FLEXIBLE PAVEMENT DESIGN IN INDIA: PAST, PRESENT AND FUTURE

Sanjay Garg*
Abstract
In India, new flexible pavements during twentieth century were designed by
California Bearing Ratio method, an empirical method, based on subgrade strength
measured in terms of CBR value which was, with the advent of twenty first century, taken
over by Mechanistic-Empirical methods. Continued improvement in traffic
characterization, material characterization and quality, mix designs, pavement design
approaches and construction methodologies, performance prediction models and laboratory
testing procedures, and maintenance approaches will call for a review of the present stateof-the art pavement design approaches. In this paper, a review of the flexible pavement
design in India till 2012 is briefly outlined along with some suggestions/future steps to be
taken up to further refine the current flexible pavement design method in view of current
developments in order to optimize the pavement structure and its performance, and to
evolve a sustainable pavement structure.
1.

BACKGROUND:
Surface course BC
Binder course DBM
Granular Base course
WMM or WBM
Granular Sub-base
course GSB
Compacted subgrade
Natural subgrade

Figure 1 Conventional flexible

pavement used in India

Broadly, there are three types of pavements; flexible

pavements, rigid pavements and composite
pavements. In this paper, discussion is limited to
flexible pavements only. In flexible pavements,
wheel loads stresses are transferred by grain-to-grain
contact of the aggregate through the granular
structure which acts like a flexible sheet due to less
flexural strength. The wheel load acting on the
pavement will be distributed to a wider area, and the
stresses decreases with the depth. Taking advantage
of this distinct stress distribution characteristic,
flexible pavement normally has many layers in which
material quality deceases from top to bottom.

In India on all National Highways, a conventional flexible pavement consists

usually five layers 40 mm or 50 mm thick surface or wearing course (BC), 50 to 200 mm
thick binder course (DBM), 250 mm thick unbound granular base course (WMM or
WBM), 200-350 mm thick granular sub-base course (GSB) and 500 mm thick compacted
subgrade over natural subgrade as shown in figure 1. If combined thickness of all
bituminous layers (surfacing and binder course) is about 75 mm or less, then it is termed as
thin bituminous pavement while a thick bituminous pavement usually have combined
thickness of all bituminous layers equal to 150 mm or more.
Unlike other civil engineering structures, the structural design of a pavement
structure is, practically, a complex and daunting task due to uncertainty, variability and
approximations of everything associated with the design of new and rehabilitated
pavements. Traffic loading is a heterogeneous mix of vehicles, axle types, and axle loads
with distributions that vary with time throughout the day, from season to season, and over
the pavement design life. Traffic forecasting is very difficult. Pavement materials respond
to traffic loading in complex ways influenced by stress state and magnitude, temperature,
moisture, time, loading rate, and other factors. Pavement construction also introduces a
* Superintending Engineer & Regional officer, M/o RT&H, Regional Office (C),
Bengaluru (India) 560001. Email sgarg70@rediffmail.com, sgarg1970@gmail.com

significant measure of variability. Pavements as a function of time and maintenance

strategies exhibit significant variation in condition over its design life and therefore,
performance predictions and its relation to input variables add further complications.
1.1

ERA OF EMPIRICAL METHODS:

Due to all these complexities, empirical methods were resorted to design a

pavement structure during twentieth century. Pavement design consisted basically of
defining thicknesses of layered materials that would provide strength and protection to a
soft and weak subgrade. In an empirical pavement design approach, the relationship
between design inputs (e.g., traffic loads, materials, layer configurations and environment)
and pavement (performance) failure were arrived through empirical correlations between
required pavement thickness and soil classification or simple strength tests of subgrade
materials using the data of past experience (based on successes and failures of previous
projects), experiments or a combination of both. Index-value-based characterizations of
material properties (layer coefficients, R-value, California Bearing Ratio etc.), and
engineering judgment with failure criteria of limiting shear failure or deflections in
subgrade layer or serviceability loss were used for pavement designs.
As experience evolved, several pavement design methods based on soil
classification and subgrade shear strength were developed. First empirical method for
flexible pavement design was based on the soil classifications developed during 1920s,
which lead to Group Index Method. In 1929, California Bearing Ratio (CBR) method[1, 2]
was developed by the California Highway Department using the CBR strength test which
relates the subgrade materials shear resistance evaluated by CBR value to the required
thickness of overlaid layer (cover). The thickness computed was defined for the standard
crushed stone used in definition of the CBR test.
The empirical AASHTO method (1993), based on the pavement performance data
collected during American Association of State Highway Officials (AASHO) Road Test
carried out in 1960s, was mainly used in USA and Canada. The AASHTO design equation
were developed through regression models to link the performance data with design inputs
and represent a relationship between the number of load cycles, pavement structural
capacity, and performance, measured in terms of serviceability loss. The concept of
serviceability, based on surface distresses commonly found in pavements, was introduced
in the AASHTO method as an indirect measure of the pavements ride quality.
Although all these empirical methods were used for over fifty years and exhibited
good accuracy, however, they were valid only for the local conditions [like material
selection, traffic (type, volume and axle loading), climatic conditions, drainage measures,
and construction techniques etc.] in which they were developed. As an empirical procedure
relies entirely on past observations of field performance, therefore, these methods could not
be used for traffic load levels and in environments well beyond their observational domain.
In other words, it allows no extrapolation beyond the range of these observations. Further,
these index and empirical models do not include[2] effects of multidimensional geometry,
loading, material behavior and spatial distribution of displacements, stresses and strains in
the multilayered pavement systems. Hence, such empirical approaches are considered to
possess only limited capabilities. The AASHTO method, for example, was adjusted several
times over the years to incorporate extensive modifications based on theory and experience
that allowed the design equation to be used under conditions other than those of the
AASHO Road Test. CBR method was also improved consistently and became the most
popular design method around the world. In India also, CBR method was used for flexible
pavement design till 2001.

1.2

ERA of MECHANISTIC-EMPIRICAL PAVEMENT DESIGN METHOD:

