Jessica Sellitto

Extended Essay
History
Mentor: Ms. Napoli
2014
IB Candidate Number: 193-0135
Word Count: 3,998

To what extent did the efforts of the Black Power Movement undermine or damage the efforts of
Dr. Martin Luther King, Jr. to achieve racial equality?

Abstract

This extended essay deals with the growth of the Civil Rights Movement during the
1950s and 1960s in the United States. It focuses specifically on the contrasting approaches of
Dr. Martin Luther King Jr., and Stokely Carmichael. Martin Luther King was a proponent of a
passive resistant approach to obtaining equality whereas Carmichaels Black Panthers took a
more radical approach. To what extent did the efforts of the Black Power Movement undermine
or damage the efforts of Dr. Martin Luther King, Jr. to achieve racial equality?

The scope of this essay is both a historical snapshot of what has led to the Civil Rights
Movement, as well as examples of successes and failures of the time. A comparison of both
approaches will also be examined. To answer this research question, sources such as biographies,
first person narratives, histories and journal articles are used.

This investigation leads to the conclusion that the efforts of the Black Panther
Movement did in fact undermine the forward progress of Martin Luther King and his followers.
Although the Black Panthers achieved some minor successes, their radical and often violent
approaches alienated mainstream America. The demands of the Black Panthers counteracted the
forward motion of Kings peaceful equality movement and created a negative image of the Civil
Rights Movement for white America.

Word Count: 216

Table of Contents

Introduction- Page 4

History of the Unfair Treatment- Page 5

Beginning of the Civil Rights Movement- Page 6

Dr. Martin Luther King, Jr. and His Movement- Page 7

Rise of the Black Panthers- Page 11

Analysis- Page 13

Conclusion-Page 17

Bibliography- Page 18

Introduction

A movement is a continuous, collective effort to bring about fundamental social, political

and economic reform. It is a collaborative rather than individualistic endeavor. No matter how
many groups are involved, there is always a common objective. It is also often a product of what
has happened historically before it. It is sometimes divergent in that the methodology of various
stakeholders differ, even with common goals. Finally, a movement causes upheaval in that it
challenges the status quo. The Black Freedom Struggle of the 1960s was such an effort. Its
objective was to change the manner in which African Americans in the United States were
viewed and treated. Throughout the 1950s and 1960s, African Americans in the United States
were unfairly treated and deprived of many rights. This treatment is a product of earlier political
and social decisions like Plessy V. Ferguson and the Jim Crow Laws of the 1800s. This period,
commonly known as the Civil Rights Movement, produced many leaders. The two most
representative of opposing viewpoints were Dr. Martin Luther King, Jr. and his passive resistant
followers and Stokely Carmichael, founder of the Black Panthers. The Black Panther Movement
grew in direct response to the successes and failures of Kings work. For many, Carmichael
countered the successes prior to his movement. To what extent did the efforts of the Black Power
Movement undermine or damage the efforts of Dr. Martin Luther King, Jr. to achieve racial
equality?

History of the Unfair Treatment

In order to understand the Civil Rights Movement in the United States, one must first
examine the treatment of African Americans prior to the 1960s. From before the Civil War to
post-World War II, there was a lack of response to the needs of Black Americans from the
legislative branch of the US government. (Authentic History, 2012) The Jim Crow laws of the
late-1800s, for example, were passed by the governments of the Southern states to create a racial
class system. Although slavery had already been abolished, many whites at this time believed
that they were superior to nonwhites. Even the U.S. Supreme Court sided with the whitesupremacist perception and in 1883 declared the Civil Rights Act of 1875, which gave blacks
equal rights in public establishments, as unconstitutional. In 1896, it also legitimized the
principle of "separate but equal" in the ruling of Plessy v. Ferguson. By 1914, every Southern
state had passed laws that created two separate societies; one black and one white. Separate
facilities were created in most aspects of public society, including schools, restaurants,
cemeteries and health-care institutions. Grandfather clauses, poll taxes, and literacy tests further
restricted the rights of blacks. (Scholastic, 2014) Years later, blacks still could not congregate in
public places and restrooms, parks, pools, and water fountains were among these segregated
public facilities. Eventually, blacks became fed up with this treatment and decided to take action,
while whites decided to turn to violence. Before the Civil Rights Movement, black employment
in manufacturing had significantly increased 135 percent over its 1940 amount and large
quantities of blacks joined industrial unions rapidly. Blacks played huge roles during World War
II, with thousands of them drafted into the army. World War II offered an opportunity to get out
of the cycle of pressing poverty. Blacks joined the military to flee the Depression and traditional
tenant farming in the South. The Army accepted black men, but it was still segregated, creating

