CHAPTER 1

ABOUT THE COMPANY

1.1 India Pistons Limited
India Pistons Limited (IPL) is the oldest and one of the largest producers of
Pistons, Piston Rings, Gudgeon Pins & Cylinder Liners and allied components in
India.
Anticipating the auto-component revolution in India, IPL was formed by the
late Visionary Mr. S. Anantharamakrishnan way back in July 1949. IPL not only
became the First and exclusive auto-ancillary production house in India, but
continues to maintain its pre-eminent position by working in close collaboration
with domestic OEMs, helping them set a firm footing in their engine development
initiatives.
India Pistons is one of the flagship companies of the highly successful
Amalgamations Group. The company maintains its leadership position in the
domestic automotive market and expanding its customer base by consistently
scaling up its engineering prowess and performance standards. IPL continues to be
the 'top-of-the-mind' choice of majority of domestic OEM's due to its Pathbreaking innovations in product design and need-specific enhancements in
production processes.
In its successful journey spanning over 6 decades, IPL has established worldclass benchmarks of engineering excellence, robust adherence to quality-oriented
processes, wide range of application-specific products, application of cutting-edge
technologies and maintaining enduring customer relationships by consistently
delivering value.

IPL's major OEM customers include Hyundai Motor Company, Maruti,

Ashok Leyland, TATA Motors, Eicher Motors, Simpsons & Co., TAFE, Mahindra
& Mahindra, Greaves, KOEL, Hindustan Motors, Indian Railways, etc.,
In addition to the OEM segment, IPL continues to be a leading company in
the domestic Replacement market. IPL products are the preferred choice of the
most of the re-conditioners in India. IPL continues to make impressive strides in
the export market and is among the top exporters of auto components in the
country.
IPL and its subsidiary companies have posted a combined turnover of over
$350 Million USD during 2010-2011 and is poised for an exponential growth.
1.2 Group Overview
An amalgamation is a huge conglomerate comprising of 52 companies and
20,000 strong workforces with offices and manufacturing facilities spread across
the country. The Amalgamations group is one of the India's largest light
engineering groups with established presence in diverse businesses such as auto
components, engines, tractors, cutting tools, paints, agricultural implements,
distribution and variety of service industries and exports, plantations, batteries,
security printing, book selling, pesticides, advertising and communication,
warehousing and goods transportation, bus body building, retreating and a range of
trade and distribution services.
Through their diverse product and service portfolio, the group touches
millions of people every day ranging from farmers to business tycoons. What
started off with Simpsons & Co, today, Amalgamations is a huge conglomerate
comprising of 52 companies and 20,000 strong workforces with offices and
manufacturing facilities spread across the country.

The group is known for its devotion to values, strict adherence to highest
quality standards in their products and services, responsible corporate governance
and business ethics.
1.3 Mission Statement
To be a Technology Leader, delivering to our customers as a high Quality of
Product and Service. This will be achieved through constant Innovation of all
products and processes making us a natural first choice to our customers. The
company was able to achieve consistent growth and industry leadership through its
visionary and qualitative response to the changing consumer and market demands.
1.4 Quality System
Professional project management mechanism designed to identity possible
defects during the initial phases of development.
Suppliers are committed to stringent quality standards to ensure the
company gets high quality raw materials and components.
Strong vendor development programs to enhance the quality of our vendors.
Customer recognition and host of honors and awards for maintaining
outstanding quality is the proof of our commitment to progress through the
path of quality.
At all IPL locations, systems and procedures based on TPM, TQM and lean
manufacturing procedures are used to ensure that quality levels are on par
with the best in the world. All plants of IPL are TS 16949 and ISO 14001
certified.

CHAPTER 2
INTRODUCTION
2.1. Piston
A piston is a component of reciprocating engines, reciprocating pumps, gas
compressors and pneumatic cylinders, among other similar mechanisms. It is the
moving component that is contained by a cylinder and is made gas-tight by piston
rings. In an engine, its purpose is to transfer force from expanding gas in the
cylinder to the crankshaft via a piston rod and/or connecting rod. In a pump, the
function is reversed and force is transferred from the crankshaft to the piston for
the purpose of compressing or ejecting the fluid in the cylinder.
Pistons are cast from aluminium alloys. For better strength and fatigue life,
some racing pistons may be forged instead. Early pistons were of cast iron, but
there were obvious benefits for engine balancing if a lighter alloy could be used.
To produce pistons that could survive engine combustion temperatures, it was
necessary to develop new alloys such as Y alloy and Hiduminium, specifically for
use as pistons.