During last decades of twentieth century, traffic volume and loading have increased
and new materials started to be used in pavement structures that provided better subgrade
protection, but with their own failure modes which also bring changes in the design
criterion. Besides providing subgrade support, it became equally important to evaluate
pavement performance through ride quality that governs the rate and/or extent of
deterioration of pavement structures. Performance became the focus point of pavement
designs. Initially, empirical methods, such as AASHTO design guide, 1993, based on
serviceability (an index of the pavement service quality) loss were developed.
Later on, classical theories of mechanics were used to evaluate the pavement
structural responses in terms of stresses, strains, and deflections at critical locations within
the pavement structure under the effects of traffic loading from structural (mathematical)
modeling of pavement structures, generally presuming the pavement structure and
subgrade as a multi-layer linear elastic system: each layer characterized by its thickness,
modulus of elasticity and Poissons ratio. This step is termed as Mechanistic part. In
Empirical part, these (critical) pavement responses were correlated with pavement
performance indicators in the form of pre-defined pavement distress modes for a given
design life by empirically derived equations known as distress models or transfer functions
derived from the performance prediction models based on past experiences, field
observations and laboratory results that compute the number of repetitive loading cycles to
specified pavement failure. Initially, two classical failure modes namely bottom-up fatigue
cracking at the bottom of bituminous layers and permanent deformation in subgrade layer
were considered in the performance models. Based on this Mechanistic-Empirical (M-E)
two-step (hybrid) approach, Asphalt Institute method (Asphalt Institute, 1982, 1991) and
the Shell method (1977, 1982) besides other methods were developed. With slight
modifications in these two methods based on in-house research results and feedback on the
performance of the pavement designs in India during twentieth century, flexible pavement
design based on Mechanistic-Empirical pavement design approach (MEPDA) were
formalized as IRC:372001 and adopted in India. Later on, with appropriate modifications
in transfer function as depicted in IRC:372012, this approach was used to design the
composite flexible pavements also which laid the foundation for new era in the history of
pavement design in India.
Mechanistic-Empirical (M-E) pavement design approach provides the capability to
determine the required layer thicknesses so that the pavement would last for specified
design life without exceeding predetermined distress levels. This approach represents a
major improvement over empirical methods due to its accuracy and reliability. The biggest
empirical part (also termed as weakest links) of M-E pavement designs are the transfer
functions, material characterization and their variations in relation to environmental
influences over time, and the characterization of traffic. The accuracy of structural response
model and performance prediction model are a function of quality of the input variables
and the calibration of empirical distress models to observed field performance. It remains
difficult to quantify pavement distresses and performance predictions using the concepts of
mechanics and to relate them with pavement responses. This is the reason, why in
performance prediction models used so far, empirical formulas are used to predict
pavement distresses from the pavement responses. It is also a reality that a fully
mechanistic method for practical pavement design is still a goal to be achieved.
2.

INTRODUCTORY PHASE OF PAVEMENT DESIGN IRC:371970[3]:

2.1.

Before 1970, on the basis of limited and localized experiences and judgments of
local highway agencies, quite diverse practices for pavement design were prevalent

in India. In 1970, an empirical method, CBR method based on CBR design

curves evolved by the Road Research laboratory, United Kingdom was introduced
via IRC:37-1970 by IRC as a unified approach for flexible pavement design in
entire country. The thickness of different layers of sub-base, base and surfacing
were determined by repeated use of these design curves subject to specified
minimum thicknesses for constituent layers. These design curves were applicable
for single axle loads of 8200 kg and tandem axle load of 14500 kg. Beyond these
values of axle loads, pavement thickness was increased appropriately.
2.2.

For subgrade soil, CBR value was calculated from the sample prepared at optimum
moisture content corresponding to Proctor compaction and soaked in water for a
period of four days prior to testing. Traffic was considered in units of heavy
commercial vehicles per day (CVD) with a laden weight of 3 tonnes or more in
both directions (irrespective of whether the design is for a two lane or a dual
carriageway), divided into seven categories as indicated in the table 1.

Table 1
Design Traffic
volume, CVD
CBR design curve,
applicable
2.3.

Traffic classification as per IRC:371970

15 45 - 150 - 450 - 1500 45
150
450 1500
4500
A
B
C
D
E
F

0-15

>4500 and all

expressways
G

Pavement was designed for the traffic volume expected at the end of design life
(taken as 10 years), which was determined as per equation (1) and then, was used to
determine the applicable CBR curve from table 1 and which in turn used to assess
the total pavement thickness.
AD = P (1+r)n+10
where,

(1)

AD = number of commercial vehicles per day (CVD) for design,

P = number of commercial vehicles per day at last count,
r
= annual rate of increase in the number of commercial vehicles,
(taken as 7.50% in case authentic data is not available), and
n
= number of years between the last count and the year of completion
of construction.

Example 1:
(a)
(b)

Given that, subgrade CBR = 5%, and design traffic (AD) volume expected at the
end of design life = 1501 CVD. Design the flexible pavement.
Design flexible pavement with subgrade CBR of 5% and AD equal to 4501 CVD.

Solution:
(a)

For given input data, using design curve F, total pavement thickness from
IRC:371970 comes out to be 475 mm. Let, sub-base, GSB = 150 mm and base
course will comprise, WBM = 250 mm, provided in three layers of 100 mm of
WBM Grade I + 75 mm each of WBM Grade II and WBM Grade III. 50 mm thick
bound base course (like bituminous macadam, BM) with surfacing of 20 mm thick
open-graded premix carpet (PC) or surface dressing will be provided. This
pavement design was applicable for the design traffic volume ranging from 1501 to
4500 CVD. Provided thickness = 150+250+50*1.5=475 mm.
O.K.

(b)

For given input data, using design curve G, total pavement thickness from
IRC:371970 comes out to be 530 mm.
Let, sub-base, GSB = 200 mm and
base course will comprise, WBM = 250 mm, provided in three layers of 100 mm of
WBM Grade I + 75 mm each of WBM Grade II and WBM Grade III.

50 mm thick bound base course (like bituminous macadam, BM) with surfacing of
25 mm thick semi-dense carpet (SDC) will be provided. This pavement design was
applicable for the design traffic volume more than 4500 CVD and all expressways.
Provided thickness = 200+250+50*1.5+25*1.5=562.5 mm > 530 mm. O.K.
3.

FINAL PHASE OF EMPIRICAL METHOD IN INDIA IRC:371984[4]:

3.1.

The empirical design method for flexible pavement, proposed in 1970, was
continued for design traffic volume up to 1500 CVD. However, the modified CBR
curves for 10.2 tones single axle legal limits were used instead of 8.16 tones and
consequently, the pavement thickness was increased by 10 to 20%.

3.2.

Recognizing the fact that the structural damage caused by a vehicle depends on the
axle load it imposed on the road, the equivalent axle load concept was introduced
in India also similar to other countries of the world to handle the large spectrum of
axle loads actually applied to a pavement. Design traffic (Nx) carried by pavement
during its design life was considered in terms of cumulative number of standard
axles in the lane carrying maximum traffic and evaluated as under:

where,

Nx
A
r
x
F

3.3.

(2)
= cumulative number of standard axles to be catered for design,
(expressed in terms of million (106) standard axles or msa)
= initial traffic, in the year of completion of construction in CVD, as
modified for lane distribution,
= annual growth rate of commercial traffic, taken as 7.5%,
= design life in years, taken as 10 to 15 years.
= vehicle damage factor.

Design curves relating pavement thickness to the cumulative number of standard

axles for different subgrade strengths (assessed in terms of CBR value) were
evolved. Pavement composition (thickness of component layers) was therefore
might be decided by the designer subject to the minimum thickness as determined
from the thickness combination block given in the IRC:371984.

