EMERGENCY VENTS FOR STORAGE TANK: A PRESENTATION

The Most Common Classification of Storage Tanks: Atmospheric Tanks, Low-Pressure,

Pressure Vessels.
The Need for Venting:

Tank Protection during normal operation

Tank Protection against overpressure due to a fire near the tank or other abnormal
upset conditions

Comply with Legal Requirements

Implementation of Advisory Organization Recommendations

Meet Environmental Regulations

Minimize Loss of Stored Products

Follow Corporate Safety Standards

Why would a customer need an Emergency Vent?

Provides emergency pressure relief in case of a storage tank fire or other abnormal
pressure conditions

As storage tank contents rise in temperature, emergency vent allows for required
venting capacity, preventing tank rupture

Prevents tank from rupturing due to overpressure

Operates when relief capacity exceeds normal vent capacity

Available in pressure/vacuum and pressure only configurations

Larger sizes permit access into tank

Wide variety of materials available

Codes and Standards:

As per OSHA 29CFR1910.106 Tanks Storing: Class IA Liquids shall be equipped with
venting device; Class IB & IC Liquids shall be equipped with venting device or with
approved flame arrester; Every above ground storage tank shall have some form of
construction or device that will relieve excessive internal pressure caused by fire

Atmospheric & Low-Pressure Tanks the normal operating pressure shall not exceed
the design pressure.

Low-Pressure Tanks can be used as an Atmospheric Tank

Atmospheric Tanks API 650

Low-Pressure Tanks API 620

Normal vent sizing shall be in accordance with API 2000 or other accepted standard

Vents 2 thru 12 size must be flow tested

Vents > 12 in size flow may be calculated using a flow coefficient of 0.5

API 2000 Venting Atmospheric and Low-Pressure Storage Tanks

The circumstances that must be considered for calculating the overpressure or vacuum in a
tank are:

Liquid Movement into and out of the tank

Tank breathing due to weather changes

Fire Exposure-Emergency vent

Other circumstances resulting from equipment failures and operating errors

Calculating Venting Requirements:

OSHA 1910.106 states Normal Venting shall be sized in accordance with API 2000,
Venting Atmospheric and Low-Pressure Storage Tanks

Emergency Venting requirements are given in OSHA 1910.106 but are exactly the
same as API 2000

API 2000 states that we need to consider, as a minimum:

Liquid Movement Into or Out of a Tank

Weather Changes

Fire Exposure

Operating Errors and Equipment Failures

OTHER FORMS OF EMERGENCY VENTING

Emergency Venting requirement may take the form of a floating roof, lifter roof, weak roofto-shell seam or other approved pressure relieving construction.
For a tank roof to be frangible one of the requirements is the tank diameter must be 50 ft. or
greater.
Atmospheric Tanks:

Tanks Designed to operate at pressures from atmospheric through 0.5 psig

Tanks shall be built in accordance with acceptable good standards of design API 650

Protected against excess internal pressure or vacuum from exceeding the tank design
pressure or vacuum

Shall have some form of construction or device that will relieve excessive internal
pressure caused by fire exposure at or below the design pressure.

API 620 Low-Pressure Storage Tanks:

Designed to operate at internal pressures above 0.5 psig but not more than 15 psig

Should be built in accordance with acceptable standards of design API 620

Shall have some form of construction or device that will relieve excessive internal
pressure caused by exposure fires. Shall be vented to prevent the internal pressure
from exceeding the design pressure of the tank plus 20%.

Types of Emergency Vents:

Direct-Acting Vents

weight-load vents

spring-loaded vents

Pilot Operated Vents

Characteristics of Weight-Loaded Vents:

Set point is determined by total pallet weight

Flow at Set Point is Zero

Overpressure is needed to Open Vents

Vents have a maximum possible setting

Flow curves or charts are used to represent the flow characteristics of a particular
size, configuration, and set point of a vent

Characteristics of A Pilot Operated Vent Valve (POVV)

Set point is determined by adjusting the pilot set screw

Flow at Set Point is Zero

Valve is almost bubble tight up to the set pressure

Valve is full open at 10% Overpressure

Vents have a maximum possible setting of 14.0 PSIG

Flow curves or charts are used to represent the flow characteristics of a particular
size, configuration, and set point of a vent

Vent Setting:

Minimum Setting is Pallet with no Loading Weights

Maximum Setting is limited by amount of weights without restricting lift on the Top
Guided 3400 & 3800 Model.

Weights are usually made of Lead, Carbon Steel, Stainless Steel, FRP Encapsulated

Weights can add considerable weight to vent

Set Point of a Weight-Loaded Vent:

Set Point = Total Pallet Assembly Weight/Seat Area
For Example: If the total weight of the pallet assembly = 10.945 lbs; The set area of the vent
= 21.89 in2; Then the set point would = 10.945 lbs / 21.89 in2 = 0.5 PSIG
= 8.0 Oz/In2 =
13.84 WC
Procedure for Selection of Vent (Using Flow Curves):
1. Decide on which model of vent will be used and obtain the flow curves for all sizes of
that model available
2. Top Guided or Bottom Guided
3. Calculate the vent flow (SCFH) required in the application, considering tank size.
4. If you do not have a specific set point and only have the Tank Design Pressure and
the required flow. Start with the smallest size, look at the flow at the tank design

pressure. If it is less than the required flow calculated or given, go to the next size
larger. Continue to do this until you reach a size that will meet or exceed the flow
requirement. This is the size vent to use.
5. After picking the proper size, choose a set point such that the entire required
relieving capacity is met exactly at the allowable over pressure

Various Vent Configurations:

PRESSURE ONLY VENT TO ATM: Bottom Guided Manhole Cover, Hinged Style, 16 thru
24

PRESSURE ONLY VENT TO ATM : Top Guided, 2 Thru 24

COMBINATION PRESSURE & VACUUM VENT TO ATM Bottom Guided Manhole Cover,
16 thru 24

PRESSURE ONLY VENT WITH PIPE-AWAY: Top Guided for Venting to a safe distance, 2
Thru 12

COMBINATION PRESSURE & VACUUM VENT WITH PIPE-AWAY : Top Guided for Venting
to a safe distance, 2 Thru 12

COMBINATION PRESSURE & VACUUM VENT TO ATM : 2 Thru 12

Emergency Vent:

Manhole Cover

Applications: Petroleum, Petrochemical, Chemical, Pharmaceutical, Food and

beverage, Water and waste water, Pulp & paper

Benefits: Relieves emergency flow due to excessive venting requirement from a fire
burning around a storage tank; High Flow Capabilities; Easy installation and
convenient handling for inspection; Tank examination requires no gasket replacement
or unbolting; Low base for overflow

Sizes: 16, 20, 24 diameter manholes for tank inspection

Emergency Vent:

Top Guided & Self Reseating Type

Applications: Petroleum, Petrochemical, Chemical, Pharmaceutical, Food and

beverage, Water and waste water, Pulp & paper

Benefits: Relieves emergency flow due to excessive venting requirement from a fire
burning around a storage tank; High Flow Capabilities; Easy installation and
convenient handling for inspection; Tank examination requires removal of weather
hood and pallet

Sizes: 2 thru 24 diameter

Emergency Vent:

Manhole Cover (Hinged)

Applications: Petroleum, Petrochemical, Chemical, Pharmaceutical

Benefits: Relieves emergency flow due to excessive venting requirement from a fire
burning around a storage tank; Easy installation and handling for inspection; No
gasket replacement or unbolting is necessary, eliminating the expensive manpower
needed to put conventional emergency vents back in operation; Pallet construction
permits a wide variety of pressure settings; A flexible diaphragm affords a tight seal
between the pallet and the corrosion resistant seat below set pressure. This also
assures low leakage. The diaphragm is intended for normal ambient temperature
storage.