CROWN

INSERT

SKIRT

PAD

Fig.2.1 Piston Casting

2.2 Foundry
A foundry is a factory that produces metal castings. Metals are cast into
shapes by melting them into a liquid, pouring the metal in a mold, and removing
the mold material or casting after the metal has solidified as it cools. The most
common metals processed are aluminium and cast iron. However, other metals,
such as bronze, brass, steel, magnesium, and zinc, are also used to produce castings
in foundries. In this process, parts of desired shapes and sizes can be formed. In
metalworking, casting involves pouring liquid metal into a mold, which contains a
hollow cavity of the desired shape, and then allowing it to cool and solidify. The
solidified part is also known as a casting, which is ejected or broken out of the
mold to complete the process. Casting is most often used for making complex
shapes that would be difficult or uneconomical to make by other methods.
2.3 Gravity Die Casting process
The gravity die casting process begins by preheating the mold to 150-200 C
(300-400 F) to ease the flow and reduce thermal damage to the casting. The mold
cavity is then coated with a refractory material or a mold wash, which prevents the
casting from sticking to the mold and prolongs the mold life. Any sand or metal
cores are then installed and the mold is clamped shut. Molten metal is then poured
into the mold. Soon after solidification the mold is opened and the casting removed
to reduce chances of hot tears. The process is then started all over again, but
preheating is not required because the heat from the previous casting is adequate
and the refractory coating should last several castings. Because this process is
usually carried out on large production run work-pieces automated equipment is
used to coat the mold, pour the metal, and remove the casting. The metal is poured
at the lowest practical temperature in order to minimize cracks and porosity.

The pouring temperature can range greatly depending on the casting

material; for instance zinc alloys are poured at approximately 700 F (371 C),
while Gray iron is poured at approximately 2,500 F (1,370 C).
Permanent mold casting is metal casting process that employs reusable
molds ("permanent molds"), usually made from metal. The most common process
uses gravity to fill the mold, however gas pressure or a vacuum are also used. A
variation on the typical gravity casting process, called slush casting, produces
hollow castings. Common casting metals are aluminium, magnesium, and copper
alloys. Other materials include tin, zinc, and lead alloys and iron and steel are also
cast in graphite molds. Typical parts include gears, splines, wheels, gear housings,
pipe fittings, fuel injection housings, and automotive engine pistons.
2.4 Melting
The process includes melting the charge, refining the melt, adjusting the
melt chemistry and tapping into a transport vessel. Refining is done to remove
deleterious gases and elements from the molten metal to avoid casting defects.
Material is added during the melting process to bring the final chemistry within a
specific range specified by industry and/or internal standards. Certain fluxes may
be used to separate the metal from slag and/or dross and degassers are used to
remove dissolved gas from metals that readily dissolve certain gasses. During the
tap, final chemistry adjustments are made. Several specialised furnaces are used to
melt the metal. Furnaces are refractory lined vessels that contain the material to be
melted and provide the energy to melt it. Modern furnace types include electric arc
furnaces (EAF), induction furnaces, cupolas, reverberatory, and crucible furnaces.
Furnace choice is dependent on the alloy system quantities produced. For ferrous
materials EAFs, cupolas, and induction furnaces are commonly used.

2.5 Degassing
In the case of aluminium alloys, a degassing step is usually necessary to
reduce the amount of hydrogen dissolved in the liquid metal. If the hydrogen
concentration in the melt is too high, the resulting casting will be porous as the
hydrogen comes out of solution as the aluminium cools and solidifies. Porosity
often seriously deteriorates the mechanical properties of the metal. An efficient
way of removing hydrogen from the melt is to bubble argon or nitrogen through
the melt. To do that, several different types of equipment are used by foundries.
When the bubbles go up in the melt, they catch the dissolved hydrogen and bring it
to the top surface. There are various types of equipment which measure the amount
of hydrogen present in it. Alternatively, the density of the aluminium sample is
calculated to check amount of hydrogen dissolved in it. In cases where porosity
still remains present after the degassing process, porosity sealing can be
accomplished through a process called metal impregnating.

Fig.2.1 Rotary degasser for molten aluminium alloy

2.6 Heat treatment

Heat treatment is a group of industrial and metalworking processes used to alter the
physical, and sometimes chemical, properties of a material. The most common
application is metallurgical. Heat treatments are also used in the manufacture of
many other materials, such as glass. Heat treatment involves the use of heating or
chilling, normally to extreme temperatures, to achieve a desired result such as
hardening or softening of a material. Heat treatment techniques include annealing,
case hardening, precipitation strengthening, tempering and quenching. It is
noteworthy that while the term heat treatment applies only to processes where the
heating and cooling are done for the specific purpose of altering properties
intentionally, heating and cooling often occur incidentally during other
manufacturing processes such as hot forming or welding.

Fig.2.2 Heat treatment of piston casting

2.7 Finishing
The final step in the process usually involves machining the component in
order to achieve the desired dimensional accuracies, physical shape and surface
finish. After grinding, any surfaces that require tight dimensional control are
machined. Many castings are machined in CNC milling centers. The reason for this
is that these processes have better dimensional capability and repeatability than
many casting processes. However, it is not uncommon today for many components
to be used without machining. More and more the process of finishing a casting is
being achieved using robotic machines which eliminate the need for a human to
physically grind or break parting lines, gating material or feeders. The introduction
of these machines has reduced injury to workers, costs of consumables whilst also
reducing the time necessary to finish a casting. It also eliminates the problem of
human error so as to increase repeatability in the quality of grinding. With a
change of tooling these machines can finish a wide variety of materials including
iron, bronze and aluminium.