separate black regiments and assigned white authority to them. The Navy segregated units and
gave blacks the most degrading jobs on ships. In addition, the Marines did not even accept
African Americans initially. At all bases, black and white soldiers were kept separate (Wessels,
2014). More than three million Black men registered for the service, and having fought for
democracy abroad, blacks returning from the war believed they ought to have some rights at
home, and they intended to fight for those rights (Shawki, 2006).

Beginning of the Civil Rights Movement

The 1950s and 1960s marked a time when drastic action had to be taken for blacks to
achieve equality. The National Association for the Advancement of Colored People (NAACP)
was created in the early 1900s to fight this social injustice and eventually ended legal
segregation. In 1954, the Supreme Court again addressed the question of legal segregation
created by Plessy, in Brown v. Board of Education of Topeka, Kansas. In the early 1950s, civil
rights groups made legal and political challenges to the racial segregation that Plessy created in
schools. In this case, NAACP lawyers brought class action lawsuits on behalf of black
schoolchildren and their families. (McBride, 2006). All of the Justices agreed to support the
decision of declaring segregation in public schools unconstitutional. (United States Courts, 2014)
Then, three years after the Supreme Court's Brown v. Board of Education decision, a federal
court ordered Little Rock, Arkansas, to comply. Governor Orval Faubus defied the court, calling
in the Arkansas National Guard to prevent nine black students, "The Little Rock Nine", from
entering the building. President Eisenhower decided to authorize federal troops to enforce the
order (Little Rock High School National Historic Site, 1998).

Dr. Martin Luther King, Jr. and His Movement

Injustices such as these generated a desire among blacks to protest, picket, and even
disobey the law in a peaceful manner, to fight for greater rights. An advocate of the nonviolent,
peaceful movement was Dr. Martin Luther King, Jr., who was born in 1929 in Atlanta, Georgia.
After years of excelling in school, Martin Luther King Jr. came under the influence of theologian
Reinhold Niebbuhr, a classmate of his father's at Morehouse College. Niebbuhr became a mentor
to Martin, challenging his liberal views of theology. (Biography.com, 2014) Soon, Dr. Kings
leadership would be put to the test in a most public manner for the first time in his lifetime.

After Rosa Parks was arrested for violating the Montgomery City Code for refusing to
give up her seat, local members of the NAACP chapter met with Martin Luther King Jr. and
other local civil rights leaders to plan a citywide bus boycott. Kings support drew much
attention to the cause and rallied many supporters outside of the Montgomery area. Kings
prominence in the Civil Rights Movement gained the respect of many political leaders, and gave
him the potential power to inspire major change (Martin Luther King, Jr. and the Global
Freedom Struggle (Montgomery Bus Boycott (1955-1956), 2014). Through nonviolent
resistance, the Southern Christian Leadership Conference (SCLC) was established in 1957, to
organize protest groups in the South. The SCLC brought visibility to the civil rights struggle and
paved the way for the passage of the Civil Rights Act of 1964 and the Voting Rights Act of 1965.
African Americans in southern towns were not only harassed, terrorized and assaulted when they
tried to register to vote, but were subject to random literacy tests and poll taxes. Civil rights
activists were met with strong resistance to their campaign when civil rights workers were
attacked by white police ofcers on a march from Selma to Montgomery. President Johnson soon

introduced the Voting Rights Act of 1965, which abolished literacy tests and poll taxes designed
to marginalize black voters, and gave the government the authority to take over voter registration
in counties with a pattern of discrimination and exclusion. (Martin Luther King, Jr. and the
Global Freedom Struggle (Voting Rights Act (1965), 2014).