Sizes: 16, 20, 24

Hinged Cover

Spring Loaded Emergency Vent

Applications: Petroleum, Petrochemical , Chemical, Pharmaceutical, Food and

beverage, Water and waste water, Pulp & paper, Natural gas industry

Benefits: Spring Loaded Emergency Relief for Higher Design Pressures; Simple, yet
Rugged Design; Superior Flow Characteristics; 1 to 15 PSI Settings

Sizes 16, 20 and 24

Emergency Vent and Manhole Cover (Pressure and Vacuum)

Applications: Petroleum, Petrochemical, Chemical, Pharmaceutical, Food and

beverage, Water and waste water, Pulp & paper.

Benefits: Versatile design incorporates pressure and vacuum relief; Reduced

maintenance costs; No need to unbolt vent for gasket replacement or tank
examination; Unique self-energizing diaphragm construction assures tight seal
between pallets and seats; 20 diameter manhole for tank inspection; Low base for
overflow

INFORMATION REQUIRED FOR CALCULATING THE EMERGENCY VENTING

REQUIREMENT:

Type of Tank: Horizontal, Vertical, Sphere, Etc.

API 650 , 620 or other

Tank Dimensions

Design Pressure

Relieving Temperature

Operating Pressure & Relief Vent Setting

Product to be Stored

MW & latent Heat of Vaporization if sizing for actual product

Determine the total wetted surface area of the tank ( x D x Ht.)

See API 2000, Table 3A for the required Emergency Venting for Fire Exposure vs.
Wetted Surface Area based on Hexane

For Vertical Tanks: The wetted surface area is equal to the total surface area of the
vertical shell to a height of 30 feet above grade. If the vertical tank is sitting on the
ground, the area of the ground plate is not included. If its supported above grade,
then the bottom plate is to be included as additional wetted surface area.

For Horizontal Tanks: The wetted surface area is equal to 75% of the total surface
area or the surface area to a height of 30 feet above grade, whichever is greater.

For Sphere and Spheroids: The wetted surface area is equal to 55% of the total
surface area or the surface area to a height of 30 feet above grade, whichever is
greater

API Allows taking Credit for other Vents on the same Storage Tanks by subtracting the
maximum available flow of the Conservation Vent from the Emergency Vents
Required Flow

API method used to calculate the emergency venting requirement is based on a

product that has the characteristics of Hexane

Most of the time this is adequate but there are some cases where this method will
under estimate the emergency venting requirements.

Related posts:
1. A Brief Presentation on Storage Tanks
2. An article on Tank Bulging effect or bulging effect of tank shells
3. Tank Settlement for Piping Stress Analysis
A Storage Tank is a static equipment which is used to store products (liquids) in atmospheric
pressure conditions. Storage Tanks can be split in to two types

Site-built Tanks

Smaller Tanks (transported to site fully assembled)

In general site built tanks are designed as vertical cylinders however smaller tanks may be
either vertical/horizontal cylinders or rectangular/square in shape.
Large Storage Tanks are constructed on site, on prepared foundations as they are too large
to transport.
To reduce site work and the amount of equipment required, the component parts of the tank
are normally pre-fabricated or pre-formed prior to delivery.
Application:

Refinery and Petrochemical

Fertilizer

Oil and Gas

Chemical

Type of Storage Tank (Fig. 1):

Storage Tanks can be defined in to three types

Cone Roof Storage Tank: A Cone Roof Storage Tank has vertical sides and is equipped
with a fixed cone-shaped roof that is welded to the sides of the tank.

Open Top Floating Roof Storage Tank: An Open Top Floating Roof Storage Tank is
similar to the cone roof tank in construction but with the exception that it has no
fixed roof. A pontoon type roof floats directly on the flammable liquid surface.

Internal Floating Roof/Covered Floating Roof Storage: An Internal Floating Roof/Covered

Floating Roof Storage (see red dome) Tank is a combination of both the cone roof or dome
and the open top floating roof tank. The tank has a cone roof but with the addition of an
internal floating roof or pan that floats directly on the fuel surface.

Fig. 1: Cone Roof and floating Roof Storage Tank

Location of Storage Tanks:
Storage Tanks are mostly located inside a Tank Farm area inside a bunded area (Fig. 2).
Bunded area is necessary around storage tank when the potential environmental and
economic risk of tank spillage is great. Its function is to contain spillage so that subsequent
damage to adjacent tanks and surrounding areas can be minimised.

Fig. 2: Tank location inside Bund Area

Component of Storage Tanks:
Typically a Tank consists of three components (Fig. 3).

Shell: A cylindrical portion which is resting on the bottom plate and covered by the
roof.

Bottom Plate: A welded flat bottom plate which is placed beneath the cylindrical
shell.

Roof: The fixed roof tank is mostly provided with a conical top roof .Larger diameter conical
roof tanks are supported by roof structures or columns and the open top tank is mostly
provided with a floating roof.

Fig. 3: Components of a Storage Tank

Construction of Tank Shell:
Tank shell is constructed by butt welding steel plates of specified length and width at there
edges in order to form a cylindrical shell.

Construction of Tank Bottom:

The bottom of a tank is constructed from flat plates. Plates are arranged with rectangular
plates in the centre and sketch plates (cut to suit radius) around the perimeter.
Construction of Tank Roof:
The top of a tank is constructed from flat plates. Plates are arranged with rectangular plates
in the centre and sketch plates (cut to suit radius) around the perimeter.
Type of Roof Support Structures:

Fixed Conical or Dome roof tanks are provided with internal rafters or trusses (Fig. 4).

Some larger diameter Conical or Dome roof tanks are also provided with column
supports.

Fig. 4: Various types of roof Supports

International Design Codes for Site Built Storage Tanks:
The main design codes for vertical cylindrical tanks are:

BS EN 14015:2004 Vertical Steel Welded Storage Tanks with Butt-Welded Shells for
the Petroleum Industry

API 650 Welded Steel Tanks for Oil Storage

DEP 34.51.01.31-Gen and DEP 64.51.01.31-Gen

Design Aspects of Tank:

The design aspects of the tank can be divided in to the following:

Design standards: The tank can be designed by using different International

standards as API 650 and BS EN 14015.

Plate Size: Although the physical size of the shell plates is a function of the height
and diameter of the tank, the actual size is also dependent upon material availability,
fabricators facilities and handling/logistic issues. A large plate is the more difficult to
form and to handle, however a large plate requires less welding during tank erection.
The plate size must therefore be considered on a case by case basis to achieve the
most economical design. For example, for a 10m high tank, the most practical and

economical plate width would be 2.5m so as to achieve four shell courses. Plates
3.33m wide are large and nonstandard.