Fig.2.3 Machined piston casting

CHAPTER 3
LITERATURE SURVEY
3.1 TYPICAL DIE TEMPERATURES AND LIFE FOR VARIOUS CAST
MATERIALS
John L., Jorstad et al [1], "Aluminum Future Technology in Die Casting".
Table 3.1 Typical die temperatures and life for various cast materials
Description

Brass
(leaded yellow)

Zinc

Aluminium

Magnesium

1,000,000

100,000

100,000

Die temperature [C (F)]

218 (425)

288 (550)

260 (500)

500 (950)

Casting temperature

400 (760)

660 (1220)

760 (1400)

1090 (2000)

Maximum die life

10,000

[number of cycles]

[C (F)]

3.2 Chvorinovs Rule

Giesserei et al [2], "Theory of the Solidification of Castings".
Chvorinov's Rule is a mathematical relationship first expressed by Nicolas
Chvorinov in 1940, that relates the solidification time for a simple casting to
the volume and surface area of the casting. In simple terms the rule establishes that
under otherwise identical conditions, the casting with large surface area and small
volume will cool more rapidly than a casting with small surface area and a large
volume.

10

The relationship can be written as:

Where t is the solidification time, V is the volume of the casting, A is the surface area of
the casting that contacts the mold, n is a constant, and B is the mold constant. The mold
constant B depends on the properties of the metal, such as density, heat capacity, heat of
fusion and superheat, and the mold, such as initial temperature, density, thermal
conductivity, heat capacity and wall thickness. The S.I. units of the mold constant B are
. According to Ask eland, the constant n is usually 2, however Degarmo claims it
is between 1.5 and 2.The mold constant of Chvorinov's rule, B, can be calculated using
the following formula:

Where
Tm = melting or freezing temperature of the liquid (in Kelvin)
To = initial temperature of the mold (in Kelvin)
Ts = Tpour Tm = superheat (in Kelvin)
L = latent heat of fusion (in [J.Kg1])
k = thermal conductivity of the mold (in [W.m1.K1)])
= density of the mold (in [Kg.m3])
c = specific heat of the mold (in [J.Kg1.K1])
m = density of the metal (in [Kg.m3])
cm = specific heat of the metal (in [J.Kg1.K1])

11

It is most useful in determining if a riser will solidify before the casting, because if the
riser solidifies first then defects like shrinkage or porosity can form.
3.3 Minimization of defects in aluminium alloy castings using sqc
Chokkalingam, B., and Nazirudeen et al [3], Analysis of casting defect through defect
diagnostic approach.
3.4 Shrinkages
The following points describe how shrinkages occur in castings
Shrinkage occurs during solidification as a result of volumetric differences
between liquid and solid state. For most aluminium alloys, shrinkage during
solidification is about 6% by volume.
Lack of adequate feeding during casting process is the main reason for shrinkage
defects.
Shrinkage is a form of discontinuity that appears as dark spots on the radiograph.
It assumes various forms, but in all cases it occurs because the metal in molten state
shrinks as it solidifies, in all portions of the final casting.
By making sure that the volume of the casting is adequately fed by risers,
Shrinkage defects can be avoided.
By a number of characteristics on radiograph, various forms of shrinkages can be
recognized.

12

3.5 Types of shrinkages:

(1) Cavity
(2) Dendritic
(3) Filamentary
(4) Sponge types
3.5.1 Shrinkage Cavity

The following points explain how shrinkage cavity occurs in castings are:
It appears in areas with distinct jagged boundaries.
When metal solidifies between two original streams of melt coming from
opposite directions to join a common front.
It usually occurs at a time when the melt has almost reached solidification
temperature and there is no source of supplementary liquid to feed possible
cavities.
3.5.2 Dendritic Shrinkage
This type of shrinkage can be identified by seeing distribution of very fine lines
or small elongated cavities that may differ in density and are usually unconnected.
3.5.3 Filamentary Shrinkage
This type of shrinkage usually occurs as a continuous structure of connected lines of
1. Variable length
2. Variable width
3. Variable density

13

3.5.4 Sponge Shrinkage

Sponge shrinkage can be identified from areas of lacy texture with diffuse
outlines.
It may be dendritic or filamentary shrinkage.
Filamentary sponge shrinkage appears more blurred as it is projected through the
relatively thick coating between the discontinuities and the film surface.

14

CHAPTER 4
MATERIALS AND METHODS
4.1 Process flow for the manufacturing a piston
Manufacturing a piston through casting in aluminium foundry has
consist of various steps are as follows:
MELTING OF ALUMINIUM ALLOY

TREATMENT OF ALLOY

PREPARATION OF DIE

INSERTS FROM
FERROUS FOUNDRY

PREHEATING OF INSERT

INSERTS DIPPED IN BONDING BATH

INSERTS PLACED IN DIE AND METAL POURED IN TO DIE

FETLING

HEAT TREATMENT OR AGE HARDENING

SENT TO M/C SHOP FOR MACHINING

Fig.4.1 Process flow in Aluminium

foundry

15

4.2 Melting of Aluminium alloy

There are two types of furnaces for melting the aluminium alloy. They
are tower furnace and rotary furnace. These furnaces are oil burn furnace. The
oil is preheated to 90C.this furnaces are used to melt the aluminium ingot one
ton per hour. It consists of two chambers. They are namely holding chamber
and melting chamber.
Table 4.1 Tapping Temperature of Aluminium Alloys
Aluminium Alloys