By the second half of the decade, however, tensions were growing between SCLC and
more belligerent protest groups such as the Student Nonviolent Coordinating Committee (SNCC)
and the Congress of Racial Equality. Among desire for Black Power, King and SCLC were
often criticized for being too moderate and dependent on the support of white liberals. This
questioned whether nonviolent direct action could create changes for their communities. These
more radical civil rights groups, like SNCC, publicly renounced the nonviolent approach of the
SCLC. They emphasized the poverty and segregation experienced by African Americans in
northern cities, and argued that the SCLC's tactics were ineffective in the urban ghetto. King and
the SCLC were sensitive to such criticism, and began to focus their attention on the North. By
1967, the SCLC launched several new operations there such as the Chicago Freedom Movement,
Operation Bread-basket, and the Poor People's Campaign, bringing in young, new leaders to lead
these efforts. (Martin Luther King, Jr. and the Global Freedom Struggle, 2001)

Although there was still violent white reaction to King and his followers movements,
including bombings, lynchings, harassment and beatings, there were still positive gains and
achievements from their actions. For example, the success of the Montgomery bus boycott
helped elevate him to one of the most prominent positions in the growing Civil Rights
Movement, and helped him gain the confidence of black southerners who were ready to involve
themselves in the struggle. (Biography.com (Montgomery Bus Boycott), 2014) King also

launched non-violent anti-segregation protests in Birmingham, Alabama in 1963. The

determination and heart of the demonstrators, paired with the violent response from police chief
Eugene Connor and his men, helped pressure Birmingham's businesses to desegregate their
stores. This success, highly due to King's leadership, was one of the most pivotal achievements
of the first half of the Civil Rights Movement. After these achievements, King served as one of
the main organizers of the March on Washington for Jobs and Freedom. (Martin Luther King,
Jr. and the Global Freedom Struggle, 2014).

In Kings infamous A Letter from Birmingham Jail, he explains why passive resistance
is crucial to gain equality and he highlights the steps of nonviolent campaigns. In this letter,
King states how actually, we who engage in nonviolent direct action are not the creators of
tension. We merely bring to the surface the hidden tension that is already alive. We bring it out in
the open, where it can be seen and dealt with. (Ali-Dinar, Ph.D., 2012) King truly believed in
nonviolent resistance and never once strayed from it in order to achieve racial equality. His
nonviolent methods had a majority of positive gains and achievements for blacks and the Civil
Rights Movement. King and his followers were able to achieve judicial and legislative victories
against discrimination in public accommodations and voting. They also had considerable success
in fighting job and housing discrimination. Their actions even created new opportunities for
middle-class blacks, teachers, lawyers, doctors, and other professionals who were portrayed as
role models for the black community (Virginia Historical Society, 2013). One visible
development in 1957, stated in an earlier paragraph, also encouraged advocates of civil rights.
The passage of a Civil Rights Act created a Civil Rights Division that was authorized to
investigate racial problems and facilitate solutions. Also, in early 1963, when Eugene Connor,
the Birmingham police chief, ordered his men to attack demonstrators and unleash vicious dogs

10

on the resisters, television captured these striking scenes of assaults. As a result, many shocked
northerners became aware of the predicament of African Americans in the South. The violence of
whites in Birmingham forced the American people to consider serious federal action promoting
civil rights (Patterson, 2006). With the help of Dr. Martin Luther King, Jr. and his supporters,
blacks were finally gaining new and effective rights. Although there was still much more to be
done, without King, these steps forward in the Civil Rights Movement would not have been
nearly possible.