Loading Conditions:

External / Internal: External loads on a tank may result from adjoining piping or structures.
These loads may be due to for example their static weight or as a result of thermal growth.
Due to the useof relatively thin and therefore flexible steel plates, tanks have a poor ability
to resist external loads and therefore measures should be taken to minimize all external
loads. Methods to analyze external pipe loads can be found in API 650.
Wind / Earthquake: Wind and earthquake loads depend greatly on the environmental
conditions of the proposed site. Guidance on how to analyze wind and earthquake loads can
be found in the appropriate design codes however particular attention should also be given
to the risk of wind and earthquakes during tank erection where the full stability of the tank is
not yet available and temporary facilities have to be deployed.
Pressure / Vacuum: Although the maximum external design pressure of tanks is very low
(6mbar), it should be noted that tanks are inherently very poor at resisting partial
vacuums. Care must be taken to ensure that vacuum breaker valves are correctly sized to
prevent a partial vacuum forming during for example liquid draw off/draining. See below
slide for an example photograph of a tank collapse due to vacuum.

Foundations: Although a fabricated tank is relatively light for its physical size, due to
the static head from the liquid contents the overall load onto the foundations can be
considerable. The design of the foundations is especially important where the ground
conditions are soft or inconsistent which could result in the risk of sinking or uneven
settlement which could cause failure of the tank. To prevent this problem occurring it
is important that a soil survey of the proposed site is performed early in the project
and the foundations designed to suit. This analysis may be performed by a civil
engineering contractor.

On tanks where there is a potential for uplift caused by for example wind loading, the base
of the tank should be anchored to the ground using foundation bolts. This is normally done
by providing a concrete ring beam around the perimeter of the tank. On smaller tanks the
entire foundation may be made from reinforced concrete however due to the cost, a ring
beam is more economical. Uplift can also result from internal pressure bowing the floor when
empty and high pressure tanks should always be provided with foundation bolts. The area
under the tank floor is typically compacted ground covered with a layer of bitumen coated
sand which helps bedding-in of the floor plates and as a means of corrosion protection.

Layout: Layout of tanks depends upon a number of parameters such as number of

tanks, ground conditions, process duty etc

Example of vacuum collapse (Fig. 5):

This collapse occurred following accidental draining of the contents whilst the vacuum valve
was blocked by plastic tape during paint refurbishment.

Fig. 5: Example of Vacuum Collapse

Material of Construction:

Carbon steel

Stainless Steel

Duplex Stainless steel

Typical Method of Tank Erection:

There are four main methods of tank erection:

Progressive

Complete Assembly

Jacking

Flotation

Progressive assembly and welding: In the progressive assembly method, the bottom
plates are assembled and welded first. Thereafter the shell plates are erected, held in place,
tacked and completely welded. This shall be done course by course, working upwards to the

top curb angle. No course shall be added as long as the previous course has not been
entirely welded. The erection and completion of the roof framing and roof plates then follow.
Complete assembly followed by welding of horizontal seams: In the complete
assembly method, the bottom plates are assembled and welded first. There after the shell
plates are erected, held in place, tacked and only the vertical seams completely welded,
leaving the horizontal seams un-welded. This shall be done course by course, working
upwards to the top curb angle. No course shall be added as long as the vertical seams of the
previous course have not been entirely welded. The erection and completion of the roof
framing and roof plates then follow. Finally the horizontal seams are welded, working
upwards from the bottom course or downwards from the top curb angle.
Jacking-up method: Some contractors employ a system of erection in which the bottom
plates are completed, The top course is erected on the bottom plates, the roof framing and
sheeting are completed and a number of jacks are then assembled around the structure. By
means of these jacks, the completed top course together with the roof framing and sheeting
is lifted to a height sufficient to insert the next lower course. The jacking method and the
supporting of the partly erected shell shall have no adverse effect on the roundness of the
shell. The welding is completed at each stage of lift until all courses of the shell plates have
been inserted and the finished height is reached. The final operation is the welding of the
bottom course to the bottom plates.
Flotation method: The flotation method is used for floating roof tanks. After the
completion of the bottom plating and erection and welding of the two lower courses of the
tank, the floating roof is assembled on the tank bottom and completed. The tank is then
filled with water and, using the floating roof as a working platform, the third and subsequent
courses are erected and welded, water being pumped in as each course is completed.
Regular checks on the vertical alignment and roundness are required. This method may only
be used at locations where soil settlement is very limited and with the agreement of the
Principal. The predicted soil settlements of the soil investigation report shall be taken into
account. A small crane is usually erected on the floating roof for hoisting the shell plates into
position.
Tank Foundations (Fig. 6):
Tanks are usually supported on concrete ring wall foundation or pad type foundation.

Fig. 6: Tank Foundations

Venting:
Venting is very important due to the low design pressure of tanks. They must consider:

In/outflow of tank

Thermal venting

Number of independent breather valves

Birds/blockage

Roof Profile

Floating roof tanks have minimum vent losses

Consideration must be given to the maximum inflow into the tank (causing over
pressurisation) and also the maximum out flow (causing partial vacuum). These may result
from the action of pumps and/or process upsets such as gas blow by from a vessel.
The type and selection of the relief valves also depends upon if there is a vapour blanket
within the tank. For example this may be nitrogen or fuel gas. Fuel gas should not be vented
to the atmosphere and where practical should instead be recovered.
Tanks are also provided with simple emergency vents (blow out covers), the purpose of
which is to prevent tank damage in the event of for example a process upset condition.
Tank roofs are inherently designed to be weaker than the shell so that in the event of over
pressurisation and the failure of the venting system, the roof will fail and the shell will
remain intact thus preventing spillage/loss of the contents.

Small Tanks
Smaller Tanks, defined here, as those transported to site fully assembled may be cylindrical
or rectangular in shape.
They are used for many purposes such as:

Water storage

Fuel storage

Settling or separation of fluids (e.g. oily water treatment)

Lubrication oil storage

Chemical storage

Drains tanks

Small tanks can be supplied as individual items to site or more commonly they are
supplied on packaged skids.
Tanks may also be fabricated from concrete.
Rectangular Tanks
These are very common on packaged skids as they offer the greatest volume with in a
confined package space envelope.
For example:

Lubrication oil tanks on pump/compressor skids

Chemical storage on chemical injection skids

There is no definitive design standard for rectangular tanks and they are usually designed
from first principles or good engineering practice.
Rectangular tanks may be made from flat or corrugated plates. Depending on the tanks
size, flat plates are normally provided with internal or external stiffeners to prevent plate
deflection.
Rectangular tanks are often provided with internal partition plates so that two or more
separate storage volumes are provided within a compact arrangement.
Due to the large amount of stiffening required, it is not economic to make rectangular tanks.
In such cases alternative designs, such as a cylinder, should be considered.

Related posts:
1. An article on Tank Bulging effect or bulging effect of tank shells
2. Tank Settlement for Piping Stress Analysis
3. EMERGENCY VENTS FOR STORAGE TANK: A PRESENTATION
4. A short Presentation on Basics of Pressure Vessels
5. Nozzle Loading of Various Equipments and means for reducing them
6. 10 points to keep in mind while using project specific pressure vessel nozzle load tables during stress
analysis.
7. Shell & Tube Heat Exchanger Piping: A brief Presentation

Tank Bulging effect or bulging effect of tank shells

Stress analysis of lines connected to API tanks is very critical. I am sure most of you have
done stress analysis of lines connected to equipment nozzles. However when it comes to
tank nozzle, there are some differences, due to which the approach followed for equipment
nozzle cannot be followed.
In the Stress analysis of lines connected to normal Equipment nozzle (Vessel, Column, Heat
Exchanger etc.), generally there are only 2 things which we have to account during Caesar
modelling.