Example 2:

Solution:
(a)

(b)

Given that, subgrade CBR = 5%, and traffic after construction, A = 730
CVD. Design flexible pavement for 10 years for two lane NH in plain
terrain as per (a) IRC:371970 and (b) IRC:371984.
Let, total pavement thickness = T, mm
Pavement design as per IRC:371970, and using equation (1), we get
AD
= 730 (1+.075)10 = 1505,
and
therefore,
T
= 475 mm
from IRC:371970.
This thickness is applicable for AD varies from 1501 CVD to 4500 CVD.
Pavement design as per IRC:371984, and using equation (2), we get
Nx = [365 x (730*0.75) * {(1+.075)10 1}* 2.75/0.075] = 7.78 msa
therefore,
T
= 540 mm
from IRC:371984.
As per IRC:371984, surfacing should be 25 mm SDC or BC with binder
course 75 mm DBM while base course should have a minimum thickness of
250 mm with material of 100% CBR. Therefore,
thickness of sub-base = 540 (25+75+250) = 190 mm > 150 mm, O.K.
Provide sub-base of 200 mm with material of 30 % CBR.
In base course, either (1 x 100 + 2 x 75 = 250 mm) of WBM in three layers
or two layers each of 75 mm thick of WBM + one layer of 75 mm thick BM
(2x75+75*1.5=262.5 mm) can be provided. Later option is preferable.

Comments: As per IRC:371984, for A = 2183 CVD, Nx = 23.25 msa and T =

635 mm. As per IRC:371970, pavement thickness is constant for traffic volume
after construction varies from 730 CVD to 2183 CVD while as per IRC:371984, it
varies from 540 mm to 635 mm making the pavement design more responsive to
applied traffic volume (loading).
4.

STATE-OF-THE-ART FLEXIBLE PAVEMENT DESIGN IN INDIA

IRC:372001[5]: To overcome limitations and empiricism in pavement design as
discussed in paragraphs 1.1, 2 and 3, attempts were made under the patronage of
Ministry of Road Transport and Highways (MORT&H), Government of India via
Research Schemes R-6, R-19 and R-56 which gave birth to IRC:372001 and thus,
laid down the foundation for Mechanistic-Empirical Pavement Design Method
(MEPDM) for flexible pavement designs in India and open a new chapter in the
history of pavement designs with ample scopes for further improvements and
refinements in future. Salient features of the IRC:372001 are briefly described
below:

4.1.

Only conventional standard flexible pavement structure as shown in figure 1 has

been considered for pavement design, which has been modeled as a three layer
structure consisting of binder layer (BM or DBM) plus surface layer (PC, MSS,
SDBC, or BC) as layer 1, granular sub-base layer (GSB) plus base layer (WBM or
WMM) as layer 2, and compacted subgrade as layer 3. After taking
(i) a typical fixed value of elastic modulus (E1) at average annual pavement
temperature of 35 0C and Poissons ratio (1) of 0.50 for bituminous layers having
DBM/BC constructed with 60/70 grade bitumen,
(ii) 2 = 0.40 for granular layers and a restricted composite elastic modulus of sub-base
and base course (E2) determined by the empirical equation 3(a) and,
(iii) 3 = 0.40 for subgrade layer and elastic modulus of subgrade (E3 ) determined
empirically from the index property, CBR value through equation 3(b) and 3(c),
the flexible pavement structures were analyzed by FPAVE software.
where,

E2 (MPa)
h
E3 (MPa)

= E3 * 0.20 * h0.45,
= thickness of granular layers, mm
= 10 * CBR
for CBR 5, and
= 17.6 * (CBR)0.64
for CBR > 5

(3a)
(3b)
(3c)

4.2.

The pavement responses, in terms of the critical strains [(a) vertical compressing
strain (c) at the top of the subgrade to avoid excessive strain and hence,
permanent deformation (or rutting) in subgrade layer during design life, and (b)
horizontal tensile strain (t) at the bottom of the bituminous layers to avoid the
bottom-up fatigue cracking] at pre-defined locations, have been computed using the
linear elastic model FPAVE developed under MORT&Hs Research Scheme R56 Analytical Design of Flexible Pavements. Rutting within the bituminous
layer(s) was avoided or controlled by meeting the mix design requirements as per
the MORT&Hs Specifications.

4.3.

These strains were then, used to predict the performance level as defined in terms of
two classical modes of structural distresses namely bottom-up fatigue (alligator)
cracking and rutting in subgrade layer resulting from repeated (cyclic) application
of traffic loads as per the following two failure criterions which ensure a specified
level of pavement performance at the end of design life.
4.3.1 Fatigue Criteria: The distress prediction model was calibrated to develop
the following fatigue cracking failure criterion which relates allowable number of

load repetitions (the fatigue life of the pavement) to horizontal tensile strain at the
bottom of the bituminous layer (t) for a pre-defined performance level (as
considered in the form of fatigue cracking in 20% of the design lane area).
N f = 2 .2 1 x 1 0

3 .8 9

1
E

0 .8 5 4

(4)

in which, Nf is the allowable number of load repetitions to control fatigue cracking

and E is the effective elastic modulus of all bituminous layers.
4.3.2 Rutting Criteria: Similarly, for limiting the permanent deformation in
subgrade layer up to 20 mm, the rutting failure criterion relates allowable number of
cumulative standard axles (Nr) to vertical compressive strain (c) at the top of the
subgrade layer as:
1
N r = 4 .1 6 5 6 x 1 0 8

4 .5 3 3 7

(5)

4.4.

Consequently, the pavement design tables or catalogues for the conventional

standard flexible pavement structure in terms of total pavement thickness and
constituent layer thickness were developed to cater for:
a. design traffic (evaluated as before by equation 2 except with slight modification
in vehicle damage factor) ranging from 1 msa to 150 msa,
b. sub-grade material characterized as before in terms of index property, CBR
value ranging from 2% to 10% and
c. an average annual pavement temperature of 35 0C.

4.5.

Cumulative traffic for 20 years design period and two lane highways with vehicle
damage factor of 4.5 and traffic growth rate of 7.5% becomes 150.3 msa for initial
traffic volume after project construction of 2825 CVD only. It becomes difficult for
a designer to design the pavement structure for an expressways which will carry
traffic volume certainly more than 3000 CVD as IRC:372001 is applicable only
for cumulative design traffic up to 150 msa. And, the approach suggested in
IRC:372001 for dealing traffic more than 150 msa needs to be reviewed as
IRC:811997 was based on empirical method which has very limited applicability
due to changes in the conditions (such as pavement structure, traffic volume and
loading, construction methods, material quality, and climatic conditions etc.) in
which it was developed. Similarly, for most of the projects constructed under BOT
model or PPP model or any similar financing model with usual range of
concessioner period of 25 to 30 years, the current IRC guidelines are unable to
provide an optimal pavement design which commensurate with service life. Design
life for flexible pavements needs to be enhanced to 30 to 40 years in line with
practices in USA and Europe.

4.6.

Pavement design catalogue as outlined in IRC:372001 provide one of the easiest

method in the world to design the flexible pavement on the basis of the
Mechanistic-Empirical Pavement Design philosophy. However, these design
catalogue or tables were applicable only for a fixed set of conditions namely a
standard flexible pavement structure as shown in figure 1, material properties of
bituminous mixture, design (failure) criterion, and annual average pavement
temperature (35 0C) as pointed out also in para 4.1. Neither FPAVE nor the analysis
and design approach is available in public domain either for free or some cost.
Therefore, it is not known to the designer what will happen or in what way will he
analysis and design the pavement structure, if any of these variables will vary?
Absence of any pavement design software is the biggest difficulty as a designer is
unable to perform the analysis and design the pavement structure with user-defined

(or project-specific) input variables and thus, to optimize the design. Further, for a
given set of traffic volume and subgrade strength, it gives one feasible solution only
leaving no scope for the designer to optimize the pavement structure economically
or in terms of material consumption and/or quality as available at site.
Example 3: Given that, subgrade CBR = 5%, traffic growth rate, r = 7.5% and traffic after
construction, A = 225 CVD, 730 CVD and 2183 CVD. Design flexible pavement for 10
and 15 years for two lane NH in plain terrain as per IRC:37-1984 and IRC:37-2001.
Solution:

Let,

Total pavement thickness = T, mm

Design traffic (in msa), N x =

365* A * (1 + r ) 1 * D * F
x

r
where, lane distribution factor, D = 0.75,

for a two lane NH/SH.