Tapping temperatures
760-800C

IP101 (LM-13)
IP 102 (3L33)

750-800C

IP 123 (M142)

780-800C

IP 104 (HE)

800-820C

4.2.1 Conditions for melting

Holding chamber is preheated till it reaches 600Cand then slag is removed
from the chamber walls. Ingot and returns are charged as per the charge mix.
Then it is allowed to melt until it reaches 700C. Then the Phos-copper and
magnesium is added and at last coverall flux is added.
Remove dross and close the furnace and switch on the holding chamber
burner and allow them to reach 760-800C.
Check the metal level and send the chemistry sample to laboratory. After
receiving the chemistry approval tapping temperature is checked.
.

16

Table 4.2 Material Composition of LM-13 alloy for piston castings

CHEMICALS

COMPOSITION (%)
MINIMUM
83
11.0
0.80
0.70
0.70

Aluminium
Silicon
Magnesium
Copper
Nickel
Ferrous
Manganese
Zinc
Lead
Tin
Unlisted impurities (including pb + sn)
Phosphorous

15ppm

MAXIMUM
85
13.0
1.50
1.50
1.30
0.80
0.45
0.50
0.10
0.20
0.15
100ppm

4.3 Treatment of alloy

The purpose of this step is to remove the hydrogen gas, moisture content,
dirt and to achieve grain refinement by adding nucleant and degasser flux and
cover flux. It is then stirred by the automation technique and passing nitrogen
(N2) gas. The whole process will be carried out for 30 minutes.
4.4 Preparation of die
The die is cleaned and air blowed to the die cavity. The die is preheated
by using LPG burner and then it is coated. The preheating of die is to attain the
temperature of about 225C - 250C. The coating material is prepared by adding
6kgs of Die coat 140, 5kgs of Ivaplast-k and 5litres of sodium silicate in 10
litres of water and stirred. The dust and slags present in the die cavities and air
vents are cleaned.

17

4.5 Preheating of insert

Ni-resist piston inserts are found near the top of a piston, where piston
rings (compression rings and oil control rings) are located. This section of the
piston is grooved for the insertion of these rings. The Ni-resist piston insert is
generally cast into the piston to protect the first ring groove, but a second Niresist piston insert may also be cast in after the second ring groove. They place
the inserts into piston molds and pour molten aluminium into the molds. The
piston inserts bond with the aluminium, and become one with the solidified
diesel engine piston. It is preheated in induction oven at 250C. It is preheated
inorder to avoid insert hole defect in the piston.
4.6 Insert dipped in bonding material 3L33
After preheating the insert it is dipped in LM-6 (3L33). The
chemical compositions of LM-6 are
Table 4.3 Material composition of 3L33 (IPL 102) for insert bonding
CHEMICALS

COMPOSITION (%)
MINIMUM

MAXIMUM

Aluminium

83.0

85.0

Silicon

10.0

13.0

Magnesium

0.50

Copper

0.50

Nickel

0.80

Manganese

0.50

Zinc

0.10

Tin

0.05

Lead

0.10

Titanium

0.20

18

The purpose of dipping insert in 3L33 is to increase the bonding strength of the
insert with the LM-13 alloy.
4.7 Insert placed in die and metal pouring in to die
The filter and dipped insert is placed in a die and then the molten metal
(LM-13) is poured in to die. The water is circulated around the die and
solidification takes place. After solidified for 120secs the casting is made ready
and immediately quenched in water. The runner and riser in the piston casting is
fetled off. The filter is used to increase the flow of molten metal properly and to
filter the inclusion materials and micro inclusion in the molten material.
4.8 Heat treatment or Age hardening
Heat treatment is the process which is used to increase the hardness and
physical strength of the casting. Heat treatment is carried out based on the
hardness required. It is usually carried out for 6-8 hours based on the material.
Heat treatment will be carried by heating the casting for about 200-240C by
using electric furnace. It is then send to machine shop for further machining.

Fig.4.2 Piston casting after machining

19

CHAPTER 5
CROWN SHRINKAGE DEFECT
5.1 Major defects in casting
There are various defects in casting are

Cold shut

Gas porosity or Skirt porosity

Inclusion

Wall thickness variation

Crown shrinkage

5.1.1 Cold Shut

If molten metal is too cold or casting section is too thin, entire mold
cavity may not filled during pouring before the metal starts solidifying and the
result is misrun. Besides, misrun is often the result of interrupted flow of metal
from ladle into the mold.
If the molten metal enters mold cavity through two or more ingates or
otherwise if two streams of metal which are too cold, physically meet in the
mold cavity but do not fuse together, they develop cold shut defect.