Nozzles thermal movements, and

Nozzle flexibility

But in additional to those two things, there are two additional points which we have to
account in the Caesar modelling during analysis of tank connected piping system. These are,

Nozzle rotations due to tank bulging, and

Tank settlement

About the first two, i.e. Nozzles thermal movements and Nozzle flexibility, we all are well
aware, and therefore I will not be covering these in this article.
We will see other two effects, about which we may not be aware, or if aware, not very clear
how to model these in Caesar and take care of these along with Nozzles thermal
movements, and Nozzle flexibility.
So first in the current article we will see Nozzle Rotation due to tank bulging.
What is this Tank Bulging?
In case of tank, tank is filled with liquid.
This liquid has varying height.
Due to this, there is varying liquid pressure on tank wall.
It has more pressure at bottom.
Due this, tank wall try to expand more at bottom (as seen in slide).
But the bottom plate prevents this expansion and holds the bottom end of shell in position.
Due to this, actual shape of tank is formed similar to as shown in Fig. 1.
This is called bulging of tank shell.

Fig.1: Tank Bulging

Due to tank shell bulging, the nozzle on the shell moves radially outward, and rotates in
vertical plane, depending upon their position.
The nozzle on lower portion of the tank rotates downwards whereas nozzle on upper portion
rotates upwards.
This effect is not seen in other equipments, mainly because

Equipment diameter is relatively much small (up to 3 m). Therefore the amount of
radial growth is much less. Whereas tank diameters are generally large, of the order
of 10 m to 60 m. Due to this the amount of radial growth is significant.

Also, equipment has internal pressure, not only pressure due to fluid weight. Thus
pressure variation from top to bottom is not so much where as in tank, pressure on
top is zero.

At the same time, the bottom of equipment is not flat like tank, which does not
deflect but acts like stiffener, to holds the shell ends.

However the main difference is due to tank diameter only.

How Tank Bulging is calculated?
In the design code API 650, which governs the design of tank, this bulging effects is covered
in Appendix P.

This Appendix P is mandatory for tanks greater than 36 m diameter and for tank with
diameter 36 m & below, it is optional or mandatory only if specified by purchaser.
The intent of 36m diameter condition is to inform the user that the bulging effect is
significant in large diameter tanks, which code has considered as above 36m diameter,
hence put as mandatory.
For smaller diameter it is considered as insignificant, hence kept as non-mandatory.
The formulas for calculation of Radial movement and rotation due to tank bulging is provided
in API 650 and produced in Fig 2 and Fig 3 for your reference.

Fig. 2: Outward radial growth of the tank shell due to bulging.

Fig. 3: Rotation of shell due to tank bulging

If you calculate the outward radial movement and rotation using the above formulas it can
be found that the effect of tank bulging on nozzle at higher elevation is insignificant.
Pipe routing guidelines to minimize effect of tank bulging:

Fig. 4: Pipe routing to reduce impact of tank bulging in tank nozzle.

Due to bulging, nozzle at lower levels rotates downward. This causes pipe to move vertically
downwards. To minimize the amount of this movement:

Piping shall be rotated through 90 as close to the tank wall as practical. 2D (D=outer
diameter of pipe) spool may be provided to avoid elbow stiffening due to flanged
elbow. This is shown in Fig. 4

Click here to refer my next article to find out the effect of tank settlement in
stress analysis of tank connected piping system.

Related posts:
1. Tank Settlement for Piping Stress Analysis
2. A Brief Presentation on Storage Tanks
3. 10 points to keep in mind while using project specific pressure vessel nozzle load tables during stress
analysis.
4. Static Method of Wind Analysis of Piping systems in Caesar II using Pressure Vs elevation Method
5. Piping Stress Engineer required for Philadelphia (Experience: 5 yrs+)
6. Piping Stress Engineer with 6 years Experience is required for Dubai
7. Stress Analysis of Jacketed Piping System using Caesar II

10 points to keep in mind while using project specific

pressure vessel nozzle load tables during stress analysis.
Every EPC company must have project specific pressure vessel nozzle loading tables which
are used for comparing allowable nozzle loads for vessels, columns or towers, heat
exchangers, Drums or any similar type of equipments. Normally forces and moments at the
nozzle and shell interconnection are provided in a tabulat format. These force and moment
values are decided based on the following major factors:
1. Nozzle diameter
2. Connected flange rating
3. Equipment and nozzle thicknesses.
4. Equipment diameter etc.

Using these tables are quite simple. However we must keep in mind few points while using
those tables. This article will list out few important points for usring these table easily.

1. Before checking the tables, find out the load and moment directional drawing from which
we have to corelate the Caesar II axis.
2. Each nozzle, including those designated spare but with the exception of man-holes and
instrument nozzles shall be designed to withstand the forces and moments specified herein.
The indicated loads are to be considered to act at the shell/head to nozzle intersection.
3. For nozzles matching with any global direction (other than head nozzles) compare the
values mentioned on the tables with global force values in CAESAR II output.
4. For inclined nozzles in horizontal plane (with respect to any global direction) there are 2
options
a) Compare loads mentioned on the tables above with local element forces in CAESAR II
output. On that case local X force will be radial force, compare other directions to get proper
forces.
b) Otherwise rotate the CAESAR II input model to match the nozzle axis with any global
Caesar II axis and compare the loads and moments.

5. For Head nozzles (nozzle axis and equipment axis same direction) compare Mx and Mz as
per [{(Mx)2+(Mz)2}] [{(ML)2+(MC)2}]
6. In case of any vessels in packaged area , these values shall not be applicable and nozzle
loading shall be coordinated with vendor .
7. In case of any licensor / proprietary item , these values shall not be applicable and nozzle
loading shall be confirmed by them.
8. Allowable for self reinforced nozzle shall be more than as mentioned in above table . In
that case allowable shall be exercised from vendor.
9. For jacketed nozzles loads are to be confirmed from vendor.
10. This tables are not applicable for checking loads at flange faces.
Provide your input in comments section

Related posts:
1. Nozzle Loading of Various Equipments and means for reducing them
2. Tank Settlement for Piping Stress Analysis
3. Step by Step Methods for WRC 107 and WRC 297 Checking in Caesar II
4. Case Study for Fatigue Analysis in Caesar II for a typical piping system
5. Piping Stress Engineer required for Philadelphia (Experience: 5 yrs+)
6. Details about CAESAR II Error: Material is Outside the Temperature Range.
7. Lead Piping Engineer (Piping Stress-10yrs+) required for USA

Considerations for Centrifugal Compressor Piping Layout

This article is intended to serve as a guide in the development of equipment layout and
piping layout for centrifugal compressors and their associated equipment, with the goal of
producing safe, operable, economical and maintainable installations.
Compressors are machines, which are used to increase the pressure of a gas by
mechanically reducing its volume within the compressor casing.
Basic type of compressors:

Positive Displacement Compressors

Reciprocating compressor

Screw Compressors

Centrifugal compressors

Pipeline compressors

Type of Compressor Drives:

Following are the various types of Compressor drives:

Electric Motor Drives

AC Squirrel Cage Induction Motor

Synchronous AC Motor

Gas Turbines

Steam Turbines

Variable Speed Drives

Variable Frequency Drive

Variable speed (Hydraulic Coupling) Drives

Auxiliary Equipments:

Lube Oil Cooler (Supplied by Compressor Vendor)

Lube Oil / Seal Oil Console (Supplied by Compressor Vendor)

Surface Condenser

Condensate Pump

Inlet Air Filters (Supplied by Compressor Vendor)

Suction Scrubber (Upstream of Compressor)

Air Cooler (Downstream of Compressor)

Discharge Scrubber (Downstream of Air Cooler)

Compressor Layout:

When locating compressors, consideration must be given to accessibility,

maintenance and loss prevention requirements.

