A special form of the Eulers equation derived along a

fluid flow streamline is often called the Bernoulli

Equation

Since energy is conserved along the streamline, (4)

can be expressed as (6). Using the equation we see
that increasing the velocity of the flow will reduce the
pressure, decreasing the velocity will increase the
pressure.
This phenomena can be observed in
a venturi meter where the pressure is reduced in the
constriction area and regained after. It can also be
observed in a pitot tube where
the stagnation pressure is measured. The stagnation
pressure is where the velocity component is zero.

Example - Bernoulli Equation and

Flow from a Tank through a small
Orifice
Liquid flows from a tank through a orifice close to the
bottom. The Bernoulli equation can be adapted to a
streamline from the surface (1) to the orifice (2) as
(e1):

Since (1) and (2)'s heights from a common reference

is related as (e2), and the equation of continuity can
be expressed as (e3), it's possible to transform (e1)
to (e4).

Vented tank
For steady state incompressible flow the Euler
equation becomes (1). If we integrate (1) along the
streamline it becomes (2). (2) can further be modified
to (3) by dividing by gravity.

Head of Flow
Equation (3) is often referred to the head because all
elements has the unit of length.

Dynamic Pressure
(2) and (3) are two forms of the Bernoulli Equation for
steady state incompressible flow. If we assume that
the gravitational body force is negligible, (3) can be
written as (4). Both elements in the equation have the
unit of pressure and it's common to refer the flow
velocity component as the dynamic pressure of the
fluid flow (5).

A special case of interest for equation (e4) is when

the orifice area is much lesser than the surface area
and when the pressure inside and outside the tank is
the same - when the tank has an open surface or
"vented" to the atmosphere. At this situation the (e4)
can be transformed to (e5).
"The velocity out from the tank is equal to speed of a
freely body falling the distance h." - also known
as Torricelli's Theorem.

Example - outlet velocity from a vented

tank
The outlet velocity of a tank with height 10 m can be
calculated as
V2 = (2 (9.81 m/s2) (10 m))1/2

= 14 m/s

= density

Pressurized Tank

v = flow velocity

If the tanks is pressurized so that product of gravity

and height (g h) is much lesser than the pressure
difference divided by the density, (e4) can be
transformed to (e6).

g = acceleration of gravity

The velocity out from the tank depends mostly on the

pressure difference.

h = elevation height
wshaft = net shaft energy inn per unit mass for a pump,
fan or similar
wloss = loss due to friction

Example - outlet velocity from a

pressurized tank
The outlet velocity of a pressurized tank where
p1 = 0.2 MN/m2
p2 = 0.1 MN/m2
A2/A1 = 0.01
h = 10 m

The energy equation is often used for incompressible

flow problems and is called the Mechanical Energy
Equation or the Extended Bernoulli Equation.
The mechanical energy equation for a turbine can be
written as:
pin / + vin2 / 2 + g hin = pout / + vout2 / 2 + g hout +
wshaft + wloss
(2)
where

can be calculated as

wshaft = net shaft energy out per unit mass for a

turbine or similar

V2 = ( (2/(1-(0.01)2) ((0.2 106 N/m2) - (0.1 106 N/m2))/

(1000 kg/m3) + (9.81 m/s2)(10 m)))1/2

Equation (1) and (2) dimensions are

= 19.9 m/s

Coefficient of Discharge - Friction

Coefficient
Due to friction the real velocity will be somewhat
lower than this theoretic example. If we introduce
a friction coefficient c(coefficient of discharge), (e5)
can be expressed as (e5b).
The coefficient of discharge can be determined
experimentally. For a sharp edged opening it may
bee as low as 0.6. For smooth orifices it may bee
between 0.95 and 1.
he Energy Equation is a statement of the first law of
thermodynamics. The energy equation involves
energy, heat transfer and work. With certain
limitations the mechanical energy equation can be
compared to the Bernoulli Equation.