Cold Shut

Fig.5.1 Cold shut defect in piston casting

20

Causes:
a)

Too cold molten metal

b)

Too thin casting section

c)

Too many restriction in the gating system

d)

Metal lacking in the fluidity

5.1.2 Inclusion:
Any separate undesired foreign materials present in the metal of the
casting are known as inclusion. An inclusion may be oxides, slag, dirt etc.
which enters the mold cavity along with the molten metal during pouring. Such
inclusion should be skimmed off before pouring the molten metal into the mold
cavity.
Remedies:
1)

Proper molding

2)

Molding sand should possess adequate hot strength.

3)

Skimming off or screening of molten metal before pouring.

Inclusion

Fig.5.2 Inclusion defect in piston casting

21

5.1.3 Gas Porosity or Skirt Porosity

Gas porosity is the formation of bubbles within the casting after it has cooled.
This occurs because most liquid materials can hold a large amount of dissolved
gas, but the solid form of the same material cannot, so the gas forms bubbles
within the material as it cools. Gas porosity may present itself on the surface of
the casting as porosity or the pore may be trapped inside the metal, which
reduces strength in that vicinity. Nitrogen, oxygen and hydrogen are the most
encountered gases in cases of gas porosity. In aluminium castings, hydrogen is
the only gas that dissolves in significant quantity, which can result in hydrogen
gas porosity.
Remedies
Degassing of molten metal.
Pouring of molten metal above 730C.

Gas Porosity

Fig.5.3 Gas porosity formed in the piston

5.1.4 Wall thickness variation
Wall thickness variation is the variation of boss thickness in the casting.
This is caused due to misalignment of die.

22

5.2 REASON TO CHOOSE CROWN SHRINKAGE

The defects so far discussed are due to some of the causes shown above
and can be rectified. But the defect which is going be discussed does not have
the predictable causes. So the scope of the project is to determine the parameters
which influence the defect and possible suggestion to rectify it.
5.3. Crown shrinkage
Crown Shrinkage is the depression typically internal to the casting that is
caused by a molten island of material that does not have enough feed metal to
supply it. Shrinkage cavities are characterized by a rough interior surface. The
shrinkage causes due to the irregular solidification and improper water cooling
to the die.

Crown
Shrinkage

Fig.5.4 Crown shrinkage visible after the felting process in piston casting

23

Crown
Shrinkage

Fig.5.5 Crown shrinkage after the machining of piston casting

gjhghgghhhhghghgjj

24

5.4 Steps to determine the predominant causes for crown shrinkage

The crown shrinkage is the challenging dilemma in which the particular
deciding factor cannot be predicted. So, all the parameter influencing the
casting are considered and experimentally analyzed. Based on the experimental
analysis probable causes for the crown shrinkage is determined. The steps
followed in the company are shown below.
Parameters influencing the casting

Experimental Analysing of the casting

parameters

Probable inference from the experimental

analysis for the crown shrinkage

Solution for the crown shrinkage

Reason to choose this solution

Fig.5.6 Process flow to determine the root causes for crown shrinkage

25

5.5 Parameters influencing the castings

The various parameters influencing the castings are as follows
Pouring Metal temperature
Water cooling to die
Solidification timing
Die body temperature
Centre core temperature
Runner and riser design
Degassing of metal
Air vent
5.5.1 Pouring Metal temperature
Pouring is a process by which molten metal is transferred to the
cast for cooling and solidification and thus be converted into final product.
Pouring temperature is the temperature to which the molten metal has to be
raised to before being poured into casts for cooling and setting. This pouring
temperature must also take into account the heat loss and caused due to the
transfer of metal through ladles, as a distance between furnace and cast has to
be covered and also due to the heat absorbed by ladles. However, due to
repeated exposure to high temperature of molten metal, these casts have a
limited life, or can be used for metals with low pouring temperature
requirements. Therefore one of the main requirements of the casting process is
refractoriness or in other words, the capability of cast to bear high temperatures
of the molten metal without undergoing any changes in its physical properties.
This is a very important requirement in alloys with high melting point such as
steel. However, this issue may be taken secondary in alloys with lower melting

26

points. Where alloys with high melting point are being used, the moulds need to
be lined with an insulating material with refractory properties so that the mould
retains its shape and original characteristics. If the molten metal temperature is
below 720C else the cold shut is formed in the castings.
5.5.2 Water cooling to die
Water flow rate is defined by the limit: i.e., the flow of water of
fluid (V) through a surface per unit time (t). Since this is only the time
derivative of volume, a scalar quantity, the volumetric flow rate is also a scalar
quantity.
Table 5.1 Standard water flow rate to the die
WATER
FLOW RATE

CASTING MODEL
> 100
PISTON
< 100 PISTON
OUTER
OUTERDIAMETER
DIAMETER

CENTRE
CORE

4-6 Lt/min

3-4 Lt/min

PIN

2-3 Lt/min

2-2.5 Lt/min

DIE BODY

1-2 Lt/min

0.5-1 Lt/min

CROWN

2-3 Lt/min

2-2.5 Lt/min

5.5.3 Solidification timing

Casting Geometry, material and process determine the solidification time of
a casting. The rudimentary equations that are required to estimate the casting
solidification will be reviewed in this section. The occurrence of solidification
shrinkage defect, which is indicated by the relationship between temperature,
gradient and cooling rate, would also be looked at.