There must be Vehicular (Crane / Fork Lift Truck) Access-way on at least one side of
the installation. Refer Fig. 1

Fig. 1: Figure showing the requirement of Crane Access

Compressor is generally located inside Shed with provision of Mono-Rail or EOT Crane
for Maintenance. The capacity of crane to be decided based on 150% of highest
weight of component to be lifted. To be checked with compressor vendor.

Compressor can be installed in Series and Parallel arrangement.

Minimum Distance between two Adjacent Compressors shall be 10m.

Generally Compressors are Grade Mounted (Fig. 2). But Process criteria / requirement
will decide if it should be grade mounted or elevated

Fig. 2: Grade mounted Centrifugal Compressor

Compressor Piping Layout:
Suction & Discharge Piping (Fig. 3):

Compressor Suction Piping Shall be as Short as Possible.

Compressor Suction Piping should have Inlet Filter / Strainer. It can be Temporary or
Permanent

Suction Piping should be sloping / free draining towards Inlet Scrubber

Suction lines require a minimum straight run of piping upstream of the Suction nozzle
which varies between 3 and 8 times the normal pipe size. (Vendor requirement)

All operating valves must be readily accessible, preferably from grade.

All line to Compressor shall be provided with break-up flanges for Maintenance.

Compressor Suction Line Flowmeter : Suction routing shall be such that Upstream
and Downstream straight length shall be sufficient for the performance of Flowmeter

Isometrics Both Suction and Discharge piping should have note for Pickling and
Passivation i.e. Chemical cleaning of Lines before commissioning.

Fig. 3: Suction and Discharge Piping

Anti-Surge Valve Is Designed and Supplied by Compressor Vendor.

Input to Compressor Vendor for Designing / Sizing the Anti-Surge Valve is given by
piping, by providing suction and discharge length.

Anti-Surge Valve is located on Anti-Surge line which is basically a by-pass /

recirculation line between Compressor Suction and Discharge Piping for Surge control

Anti-Surge Valve shall be located at Highest Point and shall be free draining on both
side

Lube Oil Cooler & Piping (Fig. 4):

Lube Oil Cooler Shall be Accessible from Road.

Lube Oil Cooler Shall be located as close to Compressor as Possible.

Lube Oil Cooler Piping Should Not Interfere with Access and Maintenance space.

Lube Oil Cooler line must be Free Gravity flow requirements.

Lube Oil Cooler Piping Should have Break-up Flanges for Maintenance purpose.

Lube Oil Cooler Isometric should also have note for Pickling and Passivation i.e.
Chemical cleaning of Lines before commissioning.

Supporting:

First support from Compressor Suction and Discharge nozzle are either Spring support
or Adjustable support for Alignment during Construction / Erection.

Fig. 4: Lube Oil Cooler

Compressor piping should never be supported from the Compressor foundation. Pipe
supports must be provided with independent foundations to avoid transmission of
vibration.

Compressor Suction / Discharge Piping should be routed in such way that it has
enough flexibility to accommodate Thermal Expansion and to Reduce Nozzle Load.

Compressor Suction / Discharge Piping should be adequately supported as per Stress

Engineers Support requirements.

Process Should be consulted for any possibility of two phase flow / slug flow and line
should be supported accordingly

As Compressor are meant for Gaseous fluid, the Hydro-test load on supports may be
very high for big bore line. Hence we can recommend Temporary supports to be
erected during Hydro-testing with the help of Stress Engineer.

Utility Requirements:
Following are the utilities required for the Compressor:

External Fuel gas for seal gas system

Instrument Air for the Instruments/Control system/Seal gas system

COMPRESSOR APPLICATION:

Refineries

Natural Gas Compression & Transportation Services

Oil Exploration Gas Reinjection, Gas lift, etc.

Gas Liquefaction

Air Compression service

Refrigerant compression service

Refuelling applications

Related posts:
1. Considerations for development of Plant Layout: A brief presentation
2. Pressure Tests of Piping systems-Hydrotest Vs Pneumatic Test
3. Heat Tracing of Piping Systems
4. Basics of Centrifugal Compressors: A presentation
5. Outline of Piping Design: A presentation
6. Preparation of Piping Isometrics: A short presentation for the beginners
7. Scope of Piping: Inputs and Outputs of Piping Discipline

Preparation of Piping Isometrics: A short presentation for

the beginners
Preparation of Piping Isometrics: A short presentation for the beginners

Piping isometrics are three dimensional representation of the line.

The main purpose of an isometric is to provide all information necessary for the
fabrication and erection along with the bill of material required to do so.

Isometric is also used to work out the exact MTO requirement.

Generally isometrics are prepared / extracted by design group.

A draft person (designer/engineer) who knows to read the piping GA. and conversant
with a drafting tool can draft isometric.

Input required for piping Isometrics:

Piping Plan

Piping Specification

Line List (Process)

Latest PEFS (Process) (Issued signed copy)

General Information:

An isometric drawing covers a complete line as per the line list and PEFS. It shows all
information necessary for the fabrication and erection.

Isometrics are not drawn to scale but should be proportional for easy understanding.

Dimension is given relative to centreline of piping.

Following information must be included in isometric drawings:

Plant North: The direction should be selected so as to facilitate easy checking of

Isometric with GA.

Drawing number & revision.

Reference number of PEFS (P&ID), GA drawings, line numbers, direction of flow and
insulation tracing.

Design pressure, design temperature, test pressure, testing medium, radiography

requirement, Heat treatment requirement, painting requirement, internal coating
requirement.

Co-ordinates of equipment against equipment layout.

Equipment number & appearance on isometric drawing.

Line specification changes.

Scope breaks.

Change in direction and angles of line should be clearly shown.

Representation is correctly made in line with the standard symbols.

Location and identification of all instruments.

Requirements of upstream/downstream straight lengths. Insulation requirements as

per PEFS (P&ID).

Details and section identification match.

Match line provision and accuracy.

Accuracy of BOM in Isometrics.

Weld points & field welds.

Insulation class., Insulation thickness & Flow direction are indicated.

Give the details of flange on the equipment if the specification is different from the
connecting piping.

Size and type of every valve/direction of operation.

Size and tag of control valve.

Field weld- Location.

High point vents and low point drains.

Special support like support from flange or welded supports details to be shown.

If line is stress critical, stress analysis results are incorporated.

All the symbols are used as per Legend.

Slope shown as per PEFS.

Spectacle blind, spacer and blind open/close position as per PEFS.

High point vents and low point drains have been provided for lines that will be hydro
tested. (e.g. Inst. Air, Flare, Nitrogen lines may not be hydro tested, but
pneumatically tested).

Orifice tapping orientation is as per instrument standard for gas and liquid lines.

Flow direction for items such as check valves, globe valves, strainers etc. is clearly
marked.

Isometric issued for Re-IFC to be marked with cloud and revision triangle.

Insulation gasket demarcation to be shown.

General notes.

Bill of Material.

Tie-in numbers.