The Mechanical Energy Equation

in Terms of Energy per Unit Mass

energy per unit mass (ft2/s2 = ft lb/slug or

m2/s2 = N m/kg)

Efficiency
According to (1) a larger amount of loss - wloss - result
in more shaft work required for the same rise of
output energy. The efficiency of a pump or fan
process can be expressed as:
= (wshaft - wloss) / wshaft

(3)

The efficiency of a turbine process can be

expressed as:
= wshaft/ (wshaft + wloss)

(4)

The Mechanical Energy Equation

in Terms of Energy per Unit
Volume
The mechanical energy equation for a pump or a
fan (1) can also be written in terms of energy per
unit volume by multiplying (1) with fluid density - :

The mechanical energy equation for a pump or a

fan can be written in terms of energy per unit mass:

pin + vin2 / 2 + hin + wshaft = pout + vout2 / 2 +

hout + wloss
(5)

pin / + vin2 / 2 + g hin + wshaft = pout / + vout2 / 2 + g

hout + wloss
(1)

where
= g = specific weight

where
The dimensions of equation (5) are
p = static pressure

energy per unit volume (ft.lb/ft3 = lb/ft2 or

N.m/m3 = N/m2)

The Mechanical Energy Equation

in Terms of Energy per Unit
Weight involves Heads
The mechanical energy equation for a pump or a
fan (1) can also be written in terms of energy per
unit weight by dividing with gravity - g:
pin / + vin2 / 2 g + hin + hshaft = pout / + vout2 / 2 g +
hout + hloss
(6)

= 17.6 ft

specific weight of water - 62.4 lb/ft3

1 hp (English horse power) = 550 ft. lb/s

Combined with (8):

hloss = (17.6 ft ) - (10 ft)
= 7.6 ft

where

The pump efficiency can be calculated from (3)

modified for head:

= g = specific weight

= ((17.6 ft) - (7.6 ft)) / (17.6 ft)

hshaft = wshaft / g = net shaft energy head inn per unit

mass for a pump, fan or similar

= 0.58
The Law of Mass Conservation states that

hloss = wloss / g = loss head due to friction

The dimensions of equation (6) are

"mass can neither be created nor

destroyed"

energy per unit weight (ft.lb/lb = ft or N.m/N =

m)

Head is the energy per unit weight.

hshaft can also be expressed as:
hshaft = wshaft / g = Wshaft / m g = Wshaft / Q

(7)

where
Wshaft = shaft power
m = mass flow rate
Q = volume flow rate

Example - Pumping Water

Water is pumped from an open tank at level zero to
an open tank at level 10 ft. The pump
adds four horsepowers to the water when pumping 2
ft3/s.

The inflows, outflows and change in storage of mass

in a system must be in balance.
The mass flow in and out of a control volume
(through a physical or virtual boundary) can for an
limited increment of time be expressed as:
dM = i vi Ai dt - o vo Ao dt

(1)

where
dM = change of storage mass in the system (kg)

Since vin = vout = 0, pin = pout = 0 and hin = 0 - equation

(6) can be modified to:

= density (kg/m3)

hshaft = hout + hloss

v = speed (m/s)

or

A = area (m2)

hloss = hshaft - hout

(8)

Equation (7) gives:

dt = an increment of time (s)

If the outflow is higher then the inflow - the change of
mass dM is negative -

hshaft = Wshaft / Q
= (4 hp)(550 ft.lb/s/hp) / (62.4 lb/ft3)(2 ft3/s)

the mass of the system decreases

And obvious - the mass in a system increase if the

inflow is higher than the outflow.

= density (kg/m3)
v = speed (m/s)

The Law of Mass Conservation is a fundament in

fluid mechanics and a basis for the Equation of
Continuity and the Bernoulli Equation.

With uniform density equation (1) can be modified to

Example - Law of Mass

Conservation

q = vi1 Ai1 + vi2 Ai2 +..+ vin Aim

Water with density 1000 kg/m3 flows into a tank

through a pipe of 50 mm inside diameter. The velocity
in the pipe is 2 m/s. The water flows out of the tank
through a pipe with inside diameter 30 mm with a
velocity of 2.5 m/s.
Using equation (1) the change in the tank content
after 20 minutes can calculated as:
3

A = area (m2)

= vo1 Ao1 + vo2 Ao2 +..+ vom Aom

where
q = flow rate (m3/s)

i1 = i2 = . . = in = o1 = o2 = . .= om

dM = (1000 kg/m )(2 m/s)(3.14 (0.05 m) /4) (20 min

60 s/min)
- (1000 kg/m3)(2.5 m/s)(3.14 (0.03 m)2/4)
(20 min 60 s/min)

Example - Equation of Continuity

10 m3/h of water flows through a pipe with 100
mm inside diameter. The pipe is reduced to an inside
dimension of 80 mm.
Using equation (2) the velocity in the 100 mm pipe
can be calculated as

= 2590.5 kg
The Law of Conservation of Mass states that mass
can be neither created or destroyed. Using the Mass
Conservation Law on asteady flow process - flow
where the flow rate do not change over time - through
a control volume where the stored mass in the control
volume do not change - implements that

(2)

(10 m3/h)(1 / 3600 h/s) = v100 (3.14 (0.1 m)2 / 4)

or
v100 = (10 m3/h)(1 / 3600 h/s) / (3.14 (0.1 m)2 / 4)

inflow equals outflow

= 0.35 m/s

This statement is called the Equation of

Continuity. Common application where the
Equation of Continuity are used are pipes, tubes
and ducts with flowing fluids or gases, rivers, overall
processes as power plants, diaries, logistics in
general, roads, computer networks and
semiconductor technology and more.