Maria J. Stephan and Erica Chenoweth, authors of Why Civil Disobedience Works,
would agree with Kings methods and beliefs. They state that their findings show that major
campaigns have achieved success 53% of the time, compared with 26% for violent resistance
campaigns. (Stephan, Chenoweth, 10-14, 2011) They argue that nonviolent resistance may have
a strategic advantage because repressing nonviolent campaigns may backfire and because
nonviolent resistance campaigns appear to be more open to negotiation and bargaining because
they do not threaten the lives or well-being of members of the target regime. (Stephan,
Chenoweth, 10-14, 2011). Dr. King, through his own actions, showed the importance of passive
resistance. In agreement with this text, King believed that people (whites) would be more willing
to support activists and bargain with them because of their lack of violence. If blacks instilled
fear in whites during the mid-1900s, whites and government officials would be less willing to
assist them. Nonviolent campaigns like Kings, according to Stephan and Chenoweth, are more
effective mainly because people are more willing to comply with a nonviolent persons needs.

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Rise of the Black Panthers

Although nonviolent resistance was the touchstone of the beginnings of the Civil Rights
Movement, not everyone agreed and thus, the Black Power Movement initiated and was at its
peak around the mid-1960s. According to many, despite nonviolent efforts, idealistic blacks
were getting arrested and attacked. Some could not turn the other cheek to the unjust treatment
and, as a result, chose a more violent path towards equality. Many young blacks began to reject
the courage and patience displayed by Dr. Martin Luther King in his non-violent response to
injustice in American society and were frustrated by the continued mistreatment by whites. The
epitome of the Black Power Movement was the Black Panther Party. Founded by Huey P.
Newton, Bobby Seale and others, this party justified the use of violence in the accomplishment
of black justice. (Hoover.archives.gov, 2013) The term Black Power became known through
Stokely Carmichaels (SNCC leader) speech at the March Against Fear in 1966. Black Power
soon became known as a movement for solidarity within the black community and the fight for
racial independence. SNCC and the Black Panther Party sought to empower the black
community and improve quality of life, while providing protection against white attack with
armed self-defense. King and the NAACP denounced black power as the proper forward path.
But, black power was a powerful message at this time of frustration (Boger, 2014).

In The Basis of Black Power, Stokely Carmichael discusses the Black Panther Partys
methods, goals and reasoning. Carmichael discusses racism, black power, white supremacy and
voting in this speech. He closes off by giving somewhat of an ultimatum: The question is, will
white people overcome their racism? If that does not happen, we have no choice but to say very
clearly, Move over, or we goin to move on over you. (Churcher, 2006) Here Carmichael made

12

his ideas clear, saying that if nothing changes and compromises cannot be made, blacks will take
any action necessary to achieve racial equality. However, through the analysis of Kings actions,
it has been proven that violence is not the answer. Although it can be seen as the faster answer,
speed does not equate to success. Any action necessary, according to Carmichael, involves
violence. But in reality, the people who patiently took the wisely thought-out and organized
actions were the ones creating the gains for African Americans. Therefore, it can be said and
proven that the Black Panther Movement impeded the forward motion created by Martin Luther
Kings movement to gain equal rights for African Americans.