27

If the solidification order of distinct regions of a casting is to be determined

then the same Chvorinovs principle can be used. In order to derive the equation
that would represent the solidification time of the simply shaped casting, the
assumptions made are:
The mold is made semi-infinite (the effect which the finite thickness of
the mold has must be neglected), and the heat flow is unidirectional.
Over a range of considered temperature the properties of metal and mold
material are uniform (throughout the bulk), and remain constant.
The mold surface and the metal are in complete contact (there are no air
gaps).From the commencement to the end of solidification the metal-mold
interface temperature remains constant.
An equation between the heat that the casting gives up Qcast, and the heat that
the mould transferees Qmould, can give the solidification time. Here the casting
volume (representing the heat content) is represented by V and the cooling
surface area (through which heat is extracted), is represented by the A. The
casting modulus is given by the ratio V/A.
Table 5.2 Solidification time for the Piston casting
SOLIDIFICATION TIME: 120 SECS
WATER STARTS TO FLOW
PARTS OF DIE

DELAY

RUN

CENTRE CORE

10 SECS [WHEN
TIMER ON]

110 SECS

PIN

15 SECS

25 SECS

DIE BODY

70 SECS

50 SECS

CROWN

100 SECS

20 SECS

28

5.5.4 Die body temperature

Die temperature has considerable influence role on the quality of die cast parts
and on the production cycle. Working with a die at excessively low temperature,
you can encounter the following problems:
Difficult ejection;
Piece contraction around pins;
Bonding between metal and die;
Unreliable casting dimensions;
Incomplete filling.
On the other hand, if die temperature is too high there will be:
Difficult casting expulsion (warping, gripping);
Fast release lube degradation
Longer cycle time
Unreliable casting dimensions
As a result, the correct die temperature is crucial to obtain a smooth and high
level of productivity and to optimize the production cycle.
Thermal regulators are electrical-mechanical devices designed to regulate dies
temperature used during die casting production.
1) Improvement in the mechanical and strength characteristics of castings.
2) Potential boost in casting productivity by reducing cycle time.

29

3) Extended die life.

Die body

4) Reduction of initial rejects.

Fig.5.7 Piston castings die (IPL 400)

5.5.5 Centre core of the die
Centre core is the interior part of the die which is responsible for the formation
of centre hollow part in the piston.

Centre core

Fig.5.8 Centre core of the die (IPL 400)

30

Fig.5.9 Piston centre hollow section

5.5.6 Runner and riser design
A sprue is the passage through which liquid material is introduced into a mold.
During casting or molding, the material in the sprue will solidify and need to be
removed from the finished part. This excess material is also called a sprue. A
riser, also known as a feeder, is a reservoir built into a metal casting mold to
prevent cavities due to shrinkage. Most metals are less dense as a liquid than as
a solid so castings shrink upon cooling, which can leave a void at the last point
to solidify. Risers prevent this by providing molten metal to the casting as it
solidifies, so that the cavity forms in the riser and not the casting. Risers are not
effective on materials that have a large freezing range, because directional
solidification is not possible. They are also not needed for casting processes that
utilized pressure to fill the mold cavity. A feeder operated by a treadle is called
an under feeder.

31

Riser
Runner

Fig.5.10 Runner and riser position in piston casting

5.5.7 Degassing of metal
Fluxes composed of chlorine and fluorine containing salts are used for
degassing molten aluminium alloys. Degassing fluxes are commonly shaped in
form of tablets. Degassing operation starts when a flux tablet is plunged by a
clean preheated perforated bell to the furnace bottom. The flux components
react with aluminium forming gaseous compounds (aluminium chloride,
aluminium fluoride). The gas is bubbling and rising through the melt. Partial
pressure of hydrogen in the formed bubbles is very low therefore it diffuses
from the molten aluminium into the bubbles. The bubbles escape from the melt
and the gas is then removed by the exhausting system. The process continues
until bubbling ceases.

32

5.5.7.1 Rotary degasser

In the rotary degassing method an inert or chemically inactive gas (Argon,
Nitrogen) is purged through a rotating shaft and rotor. Energy of the
rotating shaft causes formation of a large number of fine bubbles providing
very high surface area-to volume ratio. Large surface area promotes fast
and effective diffusion of hydrogen into the gas bubbles resulting in
equalizing activity of hydrogen in liquid and gaseous phases.
Rotary degasser allows achieve more complete hydrogen removal as
compared to the flux degassing.
Additionally rotary degasser does not use harmful chlorine and fluorine
containing salts.
Rotary degasser may also combine the functions of degassing and flux
introduction. In this case the inert gas serves as carrier for granulated flux.
The method is called flux injection.