Using equation (2) the velocity in the 80 mm pipe can

be calculated
(10 m3/h)(1 / 3600 h/s) = v80 (3.14 (0.08 m)2 / 4)
or
v80 = (10 m3/h)(1 / 3600 h/s) / (3.14 (0.08 m)2 / 4)
= 0.55 m/s

Pressure and Pressure Loss

According the Energy Equation for a fluid the total
energy can be summarized as elevation energy,
velocity energy and pressure energy. The Energy
Equation can then be expressed as:
The Equation of Continuity and can be expressed
as:
m = i1 vi1 Ai1 + i2 vi2 Ai2 +..+ in vin Aim
= o1 vo1 Ao1 + o2 vo2 Ao2 +..+ om vom Aom
where
m = mass flow rate (kg/s)

p1 + v12 / 2 + g h1 = p2 + v22 / 2 + g h2 +
ploss
(1)
where

(1)

p = pressure in fluid (Pa (N/m2), psi (lb/in2))

ploss = pressure loss (Pa (N/m2), psi (lb/in2))
= density of the fluid (kg/m3, slugs/ft3)

v = flow velocity (m/s, ft/s)

where

g = acceleration of gravity (m/s2, ft/s2)

h = p / = head (m, ft)

h = elevation (m, ft)

The head loss in a tube or duct due to friction, major

loss, can be expressed as:

For horizontal steady state flow v1 = v2 and h1 = h2, (1) can be transformed to:

hloss = (l / dh) (v2 / 2 g)

ploss = p1 - p2

where

(2)

The pressure loss is divided in

major loss due to friction and

(6)

hloss = head loss (m, ft)

Friction Coefficient -
The friction coefficient depends on the flow - if it is

minor loss due to change of velocity in bends,

valves and similar.

The pressure loss in pipes and tubes depends on the

flow velocity, pipe or duct length, pipe or duct
diameter, and a friction factor based on the
roughness of the pipe or duct, and whether the flow
us turbulent or laminar - the Reynolds Number of the
flow. The pressure loss in a tube or duct due to
friction, major loss, can be expressed as:
ploss = (l / dh) ( v2 / 2)

(3)

laminar,

transient or

turbulent

and the roughness of the tube or duct.

To determine the friction coefficient we first have to
determine if the flow is laminar, transient or turbulent
- then use the proper formula or diagram.

where
ploss = pressure loss (Pa, N/m2)

Friction Coefficient for Laminar Flow

l = length of duct or pipe (m)

For fully developed laminar flow the roughness of the

duct or pipe can be neglected. The friction coefficient
depends only the Reynolds Number - Re - and can
be expressed as:

dh = hydraulic diameter (m)

= 64 / Re

(3) is also called the D'Arcy-Weisbach Equation. (3)

is valid for fully developed, steady, incompressible
flow.

where

= friction coefficient

Head and Head Loss

The Energy equation can be expressed in terms of
head and head loss by dividing each term by
the specific weight of the fluid. The total head in a
fluid flow in a tube or a duct can be expressed as the
sum of elevation head, velocity head and pressure
head.
p1 / + v12 / 2 g + h1 = p2 / + v22 / 2 g + h2 + hloss
(4)

(7)

Re = the dimensionless Reynolds number

The flow is

laminar when Re < 2300

transient when 2300 < Re < 4000

turbulent when Re > 4000

Friction Coefficient for Transient Flow

hloss = head loss (m, ft)

If the flow is transient - 2300 < Re < 4000 - the flow

varies between laminar and turbulent flow and the
friction coefficient is not possible to determine.

= g = specific weight (N/m3, lb/ft3)

Friction Coefficient for Turbulent Flow

For horizontal steady state flow v1 = v2 and h1 = h2, (4) can be transformed to:

For turbulent flow the friction coefficient depends on

the Reynolds Number and the roughness of the duct
or pipe wall. On functional form this can be
expressed as:

where

hloss = h1 - h2

(5)

 = f( Re, k / dh )

(8)

Reynolds number calculated:

Re = (15 m/s) (315 mm) (10-3 m/mm ) (1.23 kg/m3) /
(1.79 10-5 Ns/m2)

where
k = absolute roughness of tube or duct wall (mm, ft)

= 324679 (kgm/s2)/N
k / dh = the relative roughness - or roughness
ratio

= 324679 ~ Turbulent flow

The friction coefficient - - can be calculated by

the Colebrooke Equation:

Turbulent flow indicates that Colebrooks equation (9)

must be used to determine the friction coefficient - -.