Design details are given in table 2, from which it is clearly evident that pavement
thickness for a pavement structure designed as per IRC:372001 increased by 13% to
23.7% over the pavement design as per IRC:371984 primarily to account for the increased
share of heavy axle loads and ensuring some certainty in pavement performance against
two classical modes of pavement failure i.e. bottom-up fatigue cracking and subgrade
rutting. However, in view of current developments it is questionable whether such
enhancement in pavement thickness is justifiable? Will it lead to overdesign? For a given
pavement design, how much level of pavement performance or service life can be ensured?

Design
Life
10 years

15 years

Table 2
Pavement design details for Example 3
Pavement Design as per
Pavement Design as per
IRC:371984 (F-2.75)
IRC:372001 (F-4.50)
A = 225 CVD, then
A = 225 CVD, then
Nx = 2.40 msa and T = 460 mm.
Nx = 3.92 msa and T = 553 mm.
A = 730 CVD, then
A = 730 CVD, then
Nx = 7.78 msa and T = 540 mm.
Nx = 12.72 msa and T = 668 mm.
A = 2183 CVD, then
A = 2183 CVD, then
Nx = 23.25 msa and T = 635 mm.
Nx = 38.04 msa and T = 718 mm.
A = 225 CVD, then
A = 225 CVD, then
Nx = 4.42 msa and T = 500 mm.
Nx = 7.24 msa and T = 616 mm.
A = 730 CVD, then
A = 730 CVD, then
Nx = 14.35 msa and T = 585 mm.
Nx = 23.49 msa and T = 697 mm.
A = 2183 CVD, then
A = 2183 CVD, then
Nx = 42.92 msa and T = 665 mm.
Nx = 70.24 msa and T = 738 mm.

5.

IRC:372012[6]: Tentative Guidelines A way ahead:

5.1.

This guidelines can be used for the design of a flexible pavement on any
highway (excluding low volume roads), in which bituminous surfacing is
provided over (a) granular base and granular subbase, (b) a cementitious base and
cemented subbase with a crack relief layer of aggregate interlayer over cementitious
base layer, (c) a cementitious base and cementitious subbase with SAMI layer between
bituminous and base layer, (d) Reclaimed Asphalt Pavement (RAP) with or without
addition of fresh aggregates treated with foamed bitumen/bitumen emulsion, and (e)
bituminous base and granular subbase using the concept of long life deep strength
bituminous pavements. Last four options are new additions over 2001 revision. There
is no change in pavement design approach or in modeling of the pavement structure.
A flexible pavement as implied in the guidelines consists of different layers of
materials as shown in Figure 2. The base layer may consist of either unbound

5.2.

granular layer(s) such as wet mix macadam, water bound macadam or granular
materials treated with cement or bitumen emulsion. In case of pavements with
cemented base layer, crack relief layer either of crushed aggregates of thickness 75150 mm or of SAMI (Stress Absorbing Membrane Interlayer) is provided at the
interface of the bituminous layer and cemented base layer which is believed to delay
the propagation of the reflection cracks in the overlaid bituminous layers.
Reclaimed asphalt pavements with or without addition of fresh aggregates treated
with (foamed bitumen)/(bitumen emulsion) having the required indirect tensile
strength can preferably be used as base layers due to their obvious benefits.
Bituminous layer
Base layer (unbound/bound)
Subbase layer (unbound/bound)
subgrade
Figure 2 Different layers of a bituminous pavement as per IRC:37-2012
5.3.

5.4.

To avoid frequent maintenance, concept of reliability is now introduced

implicitly. A reliability level of 90% is recommended for high volume roads
having a design traffic exceeding 30 msa. In IRC:37-2001, a reliability level of
80% was assumed.
Load associated failures namely bottom-up fatigue cracking and rutting in
subgrade layer resulted from repeated application of traffic loads are only
considered as the mode of failure in the design of traditional flexible
pavements as done in IRC:37-2001. Environment effect is taken care of in
calibration of rutting and fatigue transfer equations. Fatigue criteria given by
equation 4 in IRC:37-2001 is modified to account for the increased
reliability level of 90% and mix volumetric properties (air voids -Va &
volume of bitumen - Vb) as defined by equation 6. Similarly, rutting criteria
given by equation 5 is also modified to account for the increased reliability
level of 90% as defined by equation 7. In general, fatigue failure criteria will
govern the pavement design for traditional bituminous flexible pavements.
N f = 0 .5 1 6 1 x C x

where, C = 10M,

1
1 0 4

= 4.84

N f = 1 .4 1 x 1 0

5.5.

3 .8 9

1
E

0 .8 5 4

0.69"
1

(6)
(6.a)

4 .5 3 3 7

(7)

Bituminous mix design and pavement design are now integrated to get an optimum
pavement design. As mix volumetric properties have profound effect on the
pavement service life, therefore, bituminous mix design and construction of
bituminous layers at work site becomes two other vital prerequisites besides
pavement composition and layer thickness for ensuring a performing and
durable pavement structure. Selection of bitumen, bituminous mixtures and
thickness of bituminous surfacing depends upon the climate, traffic and the
composition of the underlying layer. Since most places on plains of India have
maximum air temperatures equal to 40C or higher, VG40 bitumen is
recommended for both bituminous layers namely BC and DBM to carry
higher traffic over 2000 commercial vehicles per day. For traffic up to 30 msa,

10

5.6.

5.7.

5.8.

5.9.

5.10.