Checking of Isometric Drawings

Checking shall be done only on a hard print as per the colour code procedure by an
experienced engineer/designer. Normally checklists are followed to ensure quality of the
isometrics.
The new print after correction is back checked for incorporation.

Related posts:
1. Salient Points to check while reviewing Piping Isometric Drawings
2. Pressure Tests of Piping systems-Hydrotest Vs Pneumatic Test
3. Shell & Tube Heat Exchanger Piping: A brief Presentation
4. Considerations for development of Plant Layout: A brief presentation
5. Heat Tracing of Piping Systems
6. Considerations for Centrifugal Compressor Piping Layout
7. Scope of Piping: Inputs and Outputs of Piping Discipline

Shell & Tube Heat Exchanger Piping: A brief Presentation

The purpose of this presentation is to provide guide lines for Shell & tube Heat Exchanger
Piping Layout. Click here to get a preliminary idea about shell and tube heat exchangers.
Use of Heat Exchangers:
Heat exchangers are used to transfer heat from one fluid to another.
They are generally named as cooler, chiller, condenser, heater, reboiler, waste heat boiler,
steam generator & vaporizer in process plant.
Types of Heat exchanger:
The most commonly used types of heat exchangers are

Shell & Tube heat exchanger

Air cooled heat exchanger

Plate type heat exchanger

Spiral heat exchanger

Double pipe heat exchanger

Shell & Tube Heat Exchanger Construction (Fig. 1):

Fig.1 :Diagram showing construction of a typical Shell and Tube Heat Exchanger
These heat exchangers are generally designed, fabricated, inspected and tested as per API
660 / EN-ISO 16812 / TEMA. The DEP for the design & construction of shell & tube heat
exchanger is DEP 31.21.01.30 Gen.
General Guidelines for selection for tube side & shell side fluids:

Clean fluid through shell & dirty fluid through tubes

Corrosive fluid through tubes as it is easy for cleaning & allows use of carbon steel for
shell

Water through shell & process liquid through Only sea water through tube side

High pressure fluid through tubes which allows for min. wall thickness of shell

Layout of shell & tube heat exchangers other than in banks:

As per the exchanger positions in a process plant the following general classification can be
made:
1. Exchangers which should be next to other equipment: e. g. Vertical Reboiler
2. Exchangers which should be close to other equipment: e. g. Overhead condenser
3. Exchangers located between other process equipments: e. g. Exchanger with process
lines connected to both shell & tube side
4. Exchangers located between process equipment and the unit limit:e.g. Product
coolers
Establishing elevations for the exchanger:

Where process requirement dictates the elevation, it is usually noted on the PEFS

Grade is the best elevation from economic point of view

Located in structures where gravity flow is required or connected to pumps suction

which has specific NPSH requirement e.g. overhead condenser

Layout of Shell & Tube heat exchanger in banks:

Arrangement of exchangers (Fig. 2):

Fig. 2: Typical arrangements of shell and tube heat exchangers

Various types of Exchanger orientation is possible as mentioned below:
Sample exchanger orientation (Fig. 3):

Fig.3: Figure showing Heat Exchanger Orientation

Single and Paired Exchangers (Fig. 4):

Fig.4: Single and Paired exchanger orientation

Parallel Exchanger Installation (Fig. 5):

Fig. 5: Parallel Exchanger Installation

Series Exchanger Installation (Fig. 6):

Fig. 6: Series Exchanger Installation

Stacked exchanger installation:
Two exchangers in series or parallel are usually stacked. Refer Fig. 7

Fig. 7: Stacked exchanger installation

Nozzle arrangement for better piping (Fig. 8):

Fig. 8: Nozzle arrangement for better piping

Structure mounted exchanger installation (Fig. 9):

Fig. 9: Structure mounted exchanger installation

Supporting of shell & tube heat exchanger piping:

No special guideline for supporting

Stress analysis required to be carried out for the exchanger inlet & outlet lines

Fixed saddle support near the tube bundle head, sliding support near the rear head

Heat exchanger maintenance:

Tube bundle extractors (Fig. 10):

Fig. 10: Tube Bundle extractors.

Related posts:
1. Stress Analysis of Vertical Reboiler Piping using Caesar II: Part 3 of 3
2. Basics of Shell and Tube Heat Exchangers: A brief presentation
3. Pressure Tests of Piping systems-Hydrotest Vs Pneumatic Test
4. A short Presentation on Basics of Pressure Vessels
5. Preparation of Piping Isometrics: A short presentation for the beginners
6. Tank Settlement for Piping Stress Analysis
7. Scope of Piping: Inputs and Outputs of Piping Discipline

Considerations for development of Plant Layout: A brief

presentation

This article provides the basic considerations for the development of plant layout in a
presentation form. For more details in any of the listed points you can refer to any standard
piping books. This presentation will provide an overview on basic considerations.
Basis of Site Selection:

Location

Area Allocation

Transport Facilities

Manpower availability

Industrial Infrastructure

Community Infrastructure

Availability of Water

Availability of Power

Effluent Disposal

Availability of Industrial Gas

Site Size

Ecology

Pollution

What is Plot Plan & its requirement?

Plot plan is the master plan locating each unit/facility within the plot boundary for a process
industry such as

Refinery

Chemical /Agro Chemical / Petro Chemical / Organic Chemical / Inorganic Chemical

Fertilizer

Pharmaceutical

Metallurgical

Power Generation

It is used to locate the unit/facility.

The following main aspects shall be considered during development of the layout.

Process requirement

Economy of piping material and cables

Erection & Construction requirements

Safety requirements.

Operation and Maintenance requirements.

Grouping of similar equipment for convenience of maintenance & safety wherever

possible.

Data to be collected before starting:

Civil

Plane table survey map.

Contour survey map.

Soil bearing capacity.

Nature of Soil

Rail/Road Access.

Electrical

Location of Electric Supply Point.

Supply voltage levels.

Fault Levels.

Voltage Levels required within the unit.

Proposed distribution scheme.

Non Plant Facilities

Administrative Block

Canteen

Workshop

R&D, QC Lab and Pilot Plant

Gate House/Time office

Security Arrangements

Vehicle Parking

Medical Centre

Ware House

Covered Area

Open Area

Solid Warehouse

Liquid Warehouse

Steel / Scrap Yard

Fire Station

Weigh Bridge

Staff Colony

Meteorological Data

Minimum, Maximum and Normal Temperature during the year

Rainfall

Intensity and Direction of the wind (wind rose)

Seismic zone

Wet and Dry Bulb temperatures

Relative humidity

Flood level

Process Data

Size/Capacity of the process unit

Knowledge on the type of plant

Sequence of process flow

Hazardous nature of the plant

The Overall operating philosophy

Fully Automatic

Partially Automatic

Manual

Batch/Continuous

Raw material receipt and product dispatch philosophy

Storage Philosophy

Effluent plant capacity and discharge points, incineration requirements, etc.

Type of Hazard

No of flares

Data on Utilities

Source and/or supply point of raw water

Quality of Water available

Water Consumption for the process

Requirement of different types of utilities such as Steam, Air, Nitrogen, DM water, Fire
water, Brine, etc.

Capacities and Grouping philosophy.