33

CHAPTER 6
EXPERIMENTAL ANALYSIS
6.1 Reason to choose experimental analysis than computerization
Analyses through computer softwares such as CFD, Autocast are choosed only
when the particular parameter affecting defect is known. Not only because of
this reason but also analysis of solidification, heat transfer rate through CFD
takes long duration. Upon changing the parameters in CFD would take more
duration. So we decided to analysis the casting parameters experimentally. In
experimental analysis, changing of input parameters is possible, through which
the main parameter causing crown shrinkage can be determined.
6.2 Experimental analysis of the casting parameters
6.2.1 Iteration No.1
The experiment was carried out to determine the inference for the crown
shrinkage in piston castings. The parameters influences the castings such as
water flow rate, water inlet temperature to the die, water outlet temperature
from the die, die body temperature, centre core temperature; crown temperature
was observed and recorded to find the reason for the crown shrinkage. The
castings are marked as a sample and followed for machining and inspection.
Annexure I is the first experiment done to determine the parameter
affecting crown part. Annexure I gives the various reading regarding the piston
manufacturing such as water inlet temperature, water outlet temperature from
the die, die body temperature, centre core temperature, crown temperature. But
the clear inference is not obtained from the experiment. The activities such as
air blown to die cavities and white and black coatings are observed during the
experiment.

34

We found the particular causes .So we changed the variable input

parameters of castings such as solidification timing, sleeve size, pouring metal
temperature, centre core and die at three stages of temperature.
6.4 Iteration No. 2
As already explained, the first variable which is changed is die body and
centre core temperature of the die. The readings at a definite interval of time i.e.
at different stages. Then the pistons are cross sectioned perpendicular to the axis
and observed the shift of shrinkage towards the riser. Based on the shift of the
shrinkage, the inference for the crown shrinkage is obtained.
Table 6.1 Die at low temperature

Die at low temperature

Time: 11:10am
CENTRE CORE

S.No
Units
1
2
3
4
5

CAVITY 1ST

CAVITY 2ND

65
73
80
88
90

60
76
83
87
95

Based on the above table 6.1, it is clear that the center core temperature should
not be maintained at the range between 65-100. Let us discuss what would
happen if the centre core temperature maintained beyond this value.

35

Table 6.2 Centre core of die at Medium temperature

Die at Medium temperature

Time: 11:40pm
CENTRE CORE

S.No
CAVITY 1ST

CAVITY 2ND

Units

1
2
3
4
5

172
177
177
208
172

178
210
213
206
191

Table 6.3 Centre core of die at high temperature

Die at high temperature

Time: 12:40pm
CENTRE CORE

S. No
Units
1
2
3
4
5

1ST CAVITY

2ND CAVITY

180
220
224
231
232

210
226
228
234
238

36

6.5 Iteration No.3

6.5.1 Riser Sleeve
Riser sleeves are strong, low-density, tube sleeves of insulating refractory
material. They are specifically designed to promote efficient feeding of
aluminium castings. The excellent insulation value of keeping metal in the riser
liquid longer.
Benefits

Sleeve withstands rough handling and moulding

Increased casting yield

Reduced metal treatment costs

Reduced riser contact area

Reduced casting cleaning costs

Low smoke and fume

Sleeves are easily cut to special heights

There are three types of sleeve used such as 4, 4A, 4C based on the inner
diameter and taper angle of sleeve. The riser sleeves are made up of ceramic
material to withstand the heat (i.e. the riser sleeve maintains molten metal in
liquid state for long duration to feed the metal to casting).

37

Fig.6.1 Riser Sleeve size 4

Fig.6.2 Riser sleeve size 4A

Fig.6.3 Riser sleeve size 4C

38

(a)

(b)

(c)

Fig.6.4 Drafting of (a) Riser sleeve size 4, (b) Riser sleeve size 4A, (c) Riser
sleeve size 4C
An experiment made by using the riser sleeve size 4 as shown in fig.6.4 (a) and
then by using the riser sleeve size 4A as shown in fig.6.4 (b) and finally
experiment conducted by using the riser sleeve size 4c as shown in fig.6.4 (c)
From this experiments the shrinkage shift from the crown surface of the piston
to the riser.
The increase in sleeve size decreases the crown shrinkage in piston castings.
But it affects the yield of molten aluminium alloy. So, the standard sleeve size 4
is used to make the yield improvement in the molten aluminium alloy.

39

Circular truncated cone

Volume: V=1/3 (r12+r1r2+ r22)h
Table 6.4 Volume of molten metal consumed by riser sleeve
Riser sleeve size spec.
4

Volume of molten metal in sleeve

in mm3
1,54,901

4A

2,01,146

4C

2,00,501

6.7 Experiment done by varying pouring metal temperature

Next variable parameter is pouring metal temperature. Although the
pouring metal temperature does not plays predominant role because the pouring
metal temperature is already maintained at a range between 730C -740C. But
certain times this plays a role because there may be chance of temperature get
reduced below 730C so it is account.

Fig.6.5 Piston casting cross section sample when pouring metal

temperature is about 740C

40

Fig.6.6 Piston casting cross section sample when pouring metal

temperature is about 720C
6.7.1 Result
Based on the fig.7.9, fig.7.10 it gets cleared that there is no probability of
crown shrinkage based on the pouring metal temperature. But if the pouring
metal temperature below 700C to 650C, then the crown shrinkage would
takes place. It is quite impossible in the company because there is a temperature
indicator which would indicate the temperature of pouring metal temperature by
dipping the thermocouple. So, parameter pouring metal temperature is neglected
in case of crown shrinkage.
6.8 Experiment done by varying solidification time
Casting Geometry, material and process determine the solidification time of
a casting. In simple terms the Chvorinov's rule establishes that under otherwise
identical conditions, the casting with large surface area and small volume will
cool more rapidly than a casting with small surface area and a large volume.