VG30 bitumen can be used in BC and DBM. In general, the thickness

requirement for a pavement structure is less when either stiffer binder is used
or bottom bituminous layer will be made fatigue resistant by increasing the
binder content by 0.5% to 0.6%.
In case of comparatively weak embankment soil below the 500 mm thick
compacted subgrade, effective strength of the subgrade will be considered
for pavement design after duly account for the strength of the weak
embankment soil.
Close and coarse graded granular materials should be used in the subbase
layer. It should be composed of two layers, the lower layer forms the
separation/filter layer to prevent intrusion of subgrade soil into the pavement
and the upper GSB forms the drainage layer to drain away any water that
may enter through surface cracks. The drainage layer should be tested for
permeability and gradation may be altered to ensure the required
permeability. Filter and drainage layers can be designed as per IRC:SP:421994 and IRC:SP:52-1999.
For cumulative design traffic more than 200 msa, perpetual pavements should
be provided. However, its complete design procedure and details are not
given. Due to which, it is difficult to get a rational design of these pavements.
Now, a designer can either use the design catalogues with specified set of input
variables or use IITPAVE software to analyse any flexible pavement structure for
his chosen set of input variables and carry out the sensitivity analysis also to
optimize the pavement design as per laid down design approach. Thus, it removes
two biggest difficulties experienced by a pavement designer earlier with IRC:372001 as pointed out in paragraphs 4.5 and 4.6.
For two lane NH in plain terrain, table 3 illustrates the design of tradition
bituminous pavement structure over a subgrade with 8% CBR or resilient modulus
of 65 MPa as per IRC:37-2012 as well as presents a comparison of pavement design
as per IRC:37-2001. 250 mm thick Granular Subbase (GSB) and 250 mm Wet Mix
Mecadam (WMM) are laid over subgrade, which have composite modulus of 213
MPa with Poissons ratio () of 0.35. Over WMM, dense bituminous concrete
(DBM) having thickness varying from 135 mm to 190 mm is provided along with
bituminous surfacing layer of 50 mm thick Bituminous concrete (BC), both having
resilient modulus of 1700 MPa and = 0.35. Column 2 and 3 in the table 3 gives
the thickness details of DBM required to sustain the various traffic volumes, as per
IRC:37-2001 and IRC:37-2012, respectively.
Table 3 Pavement design details as per IRC:37-2001 and IRC:37-2012
Single axle with dual wheel load assembly exerting tyre pressure of 0.72
MPa is used in the analysis by IITPAVE software. Bituminous mix used in
DBM has 3.50% air voids and 12% bitumen volume. VG30 bitumen is used.
Design Traffic,
DBM thickness (mm)
DBM thickness (mm)
N (msa)
as per IRC:372001
as per IRC:372012
50
115
135
75
130
150
100
140
160
125
150
170
150
155
180
175
165
190
200
170
195

11

From table 3, it is clearly evident that the thickness of bituminous layers in a

traditional bituminous pavement structure designed on the basis of IRC:372012 is
increased by 15% or more to that of IRC:372001 to ensure an increased reliability of 90%
assumed in IRC:372012. However, billion rupees question is that this increase in the
thickness of the pavement structure is really required, justifiable and worthy? Will it simply
lead to overdesign? It is already well documented that the pavement design thickness as
obtained from AASHTO 1993 is already proved to be on higher side when compared to
pavement thickness designed on the basis of MEPDG 2008. It is also worthy to mention
that an increase of just 10 mm in bituminous layer (DBM) thickness will increase the
pavement cost by about 3% and costs about Rs. 300 crores per year to the country
considering the construction of 5000 km long 2 lane National Highway per year (pavement
cost per km is about Rs. 2.0 crore). Further, for a given pavement design, it is very difficult
to predict the extent/level of pavement performance or service life. A single reliability level
of 90% is not sufficient to ensure an adequate service level over service life for highly
trafficked and overloaded highways usually observed in India. In the absence of adequate
field studies in the country and any concrete feedback on the experience gained from
NHDP, we are unable to reply all these questions.
6.

WHERE WE ARE:

Although the design method for flexible pavements as stipulated in IRC:372001 or

in IRC:37-2012 was a major step forward it still has many crucial issues at stake in the
design aspects mainly due to so much simplifications and assumptions either in the
determination of input design variables, mathematical modeling of the pavement structure
or in the application of versatile Mechanistic-Empirical pavement design (MEPD)
approach which otherwise has huge potential to design and optimize the pavement
structure. Succeeding paragraphs presents a detailed discussion on some of these essential
issues which need to be considered to further refine the pavement design process as
depicted in IRC:37.
6.1.

6.2.

6.3.

At present, pavement design is explicitly based on the traffic loading and the effect
of environmental influences is considered implicitly in the derivation of transfer
functions. Rationally, both, traffic loading and environmental influences need to be
considered explicitly in the pavement design process to optimize the pavement
design.
Current IRC pavement design guidelines (IRC:37) can be used only to design new
flexible pavement structures. Therefore, pavement strengthening or structural
overlay design still remains based on empirical approach which has very limited
applicability for the thick bituminous layered pavement structures constructed nowa-days and carry traffic volume and loading well beyond their tested domain.
Development of a unified pavement design method for all types of new or
reconstructed pavements as well as rehabilitated pavements is the need of the hour.
Characterization of Traffic: At present in India, the concept of equivalency
factors are used to characterize traffic in which different axle types are converted
into equivalent single axle loads (ESALs) through load equivalency factors (LEF)
or vehicle damage factor (VDF) calculated on the basis of fourth-power law.
Although, use of ESALs concept simplifies the design process, however, the
concept of relative damage is not quantifiable as it is based on the results of
AASHO Road Test, wherein it was concluded that the pavement damage increases
with axle weight raise to fourth power. Besides, LEF (or VDF) depends on the
specific set of conditions that include the axle loading, axle configuration, pavement
type and thickness, tire type, tire inflation pressure, environment, distress mode, and

12

6.4.

6.5.

6.6.
(a)

(b)

terminal serviceability. Because of this, it is difficult to calculate ESALs for (a) new
types of vehicles, (b) axle multiplicity, change in axle loading and configurations,
(c) change in tire type and tire pressure, and (d) change in pavement failure modes.
This difficulty and inbuilt empiricism are the major reasons for moving towards
other ways for traffic characterization such as axle load spectra approach as used in
India for the design of rigid pavements (IRC:58) and described in para 7.2.1. The
lateral traffic wander has not considered in the current design practice, which needs
to be included in design process as it influences the number of load applications
over a point and hence, affects prediction of fatigue cracking and permanent
deformation.
Characterization of pavement materials: For a successful and effective pavement
design, characterization should be based on material properties that accurately
capture the material response which influenced by construction quality, applied
traffic loading and environmental conditions varies over design life. At present, no
such consideration in material characterization is taken care of.
Location of critical pavement responses: Currently, the critical stresses and/or
strains are computed at only two locations namely directly beneath the center of the
tire and at the centre of dual tire for a single axle with dual tires. This approach is
not correct for multi-axle loads as the critical location is a function of the wheel
load magnitude, axle configuration and the pavement structure. To evaluate the
maximum principal (design) strains under single or multi-axle loadings, pavement
response should be evaluated at several locations and corresponding pavement
damages (distresses) will be calculated for each location. Location of maximum
damage will be the critical location and should be made part of design process.
Distress Prediction and Failure Criterion:
After the year 2000, flexible pavements on all major National Highways (specially
under NHDP programme) and some State Highways developed either under PPP
models or as externally aided projects have been constructed in India with dense
mix graded bituminous layers having thickness from 125 mm to 225 mm. For such
thick bituminous layered pavements, other structural distress modes like top-down
fatigue (longitudinal) cracking and thermal fatigue (transverse) cracking may also
play vital role in predicting their performance. Besides, rutting in bituminous layers
as well as in unbound base/sub-base layers is equally important. In cold regions like
Jammu and Kashmir, Himachal Pradesh, Arunachal Pradesh and Uttarakhand, lowtemperature cracking also becomes important performance indicator. Therefore,
critical strains for all these structural distress modes need to be evaluated and
should be made part of design process. Functional distresses like surface roughness
and friction may also be included as failure criterion and transfer function may
accordingly be developed to ensure functional serviceability of the pavement.
Transfer functions (empirical equations) for the two classical distress modes were
developed through two research schemes R-6 and R-19 mainly for the thin
bituminous flexible pavements. Further, the transfer function for fatigue failure
criteria was calibrated for one specific condition (at 35 0C for BC surfacing having
80/100 bitumen) only. There is no published study or reports which tell us how
these transfer functions are sensitive to varied conditions of traffic, climate,
material quality, mix designs, pavement constructions, and maintenance practices
etc. as per actual field conditions found in India? It is, however, of paramount
importance that these transfer functions should accurately reflect the actual
performance of pavements under the expected conditions, because extrapolating
them beyond their tested bounds can result in over-designed or under-designed

13

(c)

6.7.

