Lecture 19.

Electrical Properties
Learning Objectives
After this lecture, you should be able to do the following:

1. Review: Electrical conduction (Ohms Law)

2. Describe the energy band structure of solids.
3. Understand electrical properties (conduction) and electron band
structures.

Reading

Chapter 18: Electrical Properties (18.114)

Multimedia

Virtual Materials Science & Engineering (VMSE):

http://www.wiley.com/college/callister/CL_EWSTU01031_S/vmse/

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Lecture 20 - 1

Electrical Properties
Electrical properties: Responses of materials to an applied electric field
Electrical conduction: the movement of electrically charged particles
Classification: (1) conductor, (2) semiconductor, and (3) insulator

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Lecture 20 - 2

1. Electrical Conduction
Ohm's Law:

V=IR

voltage drop (volts = J/C)

resistance (Ohms)
current (amps = C/s)
C = Coulomb

Resistivity, :
- a material property that is independent of sample size and
geometry

Conductivity,

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cross-sectional area
of current flow
current flow
path length

Lecture 20 - 3

Electrical Properties
Which will have the greater resistance?
2

2D

Analogous to flow of water in a pipe

Resistance depends on sample geometry and
size.
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Lecture 20 - 4

Ohms Law
Further definitions

J=E

<= another way to state Ohms law

J current density

current
I

surface area A

like a flux

E electric field potential = V/

J = (V/)
Electron flux

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conductivity

voltage gradient

Lecture 20 - 5

Electrical Conductivity
Conductors: 107 ( m)-1
Semiconductors:
10-6104 ( m)-1

Insulators:
10-1010-20 ( m)-1

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Lecture 20 - 6

Conductivity: Comparison
Room temperature values (Ohm-m)-1 = ( - m)-1
METALS
conductors CERAMICS
-10
Silver
6.8 x 10 7
Soda-lime glass 10 -10-11
Copper
6.0 x 10 7
Concrete
10 -9
Iron
1.0 x 10 7
Aluminum oxide <10-13

SEMICONDUCTORS
POLYMERS
Polystyrene
Silicon
4 x 10 -4
Polyethylene
Germanium 2 x 10 0
GaAs
10 -6
semiconductors
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<10 -14
10 -15-10-17
insulators
Lecture 20 - 7

Example: Conductivity Problem

What is the minimum diameter (D) of the wire so that V < 1.5 V?
100 m
I = 2.5 A

Cu wire -

100 m

2.5 A

D 2
4
Solve to get
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< 1.5 V

6.07 x 107 (Ohm-m)-1

D > 1.87 mm
Lecture 20 - 8

2. Energy Band Structures

The magnitude of the electrical conductivity strongly depends on the number

of electrons available to participate in the conduction process.
The number of electrons available for electrical conduction is related to the
arrangement of electron states or levels with respect to energy and the
manner in which these states are occupied by electrons.

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Lecture 20 - 9

Electron Configuration for

Isolated Atoms

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Lecture 20 - 10

Electron Configuration for

Isolated Atoms

The electrons fill the states having the lowest

energies (according to the Pauli exclusion principle).
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Chapter 2 - 11

Formation of Energy Bands in Solids

(a) A higher energy antibonding and
a lower energy bonding energy
levels and their occupation for a
molecule constructed from two Na
atoms.
(b) The molecule's energy levels as a
function of interatomic separation.
(c) The energy levels for a cluster of
many Na atoms as a function of
their separation.
(d) For very many energy levels there
is a quasi-continuum between the
lowest and highest energy level.
The band is half-filled with
electrons as illustrated by the bar.

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Chapter 2 - 12

Electron Energy Band Structures

Electron energy versus interatomic separation for an aggregate of 12 atoms

Upon approach, each of the 1s and 2s atomic states splits to form an electron energy
band consisting of 12 states.

MSE 3300 / 5300 UTA Spring 2015

Lecture 20 - 13

Band Structure Representation

Conventional representation of the
electron energy band structure

Electron energy versus

interatomic separation for an
aggregate of atoms

At large separation distances, each atom is independent and have the atomic energy
levels and electron configuration as if isolated.
As the atoms come close, electrons are acted upon, or perturbed, by the electrons and
nuclei of adjacent atoms, which result in splitting of each distinct atomic state into a
series of closely spaced electron states (electron energy band).
Gaps (energy band gaps) may exist between adjacent bands.

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Lecture 20 - 14

Energy Levels of Si as a Function of

Interatomic Spacing

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Lecture 20 - 15

3. Electrical Properties and

Electron Band Structures

Different types of electron band structures at 0 K

Fermi energy Ef: The energy at the highest filled state at 0 K

The Fermi energy for (c) and (d) lies within the band gap (near its center).