Statutory Requirements

State Industrial Development Corporation (SIDC)

Central / State Environmental Pollution Control Boards (PCBS)

Factory Inspectorate

State Electricity Boards (SEB)

Chief Controller of Explosives (CCOE)

Static and Mobile Pressure Vessel Rules (SMPV)

Tariff Advisory Committee (TAC)

National Fire Protection Association (NFPA)

Aviation Laws

Chief Inspector of Boilers (CIB)

Oil Industry Safety Directorate (OISD)

Food and Drug Administration (FDA)

Ministry of Environment and Forest (MoEF)

Expansion Philosophy

Within the unit

Additional Units

Near future expansion

Far future expansion

Points to Note

Normally Construction is permitted on maximum 50% of the plot area with total built
up area equal to area of the plot (i.e. F.S.I. = 1 (Depending upon the regulation
governing the area and the type of industry))

Area reserved for tree plantation shall be 1/3 of the area occupied.

Water storage capacity 24 hr. minimum.

Domestic water 100 litres per person per day

Water requirement for Boiler Steam rating x Working factor

Cooling tower 11/4 % of capacity as drift and blow down losses

Washing 10-15 litres per day per sq.ft. of floor area of the plant

Gardening 5 litres per day per sq.ft. of garden area

Parking space 10% of the plot area

Roads & Paving

Roads in the plant shall be planned for effective movement of the trucks, cranes &
emergency vehicles etc. Road width (Black top) shall be generally as follows unless
specially requested.

Main plant road & roads connecting to Plant boundaries, roads for fire fighting access
is 6 meters wide (Min)

Secondary roads 4 meters wide (Min)

Turning radius of the road shall be adequate for the mobile equipment & shall clear of
any obstruction. Minimum turning radius to be same as the length of vehicle.

The finish of road i.e. graded or black top shall be decided in the beginning while
developing plot layout.

Paving should be provided around the equipments where spillage is likely occurring.
For example: Pumps or machineries, below furnace or fire heaters, compressor etc.

Also paving should be provided below Air fin cooler those are located at grade.

Area handling acids, alkalis or toxic material shall be paved and bunded. Proper
surface treatment shall be provided to paving to meet service requirement.

The below sketch (Fig. 1) shows minimum distance required between the road and the
facility. This distance shall be reviewed to case to case basis for the project.

Fig. 1: Minimum distance required between the road and the facility
Elevations

Below data for the elevations should be generally followed.

Under side the base plate of Structural steel: Min150 mm. above HP of finished
grade/paving.

Stair or ladder pads: Min75 mm. above HP of finished grade/paving.

Top of Pedestal of Vessel & Tower: Min300 mm. above HP of finished grade/paving.

Top of Pump pedestal: Min200 mm. above HP of finished grade/paving.

Insulation & Fire Proofing

Fire proofing requirements for pipe rack, vessel supports, process structure should be
considered as these reduces the clearances with access, pipe work, instrument &
electrical equipment.

Proper insulation thickness should be considered for pipe work & equipment
clearances.

Equipment locations

Pumps: Locate pumps close to suction source considering NPSH requirement. Pumps
& driver axis should be located perpendicular to pipe rack or other equipment to
minimize fire exposure in case of pump seal failure.

Gas compressor or Expanders: Gas compressors should be located downwind of the

fired heaters, flare or any open flame equipment. They may be grouped together for
maintenance & operations (Common EOT / drop down area, single sunshade can be
made)

Plant Air & Instrument air compressors: Plant air & instrument air is vital service for
the plant. These units should be located near the control room & shall be kept in safe
area sufficiently away from HAC of equipment.

Heat Exchangers: Heat exchangers are generally placed on grade unless otherwise
due to process or technical reasons. (Platform for vertical heat exchangers, Tube
bundle removal area, access to mobile crane or monorail with hoist shall be
considered)

Air cooler: Air cooler located such a way to allow the access to mobile lifting
equipment. Preferably air cooler is located in a main equipment row in accordance
with process requirement.

Cooling Towers: Cooling towers shall be located away from the process equipment &
downwind of process equipment, substation, main pipe rack.

Offsite Tanks: Storage tanks (Grouped and shall be surrounded by dike wall,
Primary/secondary roads for adequate firefighting accessibility, Lower elevations than
the other occupancies and downwind of flares, furnace heaters). Emergency
shutdown valve, pumps, manifold & transfer piping shall be outside dike area.

Pipe ways / Pipe racks

Pipe ways or pipe racks should be overhead in process main unit and at grade in off
site.

Width is determined based on present need + 10% at outset the job + 15% for future
requirement or as specified by client.

Requirement of expansion bays, anchor bays & bracing shall be checked with stress /
structural engineer at the beginning of the rack layout.

Relief valve and Flare systems

Closed relief valve system

Self-draining

No pocket to avoid condensation & back pressure.

Flare shall be located upwind process unit & storage.

Clearance at Pig Receiver

Area at the end closure of Receiver shall be kept free to avoid any incident.

Provide concrete wall minimum 20 meter away (Fig. 2) from the end closure if area
needs to be utilized for any equipment.

Fig. 2: Clearance at Pig Launcher

Personal protection

Eye wash and emergency showers shall be provided in area where operators are
subject to hazardous sprays or spills.

Breathing air stations in the facilities handling extremely toxic gases / fluids.

Fig. 3 shows a typical plant layout.

Fig. 3: Typical plant layout

What is Hazard Classification?

Hazardous area classification is the risk locating plan for each unit/facility within the
plot boundary for a process industry.

The Plot plan will be used by indicating boundaries of risk area.

HAC drawings are generally used by operator while issuing work permits.

HAC Standard

HAZARDOUS AREA: An area in which an explosive gas atmosphere is present, or may

be expected to be present, in quantities such as to require special precautions for the
construction, installation and use of apparatus.

NON-HAZARDOUS AREA: An area in which an explosive gas atmosphere is not

expected to be present, in quantities such as to require special precautions for the
construction, installation and use of apparatus.

Process Requirement

Proper interconnection between equipment to achieve intended process parameters.

Normally equipment is arranged in the process fluid flow sequence. Requirement like
gravity flow (Equipment Drain piping), Thermo syphon system should be considered,
Limitation of pressure & temperature (process parameters) to be considered

Requirement of upstream and downstream pipe lengths for instruments.

Hazardous & Toxic fluid shall be identified. (H2S, Cyanide, Methanol etc.)

Equipment handling hazardous fluids like flare and direct fired equipment containing
open flame shall be located separately.

Similarly equipment handling toxic material shall be located with the restricted
access or in accordance with local statutory regulation.

Economic Considerations

Equipment shall be located without affecting the process requirement for maximum
economy of pipe work & supporting steel with consistent standard clearances,
construction, and maintenance & safety requirements.

Runs of exotic material & large bore piping shall be minimized.

Optimum utilization of the structure to be ensured.

Erection & Construction

Road access for erection of pipe support / pipes and equipment.

Clear area for crane to erect equipment on the location from the trucks.

Minimum one side of pipe rack shall be kept clear.

Fig. 4 shows relative locations for area Layout.

Fig. 4: Relative locations for area Layout.