6.8.

6.9.

7.

pavement sections. This is the weakest part of the current design process and
exhaustive field/lab studies should be carried to address this issue.
In current IRC:37-2012 (or IRC:37-2001) pavement design practice, a fixed distress
criteria in terms of fatigue cracking in an area of more than 20% and/or a rutting
depth of 20 mm or more is considered to define the failure mode of the pavement.
Variability in type and extent for all failure modes to specify a performance
(distress) level is required to be left for the designer to decide it as per importance
and need of the project, and desired level of pavement performance and adopted
maintenance strategies.
Reliability concept: Implicit introduction of the reliability concept in IRC:37-2012
is a welcome step as the design of flexible pavements is associated with many
factors (like traffic prediction, material characterization and behavior modeling,
environmental conditions, construction quality, and maintenance practices etc.) that
introduce a substantial measure of variability and uncertainties. Explicit
incorporation of the reliability concept as an input variable may provide a choice to
the designer to incorporate the desired degree of certainty into the design process
and to ensure that the various design alternatives will survive for the analysis period
without reaching to unacceptable condition of pavement performance.
For an efficient and economical pavement structure design, use of planned stage
construction approach as suggested either in IRC:37-2001 or IRC:SP:84-2009 may
recall a review as the current pavement design is based on cumulative damage
approach either against fatigue and/or rutting which involves highly nonlinear
relationship of the design inputs with pavement responses and pavement damages.
There is still no guideline or direction in India to design the thick bituminous
pavements[7] such as full-depth bituminous pavements (constructed by placing one
or more layers of dense graded bituminous layers directly over the sub-grade) and
deep-strength bituminous pavements (in which dense graded bituminous layers are
placed on relatively thin granular base course). These bituminous pavements along
with perpetual pavements[7] are relatively more useful alternatives to handle heavy
traffic volume and loads observed generally on Indian Highways besides (a) less
construction time and extended construction period, (b) less affected by moisture
variation or frost and (c) using only one material (dense graded mix like DBM and
BC) and thus, minimizing the haulage, administration and equipment costs.
Additional benefits include less consumption of materials and relatively less
maintenance. Hence, their designs are also required to be included in the
forthcoming IRC guidelines.
WHAT WILL WE DO? FUTURE OF PAVEMENT DESIGN:

The dilemma is that pavement materials do not exhibit the simple behavior assumed
in isotropic linear-elastic theory. Loading rate, time and temperature dependency,
nonlinearities, and anisotropy are some examples of complicated features often observed in
pavement materials. However, continued improvement in material characterization, and
constitutive models make it possible to incorporate nonlinearities, loading rate effects, and
other realistic features of material behavior. Determination and/or prediction with sufficient
accuracy of some prime input parameters such as climate, traffic and the quality of the
materials as laid and the variation therein remains an issue to be addressed. Large databases
now exist for traffic characterization, site climate conditions, pavement material properties,
and historical performance of in-service pavement sections coupled with improved
modeling of pavement structure provide the technical infrastructure that made possible the
refinement in structural analysis of pavement responses.

14

Pavement performance models should be extended and refined further with

inclusion of more distress modes of pavement failure, calibrated with comprehensive
testing and characterization of materials in bituminous, bound/unbound base layers, and
subgrade soils and validated with actual field observations/testing under varied conditions
of material quality, mix designs, pavement constructions and maintenance practices. It is
also possible to model pavements structures as accurate as possible using non linear elastovisco-plastic models and using advanced finite element techniques formulated on the
concepts of either classical mechanics or damage mechanics or fracture mechanics that
allow damage initiation and progression to be taken into account as well as the effects of
stress re-distribution as a result of that. Also such methods allow the effects of joints,
cracks and other geometry related issues to be taken into account. Furthermore, these
methods also allow to analyze the effects of moving loads which implies that inertia and
damping effects can be taken into account.
Finally, Mechanistic-Empirical pavement design approach, so evolved, will provide
more rational and realistic methodology to account for uncertainty, variations and
approximations in structural modeling, traffic loading, environmental effects, material
characterization, and performance models. Further, it will provide a much better insight in
why pavements behave like they do and provide a good estimate of pavement performance.
Later on, pavement design process may be integrated with in-service maintenance
needs/decisions and desired performance levels to evolve optimal pavement management.
However, they involve advanced testing and analyses techniques, some are already
developed and others are under evolution stages.
All these refinements are experiencing from last 20 years in abroad specifically in
USA under 20 years Long-Term Pavement Performance Program (1989-2009) as a part of
the Strategic Highway Research Program (SHRP) and to realize them in India also, similar
quantum of dedicated research works and field efforts are required. Research should be
large scale spread over the geographical breadth of the country; long term and integrated;
all-inclusive and result-oriented which blends the lab tests and field tests. It should include
all components of pavement design process like traffic characterization, material selection
and characterization, pavement modeling and design techniques, mix design and
construction methodology, maintenance approach, performance assessment and distress
predictions etc. To measure the resilient modulus, moisture susceptibility, permanent
deformation, and fatigue cracking properties of the bound and unbound materials within
the pavement structure and to quantify the quality and effectiveness of the pavement
construction and treatment practices, improved Accelerated Pavement Testing (APT), and
Non-destructive testing (NDT) technologies should be developed. In the research, all major
stake holders should be included with their respective roles and contributions. Besides
others, at least the following objectives may be part of this research in India:
i.

Identify the reasons for development of the distresses in early phases of pavement
service life based on lab/field testing.
ii. Determine the effects of loading, environment, material properties and variability,
construction quality, and maintenance levels on pavement distress and performance.
iii. Determine the effects of specific design features on pavement performance.
iv. Evaluate the existing design methods and pavement performance.
v.
Develop unified and improved design methods/equations for all types of new or
reconstructed pavements as well as rehabilitated pavements.
vi. Develop improved design methodologies and strategies for the preservation, repair
and rehabilitation of existing pavements.
vii. Establish a national long-term pavement performance and maintenance database.

15

Findings must be documented and well circulated among the field experts of the
country for comments and further refinements. Finally, research reports should be
published and made available in public domain to learn the lessons and/or gain experience
to further improve the pavement design, construction and maintenance process. It is most
essential to generate the field performance data bank based on actual lab and field tests
rather than visual observations and enter the era of more rational and realistic quality
control practices besides nurturing the research industry in India as well as upgrading the
level of our research institutes. Otherwise, we always remain dependent upon the findings
of foreign institutions and will be waiting for their technology transfer besides wasting our
huge indigenous talent in nonproductive works. It is the high time we will wake up and
understand the importance of result-oriented research activities as said many times by the
Honble Prime Minister in the Indian Science Congress and other platforms. It is, however,
emphasized that there is no dearth of funds in the country. The only need is that we must
develop and provide a conducive environment for the research activities which will benefit
us and our forthcoming generations.