1 / 1/2 = -2,0 log10 [ (2,51 / (Re 1/2)) + (k / dh) /

3,72 ]
(9)

With roughness - - for galvanized steel 0.15 mm,

the roughness ratio can be calculated:

Since the friction coefficient - - is on both sides of

the equation, it must be solved by iteration. If we
know the Reynolds number and the roughness - the
friction coefficient - - in the particular flow can be
calculated.

Roughness Ratio = / dh

A graphical representation of the Colebrooke

Equation is the Moody Diagram:

The Moody Diagram - The Moody diagram in a

printable format.

With the Moody diagram we can find the friction

coefficient if we know the Reynolds Number - Re and the
Relative Roughness Ratio - k / dh
In the diagram we can see how the friction
coefficient depends on the Reynolds number for
laminar flow - how the friction coefficient is undefined
for transient flow - and how the friction coefficient
depends on the roughness ratio for turbulent flow.
For hydraulic smooth pipes - the roughness ratio
limits zero - and the friction coefficient depends more
or less on the Reynolds number only.
For a fully developed turbulent flow the friction
coefficient depends on the roughness ratio only.

Example - Pressure Loss in Air Ducts

Air at 0 oC is flows in a 10 m galvanized duct - 315
mm diameter - with velocity 15 m/s.
Reynolds number are expressed as:
Re = dh v /

(10)

where
Re = Reynolds number
v = velocity
= density
= dynamic or absolute viscosity

= (0.15 mm) / (315 mm)

= 4.76 10-4
Using the graphical representation of the Colebrooks
equation - the Moody Diagram - the friction coefficient
- - can be determined to:
= 0.017
The major loss for the 10 m duct can be calculated
with the Darcy-Weisbach Equation (3) or (6):
ploss = ( l / dh ) ( v2 / 2 )
= 0.017 ((10 m) / (0.315 m)) ( (1.23 kg/m3) (15 m/s)2 /
2)
= 74 Pa (N/m2)

The Ideal Gas Law and the

Individual Gas Constant- R
The Ideal Gas Law relates pressure, temperature,
and volume of an ideal or perfect gas. The Ideal
Gas Law can be expressed with the Individual Gas
Constant:
pV=mRT

(1)

where
p = absolute pressure (N/m2, lb/ft2)
V = volume (m3, ft3)
m = mass (kg, slugs)
R = individual gas constant (J/kg.oK, ft.lb/slugs.oR)
T = absolute temperature (oK, oR)
This equation (1) can be modified to:
p=RT

(2)

where the density

=m/V

Note!

(3)

The Individual Gas Constant - R - depends on the

particular gas and is related to the molecular weight
of the gas.
Equation (1) can also be modified to
p1V1/T1 = p2V2/T2

(4)

expressing the relationship between different states

for a given mass of gas.

The Ideal Gas Law and the

Universal Gas Constant - Ru
The Universal Gas Constant is independent of the
particular gas and is the same for all "perfect" gases.
The Ideal Gas Law can be expressed with
the Universal Gas Constant:
p V = n Ru T

(5)

where
p = absolute pressure (N/m2, lb/ft2)
V = volume (m3, ft3)
n = is the number of moles of gas present
Ru = universal gas constant (J/mol.oK, lbf.ft/
(lbmol.oR))
T = absolute temperature (oK, oR)

Example - The Ideal Gas Law

A tank with volume of 1 ft3 is filled with air
compressed to a gauge pressure of 50 psi. The
temperature in tank is 70 oF.
The air density can be calculated with a
transformation of the ideal gas law (2) to:
=p/RT

(6)

= [(50 lb/in2 + 14,7 lb/in2)(144 in2/ft2)]/[(1716

ft.lb/slug.oR)((70 + 460) oR)]
= 0,0102 slugs/ft3
The weight of the air is the product of specific
weight and the air volume. It can be calculated as:

The Ideal Gas Law is accurate only at relatively low

pressures and high temperatures. To account for the
deviation from the ideal situation, another factor is
included. It is called the Gas Compressibility Factor,
or Z-factor. This correction factor is dependent on
pressure and temperature for each gas considered.
The True Gas Law, or the Non-Ideal Gas Law,
becomes:
P V = Z n R T (7)
where
Z = Gas Compressibility Factor
n = number of moles of gas present
Mixture of gases are common in many applications.
Our most common example is air - mainly consisting
of nitrogen, oxygen and water vapor - moist air.
Combustion gas, mainly consisting of nitrogen, water
vapor and carbon dioxide, is an other example.
Special care must be taken for gas mixtures when
using the ideal gas law, calculating the mass, the
individual gas constant or the density.