In an article called Why Violence Works, Benjamin Ginsberg explains why he believes
violence can be the answer to the worlds problems. He argues that, violence usually provides
the most definitive answers to three major questions of political life: statehood, territoriality, and
power. He highlights the fact that tolerant, politically liberal individuals shrink from using
violence under almost any circumstance. Most, however, accept the protection of the government
and its military and police forces, paying taxes to support the systemic violence that preserves
their comfortable lives. (Ginsberg, 2013). People of the Black Power Movement and Ginsberg
have similar views when it comes to approaching a problem. This author and those who
supported the black power movement agree that violence is inevitable, but in a positive way
because to these people, the only way to make change is through more serious measures such as
violence. The problem with this argument, however, is the lack of evidence and historical
connections and accuracy. His argument that even tolerant people still pay for the government to
support the military is nearly discourteous due to the fact that he ignores the consideration that
the military is actually protecting our rights and freedom, just like the activists of the Civil
Rights Movement were trying to do (regardless of the method being used). The Black Power

13

Movement did not condemn violence by any means and its supporters were extremely impatient.
King and other activists agreed that Black Power was the result of despair and disappointment, a
cry of pain and a reaction to the failure of White Power to deliver the promises they had made
in a hurry. (Martin Luther King, Jr. and the Global Freedom Struggle, 2014) Nevertheless,
change and progress take time. No crucial and significant change has ever been made over night.
The failure of the Black Power Movement therefore lies in its members impatience and
violence.

Analysis

It is clear that the followers of Dr. Martin Luther King, Jr. and the followers of the Black
Panther Party had different viewpoints, opinions and methods to achieve racial and social
equality and as a result, chose conflicting paths of violence or non-violence. Nevertheless, it
should be remembered that their goal was mutual. However, an even bigger issue that became
evident after blacks gained racial, social and political equality was if the Black Panther
movement actually damaged/undermined the efforts of Dr. Martin Luther King, Jr. to achieve
racial equality. Although the Black Panther Movement was a natural progression from Kings
nonviolent Civil Rights Movement because of the failure of extremely rapid change to occur, it
nevertheless greatly impeded the forward motion created by Martin Luther Kings movement.
King believed that the slogan, Black Power, was an unwise choice, so he attempted to
transform its meaning, writing that although the Negro is powerless, he should seek to amass
political and economic power to reach his legitimate goals. King believed that America must be
made a nation in which its multi-racial people are partners in power.(Martin Luther King, Jr.
and the Global Freedom Struggle, 2014) He did not believe, however, that this power could only

14

be attained through violence. Carmichael, on the other hand, believed that black people had to
rst close ranks in solidarity with each other before they could join a multiracial
society.(Martin Luther King, Jr. and the Global Freedom Struggle, 2014) This solidarity,
proclaimed by Carmichael, was threatening to the mostly-white society. This belief that blacks
should be isolated from whites for mostly selfish purposes is one reason why the Black Panthers
actions undermined the growing progress of the nonviolent Civil Rights Movement because
society, which was mostly white at the time, feared other groups claiming superiority or
isolation. Carmichael and his supporters beliefs also undermined Kings separate methods, and
misconceptions were created due to whites unknowingly and mistakenly pairing Carmichaels
and the Black Panthers opinions and methods with nonviolent activists for civil rights.

Research and evaluation shows damage created by the Black Panther Movement to
Kings efforts. After violent action was taken, blacks were less trusted and more feared by
whites. For example, their leaders became targets for the police, and a number of busts and
shootouts resulted in the Panther leadership either being killed or imprisoned. Also, armed Black
Panthers helped decrease the white sympathy that had been key to the progress for the nonviolent civil rights activists. The threat they represented to the white status quo and to black
conservatives, forced America to change course in dealing with minority rights. (Law Library
(Black Power Movement), 2014) This fear and these threats, however, caused white Americans,
who might have supported the Civil Rights Movement, to question their beliefs. In addition,
newly integrated school might be viewed by wary white Americans as a dangerous place for their
children. The appearance of members of the Black Panther Movement was also radically
different from the white norm. It was not unusual, for example, for white person to cross to the

15

other side of the street in fear of an approaching black man. In fact, many whites began to
generalize the behaviors of all blacks to those of the perceived violent Black Panthers.