Figure 2

Overall design process for flexible pavements (NCHRP[8])

Mechanistic-Empirical Pavement Design Guide (MEPDG, 2008)[8, 9 and 10] was

developed in USA to address the shortcomings in the current pavement design methods. It
is applicable for new as well as rehabilitation of flexible, composite or rigid pavements.
Basically, it incorporates axle load spectra approach, variation of material properties with
climate and traffic loading, consideration of all major modes of structural distresses plus
one functional distress (smoothness), incremental distress computation approach to
simulate how pavement damage occurs in nature (field) and transfer functions developed
after comprehensive simulative lab testing coupled with field observations during LTPP
under varied climate and traffic conditions. Figure 2 is showing an overview of the Flexible
Pavement Design Process used in MEPDG, 2008[8].
With this background and based on MEPDG (2008)[9], pavement design method in
India should also involve the following major steps besides other refinements to eliminate
or obviate the aforesaid shortcomings in the state-of-practice pavement design process:
7.1.
a.
b.
c.

Objective statement: A pavement structure should be designed so that:

it must be structurally and functionally adequate during entire design life,
it must survive the pre-defined performance level at the end of its design life as per
designers chosen certainty (reliability) level,
it should integrate design process with maintenance strategies,

16

d.
e.

it should be constructible and use available local material to extent possible, and
it should result an optimal and sustainable pavement structure optimize the
pavement thickness and material consumption, minimize the initial cost as well as
life-cycle cost, and improve the pavement sustainability.

7.2.
Design inputs: Based on the criticality of the project and the available resources, it
is recommended to employ the hierarchical approach (similar to MEPDG, 2008[8]) in the
selection of design inputs with regard to traffic, materials, and environmental parameters.
All design input variables should be clearly defined as explained below:
7.2.1. Characterization of Traffic: Traffic is the most important design input variable, as
a pavement structure is designed to carry traffic. To eliminate the empiricism in the
concepts of ESAL and VDF, a more direct and rational approach like axle load spectra
method similar to IRC:58 should be used to quantify the characteristics of traffic loads
carried by a flexible pavement structure as it allows mixed traffic to be analyzed directly
and thus, enhances pavement design process. The approach estimates the effects of actual
traffic on pavement response and distress. Additional advantages of the load spectra
approach include: the possibility of special vehicle analyses, analysis of the impact of
overloaded trucks on pavement performance, and analysis of weight limits during critical
climate conditions. Load spectra are simply the collective axle weight distributions grouped
by axle type for a given traffic stream which can be easily determined from the axle weight
data obtained from weigh-in-motion (WIM) station or else. These spectra represent the
percentage of the total axle applications within each load interval for single, tandem,
tridem, and quad axles. Vehicle class distributions, daily traffic volume, and axle load
distributions define the number of repetitions of each axle load group at each load level.
For a given load group, the damage caused by each load, on each axle type, and under each
climate condition during the year is simulated over the design life of the pavement.
7.2.2. Characterization of Pavement Materials: Effective characterization of pavement
materials is a key requirement for a successful and effective pavement design. The state
and characterization of the different materials forming the pavement layers changes with
variation in temperature and moisture condition which in turn affected the structural
response of the pavement structure subjected to traffic loading. An effective analytical
model should account for all of these factors in analysis leading to a performance-based
design. Instead of index properties, fundamental engineering properties of material like
dynamic modulus of bituminous materials and the resilient modulus of unbound materials
(granular materials or native soils) as a function of time and environmental influences over
the entire design period and duly account for the variation in applied stress state, pavement
depth etc. will be considered to compute the pavement responses.
7.2.3. Environmental condition: Moisture level and temperature changes are the two
main environmental variables which can significantly affect the pavement materials
properties and, hence, impact the strength, durability, load carrying capacity, service life
and serviceability of the flexible pavements. The resilient modulus of bituminous materials
can increase during winter months by as much as 20 times its value during hot summer
months. Excessive moisture can drastically lead to stripping of bituminous mixture.
Similarly, resilient modulus of unbound materials at freezing temperatures exhibits high
values compared to thawing months. The moisture content affects the state of stress of
unbound materials and it breaks up the cementation between soil particles. Increased
moisture contents lower the modulus of unbound materials. Appropriate climatic model to
simulate changes in the behaviour and characteristics of pavement and subgrade materials
will be developed that concur with climatic conditions over the design period. The model
computes and predicts the modulus adjustment factors, pore water pressure, water content,
frost and thaw depths, frost heave and drainage performance in case of granular or

17

subgrade layers. For the bitumen bound layers, the model evaluates the changes in
temperature as a function of time to allow for the calculation of the dynamic modulus and
thermal cracking. The model provides varying moduli values in the computation of critical
pavement response parameters and damage at various points within the pavement system.
7.2.4. Distress Prediction Model and Design Criterion: Pavement distress prediction
model are typically derived through statistically based correlations of pavement response
with observed performance of laboratory test specimens, full-scale road test experiments,
or by both methods. A distress model can include a variety of structural (load-associated)
distress as well as functional distresses as depicted in table 4 to assess and predict the
structural and functional performance of the pavement structure at the end of the design
period. Design criteria for each distress should be pre-defined as indicated in table 4 and
will be compared with respective accumulated distress at the end of analysis or design
period by the designer to check the adequacy and validity of the design.
Table 4
Distresses for flexible pavement with their design criterion
Structural/functional distresses to be predicted
Design Criterion
10 to 20% area of design lane
(i) Bottom-up fatigue (or alligator) cracking,
100 m to 150 m/km
(ii) Surface-down fatigue (or longitudinal) cracking,
10 to 20 mm
(iii) Permanent deformation (or rutting) in any or all
of the pavement layers and subgrade,
100 m to 150 m/km
(iv) Thermal fatigue (transverse) cracking,
2.5 to 3.2 m/km
(v) Surface roughness as measured in terms of
International Roughness Index (IRI).
7.2.5. Reliability concept is explicitly made part of the design process.
7.3.
Pavement Structure and its Mathematical Modeling: A pavement structure,
flexible, composite or rigid, is composed of one or more layers constructed with different
materials placed on the prepared soil or subgrade. Each layer in a mathematical model will
be structurally defined by its modulus or stiffness, Poissons ratio and layer thickness.
Under the action of traffic loading and environmental influences, pavement material
response may be linear or nonlinear, viscous or non-viscous, and elastic or plastic or
viscoelastic and accordingly, structural analysis model will be chosen. Due to simplicity
and computational speed, layered elastic model is the most commonly used structural
model for a flexible pavement structure. To consider the effect of temperature and traffic
load rate variation on bituminous layers and moisture changes on unbound granular layers,
these layers should be divided into sub-layers. To account for traffic wander and various
types of axles in the traffic mix, appropriate number of analysis points (critical locations) in
each sub-layer should be considered primarily to determine the following critical pavement
responses for distress calculation.
a.
Tensile horizontal strain at the bottom or top of the bituminous layer and at the
bottom of stabilized base/sub-base layer to account for fatigue cracking), and
b. Compressive vertical stresses and strains within the bituminous layer, within the base
and subbase layers and at the top of the subgrade layer(s) for rutting.
7.4.
Pavement Performance and its Prediction: The concept of pavement
performance includes consideration of functional performance, structural performance, and
safety. Pavement performance is affected by several factors namely traffic, soil and
pavement materials, environment, drainage condition, and construction and maintenance
practices. The structural performance of a pavement relates to its physical condition, or
other conditions that would adversely affect the load-carrying capability of the pavement
structure or would require maintenance. Structural distress indicators includes fatigue
(load-induced and thermal) cracking and rutting (in all layers) for flexible pavements, and
joint faulting, and slab cracking for jointed plain concrete pavements. The functional