(a) Metals such as copper (available electron states above and adjacent to filled states in
the same band)
(b) Metals such as magnesium (overlap of filled and empty outer bands)
(c) Insulator with a large band gap (> 2eV)
(d) Semiconductors with a relatively narrow band gap (< 2eV)
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Lecture 20 - 16

Conduction and Band Structures

Only electrons with energies greater than the Fermi energy may be acted on and
accelerated in the presence of an electric field.
Free electrons: electrons that participate in the conduction process
Holes: empty state in the valence band (participate in the conduction process).
The electrical conductivity is a direct function of the numbers of free electrons and holes.
The distinction between conductors and nonconductors (insulators and semiconductors)
lies in the numbers of these free electron and hole charge carriers.

MSE 3300 / 5300 UTA Spring 2015

Lecture 20 - 17

Conduction in Metals

For an electron to become free, it must be excited or promoted into one of the empty
and available energy states above Fermi energy Ef.
Little energy is required to promote electrons into the low-lying empty states; the energy
provided by an electric field is sufficient to excite large numbers of electrons.

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Lecture 20 - 18

Conduction & Electron Transport

Metals (Conductors):

partly
filled
band

filled
band
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filled states

- partially filled band

- empty band that
overlaps filled band

filled states

-- for metals empty energy states are adjacent to filled states.

-- thermal energy
Partially filled band
Overlapping bands
excites electrons
Energy
Energy
into empty higher
empty
energy states.
band
empty
-- two types of band
GAP
band
structures for metals
filled
band

filled
band

Lecture 20 - 19

Conduction in Semiconductors

To become free, electrons must be promoted across the energy band gap and into
empty states at the bottom of the conduction band.
The excitation energy is from a nonelectrical source such as heat or light.
The number of electrons excited thermally (by heat energy) into the conduction band
depends on the energy band gap width as well as temperature.

MSE 3300 / 5300 UTA Spring 2015

Lecture 20 - 20

Energy Band Structures:

Insulators & Semiconductors
Semiconductors:

-- wide band gap (> 2 eV)

-- few electrons excited
across band gap
empty
Energy
conduction
band

filled states

GAP

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filled
valence
band
filled
band

-- narrow band gap (< 2 eV)

-- more electrons excited
across band gap

Energy

empty
conduction
band

GAP
filled states

Insulators:

filled
valence
band
filled
band
Lecture 20 - 21

Electron Mobility
The drift velocity as a function of
the mobility of an electron and
the applied field.
When an electric field is applied, the free
electrons experience an acceleration in a
direction opposite to that of the field, by
virtue of their negative charge.
A current reaches a constant value,
indicating that there may exist frictional
forces, which counter this acceleration from
the external field.
The frictional forces result from the
scattering of electrons by imperfection in the
crystal lattice, including impurity atoms,
vacancies, interstitial atoms, dislocations,
and the thermal vibrations of the atoms.
n is the number of free or
conducting electrons; |e| is the
absolute magnitude of the electrical
charge (1.6 X 10-19 C)
MSE 3300 / 5300 UTA Spring 2015

Lecture 20 - 22

Electrical Resistivity of Metals

(1) Influence of temperature

(2) Influence of impurities
(3) Influence of plastic deformation
* Thermal vibrations and other lattice
irregularities (e.g., vacancies), impurity
atoms, and electron-scattering
dislocations act as electron scattering
centers.

MSE 3300 / 5300 UTA Spring 2015

Lecture 20 - 23

Metals: Influence of Temperature and

Impurities on Resistivity

Presence of imperfections increases resistivity

-- grain boundaries
-- dislocations
-- impurity atoms
-- vacancies

These act to scatter

electrons so that they
take a less direct path.

(10 -8 Ohm-m)

Resistivity,

Resistivity

5
4

increases with:

3
2
1
0

-- temperature
-- wt% impurity
-- %CW

d
i
t

-200

-100

T (C)

Fig. 18.8, Callister & Rethwisch 9e. [Adapted from J. O. Linde, Ann.
Physik, 5, 219 (1932); and C. A. Wert and R. M. Thomson, Physics of Solids,
2nd edition, McGraw-Hill Book Company, New York, 1970.]

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= thermal
+ impurity
+ deformation
Lecture 20 - 24

Table 18.1: Room-Temperature

Electrical Conductivity of Metals

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Lecture 20 - 25

Summary
1. Electrical conduction: Ohms law
2. Electron energy band structures in solids
3. Electrical properties and electron band structures

MSE 3300 / 5300 UTA Spring 2015

Lecture 20 - 26