The Black Power could be seen as problematic and even dangerous. Many whites, and
several blacks, saw the movement as a black separatist organization focused on segregating these
races, which ultimately would end up undoing the important work of the nonviolent Civil Rights
Movement. Blacks were clearly still victims of racism and discrimination, but the solutions that
some Black Power leaders advocated seemed only to inspire new problems. Some, for example,
suggested that blacks receive paramilitary training and carry guns to protect themselves.
Although this was argued as self-defense, it was still unnerving to many to think of armed
civilians walking the streets. In addition, because the Black Power movement was never a
formally organized movement, it had no central leadership, which meant that different
organizations with divergent goals often could not agree on the best course of action. The more
radical groups accused the more mainstream groups of submitting to whites, and the more
mainstream accused the more radical of becoming too ready to use violence. By the 1970s, most
of the organizations that had come into play with the Black Power movement, such as the SNCC
and the Black Panthers, had all disappeared. The Black Power movement did not succeed in
getting blacks to isolate themselves from white society to create a separate society. It also did not
help end discrimination or racism and therefore did not benefit Dr. Kings struggle to obtain
racial equality. Instead, it just created more problems in the long-run. (Law Library (Black Power
Movement), 2014) Although the Black Panthers formed out of need for quicker change, their
desire for faster change only created more issues such as fear by whites, lack of sympathy by
society, unorganized efforts and lack of leadership, all of which the Dr. Kings nonviolent

16

movement actually obtained. These efforts of the Black Panthers damaged the understanding of
the needs and hopes of blacks in America.
From a political standpoint, the Black Panther Movement had some unreasonable
demands, and as a result, garnered displeasure from many white officials, which was not what
Dr. Kings movement desired at all. In response to their perceived role as societal victims, it is
understandable that they responded with radicalism. For example, their Ten Point Program
included the following controversial statements. We want full employment for our people. We
want an end to the robbery by the white man of our Black Community. We want education for
our people that exposes the true nature of this decadent American society. We want all black men
to be exempt from military service. We want freedom for all black men held in federal, state,
county and city prisons and jails. We want all black people when brought to trial to be tried in
court by a jury of their peer group or people from their black communities. (Goerss, 2010) It is
not unreasonable to view these demands as aggressive and challenging to white individuals as
well as the passive resistance of Dr. Martin Luther King, Jr.s followers. This contradicts Martin
Luther Kings life-long goal for equality for all the races. It shines a spotlight, however, on the
Black Panthers belief of their racial superiority. Although these two groups shared a common
goal, this Ten Point Program emphasizes the flaws in the Black Panthers methodology,
considering it is more focused on black superiority and even revenge. These guidelines and
beliefs lacked the desire to create a country where all people of all races are equal, and therefore
damaged the passive resistant Civil Rights Movements goals for equality for all because people
were inclined to create stereotypes of blacks based off of these commands.

17

Conclusion

The Black Freedom Struggle of the 1960s was a turning point for racial equality in the
United States. Its goal was to change the manner in which African Americans were viewed and
treated. During the decades of the 50s and 60s, many responded to the treatment of African
Americans in the United States. The rights that were taken from them were a product of earlier
political and social decisions like Plessy V. Ferguson and the Jim Crow Laws of the 1800s. The
ensuing Civil Rights Movement gave the opportunity for many intellectuals to take a leadership
role in obtaining these rights. Two opposing viewpoints were those of Dr. Martin Luther King, Jr.
and his passive resistant followers and Stokely Carmichael, founder of the Black Panthers. The
Black Panther Movement grew in direct response to the successes and failures of Kings work.
For many, Carmichael countered the successes prior to his movement. Through the efforts of Dr.
Martin Luther King Jr., and his supporters, the Civil Rights Act, the Voting Rights Act and the
March on Washington were some of the gains attributed to the Civil Rights Movement. In
contrast, the demands of the Black Panthers counteracted the forward motion of Kings peaceful
equality movement and perpetuated a negative image of the Civil Rights Movement for white
America.

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