18

performance of a pavement concerns how well the pavement serves the highway user.
Riding comfort or ride quality and skid resistance (or surface friction) are the two dominant
characteristic of functional performance. Riding comfort is quantified in terms of
smoothness as express by International Roughness Index (IRI) which combines the effects
of initial pavement/subgrade condition with the distresses developed over time.
7.5.
Incremental Damage Accumulation Procedure: The design and analysis of a
given pavement structure is based upon the accumulation of damage as a function of time,
traffic and climate. The design procedure should have the capability to accumulate
damages over the entire design period. Attempts will be made to simulate how pavement
damage occurs in nature, incrementally, load by load, over continuous time periods. To
achieve this goal, design life is divided into shorter design analysis periods or increments
beginning with the traffic opening month. Within each increment (or analysis period), all
factors (traffic and material characterization) that affect pavement responses and damage
are held constant for simplification and computational speed. Critical pavement responses
(stress and/or strain values) for each distress type are determined for each analysis
increment and thereafter, are converted into incremental distresses either in absolute terms
(e.g., incremental rut depth) or in terms of a damage index (e.g., fatigue cracking) by the
distress prediction model. Incremental distresses and/or damage are summed over all
increments and output at the end of each analysis period is used by the designer to compute
the accumulated distress and later on, to compare them with respective design criteria for
each distress.
7.6.
Adaptability to New Developments: The analysis and design philosophy should
be capable to adapt the latest developments in pavement engineering. Therefore, design of
promising perpetual pavement structure[7] may be elaborated along with inclusion of the
design procedure for other thick bituminous pavements in forthcoming Indian Guidelines
as they provides a durable, safe, smooth, long-lasting roadway without expensive, timeconsuming, traffic-disrupting reconstruction or major repair at short intervals and aimed to
minimize material consumption, lane closures, user delay cost and life-cycle cost besides
handling ever increasing traffic volume and loading including sporadic overloading in
Indian scenario especially on NHDP projects and proposed expressways.
7.7.
Life cycle cost analysis (LCCA): LCCA is a tool to determine the most costeffective and feasible pavement design alternatives to build and maintain them by
analyzing initial costs and discounted future cost, such as pavement construction,
maintenance, rehabilitation, and reconstruction cost as well as administrative cost to
perform all these activities over the useful service life of pavement structure, and salvage
value (all are grouped under Agency Costs); and User Costs (includes vehicle operating
costs (VOC), crash costs, and user delay costs). In view of huge investment made in India
in highway infrastructures during forthcoming period and to ensure the best value of
invested public money, LCCA is becoming the most inevitable component of pavement
design process and should therefore, be made part of design process in India also. LCCA
can also be used to evaluate the overall long-term economic efficiency between competing
alternative investment options. Either of the economic decision tool such as Benefit/Cost
Ratios, Internal Rate of Return, Net Present Value, and Equivalent Uniform Annual Costs
can be used in LCCA.
8.

CONCLUSION AND RECOMMENDATIONS:

With the advent of twenty first century, IRC:372001 introduced the MechanisticEmpirical Method instead of empirical methods used during last century to design the
flexible pavements in India which provides the capability to a designer to determine the
required layer thicknesses so that the pavement would last for selected design life without
exceeding predetermined distress levels. IRC:372012 includes more options of flexible

19

pavements and evolve optimum pavement design with sub-standard or recyclable materials
also. It also introduced the design of perpetual pavements which need to be elaborated
along with inclusion of the design procedure for other thick bituminous pavements.
Continued improvement in traffic characterization, material quality and characterization,
mix designs, pavement construction methodologies and maintenance approaches,
performance prediction models, and laboratory/field testing procedures etc. necessitates
further refinement of the IRC pavement design guidelines which, however, need allinclusive, extensive, integrated and long term result-oriented research works and field
efforts financed with annual dedicated budget which should be undertaken without any
further delay. It is, however, safely stated that the refinements in current pavement design
method as suggested in this paper or else will definitely result into reduction of pavement
thickness and better pavement management practices which simply translates an annual
saving of more than ` 1000 crores per year in view of current pace of highway development
programs in the country.
Development of unified and improved pavement design method for all types of new
or reconstructed pavements as well as rehabilitated pavements is the need of the hour.
Dream for an optimum and sustainable pavement structure cannot be visualized without
including the analysis and design of composite and perpetual pavements based on
comprehensive pavement design approach as discussed in this paper. Development of
integrated and comprehensive design software is the essence of pavement design without
which it is almost impossible to consider the variability of input parameters and thus, to
optimize the pavement design based on LCCA and other considerations. Consequently, it
will be possible to design an optimal and sustainable pavement structure based on
indigenously developed design method which must not only be structurally and
functionally adequate during entire design life but also survive the pre-defined performance
level at the end of its design life as per designers chosen reliability level with minimum
life-cycle cost. Improved design methodologies and treatment strategies for the
preservation, repair and rehabilitation of existing pavements may be evolved. A National
long-term pavement performance and maintenance database should be established which
will act as a knowledge base for future refinements of pavement design process.
The opinion expressed in this paper is solely of the author and has no link with the
views, if any, of Ministry of Road Transport and Highways, of which the author is an
employee.
9.

REFERENCES:

1.

Yoder, E.J. and Witczak, M.W. , Principles of Pavement Design, Second Edition,
John Wiley & Sons, Inc., USA, New York, 1975.
Huang, Yang H., Pavement Analysis and Design, Second Edition, Pearson
Education, Inc., USA, New Jersey, 2004.
IRC:371970, Guidelines for the Design of Flexible Pavements, First published,
The Indian Road Congress, New Delhi, September, 1970.
IRC:371984, Guidelines for the Design of Flexible Pavements, First Revision,
The Indian Road Congress, New Delhi, December, 1984.
IRC:372001, Guidelines for the Design of Flexible Pavements, Second
Revision, The Indian Road Congress, New Delhi, July, 2001.
IRC:372012, Tentative Guidelines for the Design of Flexible Pavements, The
Indian Road Congress, New Delhi, July, 2012.
Garg, Sanjay, Perpetual Flexible Pavements: Pavements of Future, Journal of the
Indian Road Congress, Indian Roads Congress, Vol.73-1, 2012.

2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.

20

8.

9.

10.

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