changes in the structure and function of the respiratory
tract and lung tissue. For example, the mucous cells enlarge (called
hypertrophy) and multiply mucous glands (called hyperplasia). Can also
occur mild inflammation, airway narrowing due to rising penumpikan cells
and mucus, and damage to the alveoli. Changes anatomy respiratory tract
causing impaired lung function.

B. Suggestion
1. Students are expected to understand the definition of The Human
Respiratory System
2. Expected to add to our knowledge of the human respiratory system
3. Multiply the reference as a reference for researchers who wish to further
deepen the study of the human respiratory system

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26

References
Ellner JJ. Tuberculosis. In: Goldman L, Schafer AI, eds. Goldman's Cecil
Medicine. 24th ed. Philadelphia, PA: Elsevier Saunders; 2012:chap 332.
Fitzgerald DW, Sterling TR, Haas DW. Mycobacterium tuberculosis. In: Bennett
JE, Dolan R, Blaser MJ, eds. Mandell, Douglas, and Bennett's Principles and
Practice of Infectious Diseases. 8th ed. Philadelphia, PA: Elsevier Churchill
Livingstone; 2015:chap 251.

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