The Ideal Gas Law for a Gas

Mixture
The Ideal Gas Law for a perfect or ideal gas adapted
for a gas mixture:
pV = mmGmT

(1)

where
p = absolute pressure in the mixture (N/m 2, lb/ft2)
V = volume of the mixture(m3, ft3)
mm = mass of the mixture (kg, lb)
G = the individual gas constant for the mixture (J/kg
K, ft lb/slugs oR)
T = absolute temperature in the mixture (oK, oR)

The Mass of the Gas Mixture

The mass of the mixture can be expresses as:
mm = m1 + m2 +..+ mn

(2)

where
w=gV

(7)

w = (0,0102 slugs/ft3)(32,2 ft/s2)(1 ft3)

= 0,32844 slugs.ft/s2
= 0,32844 lb

m1 + m2 +..+ mn = the mass of each gas component

in the mixture

The Individual Gas Constant of the

Gas Mixture
The individual gas constant for the gas mixture can
be expressed as:

p2 - p1 = - (z2 - z1)

Gm = (G1m1+ G2m2 +..+ Gnmn) / (m1 + m2 +..+

mn )
(3)

(3)

where

The Density of the Gas Mixture

The density of a gas mixture can be calculated as:
m = (1v1 + 2v2 + .. + nvn)/(v1 + v2 + .. + vn )

Static Pressure in a Fluid

For a incompressible fluid - as a liquid - the pressure
difference between two elevations can be expressed
as:

(4)

p2 = pressure at level 2
p1 = pressure at level 1
z2 = level 2

where
m = density of the gas mixture (kg/m3, lb/ft3)
1 .. n = density of each of the components (kg/m3,
lb/ft3)
v1 + v2 + .. + vn = volume share of each of the
components (m3, ft3)
The pressure indicates the normal force per unit area
at a given point acting on a given plane. Since there
is no shearing stresses present in a fluid at rest - the
pressure in a fluid is independent of direction.
For fluids - liquids or gases - at rest the pressure
gradient in the vertical direction depends only on the
specific weight of the fluid.
How pressure changes with elevation can be
expressed as
dp = - dz

(1)

z1 = level 1
(3) can be transformed to:
p1 - p2 = (z2 - z1)

(4)

or
p1 - p2 = h (5)
where
h = z2 - z1 difference in elevation - the dept down
from location z2.
or
p1 = h + p 2

(6)

Example - Pressure in a Fluid

where

The absoute pressure at water depth of 10 m can be

calulated as:

dp = change in pressure

p1 = h + p 2

dz = change in height

= (1000 kg/m3) (9.81 m/s2) (10 m) + (101.3 kPa)

= specific weight

= (98100 kg/ms2 or Pa) + (101300 Pa)

The pressure gradient in vertical direction is negative

- the pressure decrease upwards.

= 199.4 kPa

Specific Weight

where

Specific Weight can be expressed as:

= 1000 kg/m3

=g

g = 9.81 m/s2

(2)

where

p2 = pressure at surface level = atmospheric pressure

= 101.3 kPa

= specific weight
The gauge pressure can be calulated setting p2 = 0
g = acceleration of gravity
p1 = h + p 2
In general the specific weight - - is constant for
fluids. For gases the specific weight - - varies with
the elevation.

= (1000 kg/m3) (9.81 m/s2) (10 m)

A pressure difference of 5 psi (lbf/in2) is equivalent to

= 98.1 kPa

The Pressure Head

(6) can be transformed to:
h = (p2 - p1) /

(6)

h express the pressure head - the height of a

column of fluid of specific weight - - required to give
a pressure difference of (p2 - p1).

Example - Pressure Head

(5 lbf/in2) (12 in/ft) (12 in/ft) / (62.4 lb/ft3)

= 11.6 ft of water
(5 lbf/in2) (12 in/ft) (12 in/ft) / (847 lb/ft3)
= 0.85 ft of mercury
when specific weight of water is 62.4
(lb/ft3) and specific weight of mercury is 847 (lb/ft3).