41

Fig.6.7 Piston casting cross section sample when solidification time

90secs is given

Fig.6.8 Piston casting cross section sample when solidification time

120secs is given

42

Fig.6.9 Piston casting cross section sample when solidification time

150secs is given

43

CHAPTER 7
RESULTS AND DISCUSSIONS
7.1 RESULTS
7.1.1. CENTRE CORE TEMPERATURE
From iteration No.2, we found that there is an effect of centre core
temperature towards the shifting of shrinkage from the crown to riser. Based on
the three stages of the centre core temperature cross sectioned piston it may be
concluded that the centre core temperature should not be maintained at very low
temperature. It should be maintained at the optimum level of 200C-288C. But
it cannot be concluded that the crown shrinkage is only due to the centre core
temperature. So the experimental analysis was made for other variable
parameters such as sleeve size, pouring metal temperature, solidification timing.

Fig.7.1 Cross section of 2nd cavity piston casting at low centre core temperature
with gross crown shrinkage

44

Fig 7.2 Cross section of 2nd cavity piston casting at medium centre core
temperature

Fig.7.3 Cross section of 2nd cavity piston casting at high centre core
temperature

45

7.1.2 Riser Sleeve size

From iteration No.3, we found that the effect of increase in size of
riser sleeve would increases the shifting of shrinkage from crown to the riser of
the piston casting. So, the size of sleeve size is indirectly proportional to the
occurrence of crown shrinkage i.e. if the size (diameter) of sleeve is greater,
then the probability of occurring of crown shrinkage in the riser. Otherwise, the
increase in volume consumed reduces the chance of shrinkage formation in the
piston casting crown surface.

Fig.7.4 Piston casting Cross section with 4 riser sleeve size

46

Fig.7.5 Piston casting Cross section with 4C riser sleeve size

7.1.3 POURING METAL TEMPERATURE
From the iteration No.4, it is clear that there is no effect of pouring metal
temperature towards the crown shrinkage.

Fig.7.6 Piston casting cross section sample when pouring metal temperature is
about 740C and 720C respectively.
7.1.4 SOLIDIFICATION TIME
From the iteration No.5, it is clear that there is no effect of Solidification time
towards the crown shrinkage by varying solidification time to 90 secs, 120 secs
and 150 secs.

47

Fig.7.7 Piston casting cross section sample when solidification time

90secs is given

Fig.7.8 Piston casting cross section sample when solidification time

120secs is given

Fig.7.9 Piston casting cross section sample when solidification time

150secs is given

48

CHAPTER 8
CONCLUSION
Parametric study for the crown shrinkage in piston casting has been
studied and following were observed:
1. When the centre core temperature is low (65-175C) the shrinkage is formed
at the crown of piston casting, if it is at medium temperature (175-195 C)
then the shrinkage is shifted from the crown to riser.
2. When the volume of the riser sleeve increases the crown shrinkage moved
away.
3. There is no relation with respect to the pouring metal temperature.
4. There is no relation with respect to the solidification time.

49

CHAPTER 9
SCOPE FOR THE FURTHER STUDY
To set the temperature sensor probe for indicating the centre core temperature of
the die.
Other parameters such as Solidification time and pouring metal temperature can
be widened to study the crown shrinkage formation.

50

Reference
1. John L., Jorstad (September 2006), "Aluminum Future Technology in Die
Casting",

Die Casting Engineering: 1825, archived from the original on

11-12-2010.
2. Giesserei, "Theory of the Solidification of Castings", 1940, Vol 27, p177186.
3. T. Skrzypczak, E. Wgrzyn-Skrzypczak, Simulation of shrinkage cavity
formation during solidification of binary alloy, Archives of Foundry
Engineering, Vol. 10, No. 1(2010), 147-152.
4. Minimization of defects in aluminium alloy castings using SQC National
Institute of Technology, Rourkela. With reference Chokkalingam, B., and
Nazirudeen, S. S. M., 2009, Analysis of casting defect through defect
diagnostic approach, J. E. Annals, Journal of Engineering Annals of Faculty of
Engineering Hunedoara, Vol. 2, pp. 209-212.
5. Method for determining the formation of shrinkage defects in the castings,
R. Dyja, N. Sczygiol, Institute of Computer and Information Sciences,
Czestochowa University of Technology, J. Dabrowskiego 73, 42-201
Czestochowa, Poland.
6. Piston cooling construction, Eric Bradley Graham, London, England,
assignor to Speeialloid Limited, London, England Application November 29,
1945, Serial No. 631,630 In Great Britain September 15, 1944 Section 1, Public
Law 690, August 8, 1946, Patent expires September 15, 1964.
7. Die casting, http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Die_casting.

51