Related posts:
1. Pressure Tests of Piping systems-Hydrotest Vs Pneumatic Test
2. Considerations for Centrifugal Compressor Piping Layout
3. Heat Tracing of Piping Systems
4. Shell & Tube Heat Exchanger Piping: A brief Presentation
5. Outline of Piping Design: A presentation
6. Preparation of Piping Isometrics: A short presentation for the beginners
7. A literature on Cold Springing (Cold Pull) In Piping Systems

TESTS OF PIPING SYSTEMS-HYDROTEST VS PNEUMATIC TEST

Pressure Tests of Piping systems-Hydrotest Vs Pneumatic

Test
A pressure test is always required for a new pressure system before use or an existing
pressure system after repair or alteration to ensure the following:

Safety

Reliability of operation

and leak tightness of pressure systems

Also The last physical quality test in the fabrication process

Normally two methods for pressure testing: hydrostatic and pneumatic, are widely used in
process industry.
A hydrostatic test is performed by using water as the test medium, whereas a pneumatic
test uses air, nitrogen, or any non-flammable and nontoxic gas. Pressure tests (both
hydrostatic and pneumatic) must always be performed under controlled conditions, following
an approved test plan, and documented in a test record. A single approved test plan could
be used for several similar tests, but for each test a separate test record is required.
When to perform a Pressure Test:
As per the governing code, pressure test has to be performed on piping system after all hot
works have been completed on a certain piping system. Here the term hot work means
everything related to welding or the post weld heat treatment (PWHT). PWHT also has a
potential of degrading the mechanical properties of piping, in case not addressed properly.
And this is the reason why code calls for NDT after PWHT operation. In case after carrying
out pressure testing, some modification has to be made requiring hot work, it calls for a
retest as per code. Here code specifies that the minor repairs / modifications may be waived
off provided adequate measures have been taken to ensure sound construction. Now taking
this decision as to which repairs or modifications may be waived off should be taken very
carefully. Normally, the maximum extent of repairs not requiring retesting shall be the tack
welding of any piping support or pad. Anything else shall be done following a retest.
Pressure testing and conducting 100% radiography or ultrasonic inspection shall not be
interchanged. In case carrying out of hydrostatic or pneumatic test stands impractical then
100% radiography or ultrasonic testing may be performed but in addition to this it is
advisable to check that the whole piping and its components have been supplied against
acceptable ASTM standards and required test certificates are available. Conducting 100%
radiography of all the weld joints assure that your weld joints are defect free but can never
provide you with the assurance of mechanical integrity of a system. This is also to be noted
that radiography / ultrasonic inspection shall also not to be waived off if the pipeline is to be
hydrostatically tested. This may pose an additional safety risk during the test. Moreover,
some defects in the weld zones may prove to be detrimental way after taken in service due
to severe extended service conditions.

Comparison of Hydrostatic and Pneumatic Testing:

Hydrostatic Testing

Pneumatic Testing

Test pressure is normally 30% higher than

the design pressure

Test pressure is normally 10% higher than

the design pressure

Recommended for high pressure

applications

Recommended only for low pressure

applications

Test media (Water) used is not

compressible by pressure application

Test media (Air) used is compressible by

pressure application

Energy stored per unit volume of water

under test pressure is very negligible

Energy stored per unit volume of

compressed air under test pressure is very
high

Needs thorough cleaning after test to

Easy to clean after testing

eliminate moisture especially for service

which are reactive to moisture / fluids
Pressure Relief devices are recommended
to control sudden increase in pressure
during testing

Pressure relief devices are must during test

to ensure no over pressurisation

Chances of equipment/ Pipe / test

apparatus

Chances of equipment/ Pipe / test

apparatus

failures are very low

failures are high

Weight of equipment along with test

medium as

Weight of equipment with test medium

as air is comparatively less

water is high hence special attention

should be given to floor and supporting
arrangements
Needs verification and examination of
joints and connections before testing

Needs very careful checking of weld joints

thoroughly before testing

Test media can be reused or transferred to Test media can not be reused or
other place after testing
transferred to other place after testing
Skilled and semi skilled personnel can carry Needs involvement of senior experienced
out the test
staff to monitor the test.
Recommended where large volumes are to If pipe lines are tested should be done with
be tested at same time (example pipe lines

small segmental lengths at a time.

Damages made by failures are less

compared to failures in pneumatic testing

Damages made by failures in testing are

very huge and extensive

Hydrotest is a regular day to day practice

and safe procedure and it can be followed
in any work site

Needs special attention and safety

precautions

Pressure changes finite amount by

infinitesimal change in volume

Pressure change proportional to volume

change

Difficulties with hydrostatic testing:

Supply & disposal of water, disposal of fluid additives

Water leak can cause equipment damage

Freeze susceptibility

Structural support limitations

Contamination

Operational impacts process contaminant

Affect dry-out of internal refractory linings

Difficulties with Pneumatic testing:

Pneumatic tests are potentially more dangerous than hydrostatic tests because of the higher
level of potential energy stored during compressing the gas. Care must be exercised to
minimize the chance of brittle failure during testing by initially assuring the system is
suitable for pneumatic testing. Pneumatic tests could be performed only when at least one
of the following conditions exists:

When the systems are designed in such a way thet it cannot be filled with water.

When the systems are such that it is to be used in services where traces of the
testing medium cannot be tolerated.

Using a pneumatic test instead of hydrostatic requires approval from proper authority or
body.
Test Pressure:

ASME Code B 31.3 provides the basis for test pressure. The minimum hydrostatic test
pressure for metallic piping shall be as per the following equation:
Pt=1.5*Pd*(St/Sd)
Here,
Pt = minimum test gauge pressure
Pd = internal design gauge pressure
St = allowable stress value at test temperature
Sd = allowable stress value at design temperature.

The maximum allowable value of St/Sd is 6.5The pneumatic test pressure shall be as per the
following equation: Pt=1.1*PdNormal Basis for Test Method Selection:
Normally the following basis is followed in process piping industry for selection of hydro or
pneumatic tests.
1. If the fluid handled by piping system is liquid then the pipe must be hydrotested.
2. If the fluid handled is vapour or gas then the internal design pressure dictates the
testing method. For pipe design pressure 10 bar and above the pipe is hydrotested.
For pipe design pressure below 10 bar pipe is pneumatically tested.
3. If fluid handled is stream then hydrotesting is suggested.
4. If fluid handles is two-phase flow then hydrotesting is suggested. However for big size
flare headers pneumatic testing is performed.
Test Duration:
Normally every EPC company have their own standard for duration of tests. However the
recommended practice is that a QC inspector have to walk through the whole piping system
and check for leaks. Every single length of piping, welds, bolted connections shall be visually
examined for any leakage. Duration of this activity varies with the span of piping system. For
larger piping system time taken for this activity is enough to clear the pressure test. In case
of piping system having smaller span, 1 hour time may be made as standard practice for
hydrostatic testing. For Pneumatic test the test time is far lesser.Few important points to
consider
while
hydrotesting:

The tower overhead lines which are normally hydro tested shall be decided by stress
engineer group whether to hydro test after erection or at grade, based on the
capacity of standard clip available as per engineering specification for pipe supports.

During hydrotest in case of big bore it should be decided first that line is to be
hydrotested on rack or grade if hydrotest is done on rack , hydrotest load should be
considered in case of vapour lines while providing structure / rack loading
information.

Please provide your input in the Comments section

Related posts:
1. Considerations for development of Plant Layout: A brief presentation
2. A literature on Cold Springing (Cold Pull) In Piping Systems
3. Must have Load cases for stress analysis of a typical piping system using Caesar II
4. Few Important points for Stress Analysis based on ASME B 31.4
5. Heat Tracing of Piping Systems
6. Substantive Changes to 2014 Edition of ASME B 31.3
7. Few Points for High Temperature and High Pressure Piping