CONDUCTORS, DIELECTRICS,

AND CAPACITANCE

CURRENT AND CURRENT

DENSITY
Current - is defined as electric charges in
motion or defined as a rate of movement
of a charge passing in a given reference
point (or crossing in a given reference
plane) of one coulomb per second

CURRENT AND CURRENT

DENSITY
Current - is defined as the motion of
positive charges (even though conduction
in metals takes place through the motion
of electrons). The unit of current is ampere
(A) and current is symbolized by I,

dQ
I
dt

( convention current)

CURRENT AND CURRENT

DENSITY
Consider the field theory, the events
occurring at a point was the main
concerned rather than within the large
region, and in this case the concept of
current density were important matter.
Current density - is defined as a vector
represented by J and measured in
amperes per square meter (A/m2).
The increment of current I crossing an
incremental surface, S, is given as;

CURRENT AND CURRENT

DENSITY

I J N S

( normal to the current

density)

or,

I J S

( current density is not

perpendicular to the
surface)

CURRENT AND CURRENT

DENSITY
And the total current is obtained by
integrating,

I J dS
S

( convention current)

CURRENT AND CURRENT

DENSITY
Current density can
be related to the
velocity of volume
charge density at a
given point. Consider
the element of
charge Q = vv =
vSL, as shown in
the figure .

CURRENT AND CURRENT

DENSITY
Assume that the
charge element is
oriented within the
edges and parallel to
the coordinate axes,
and it shall only
posses an x
component of
velocity.

CURRENT AND CURRENT

DENSITY
With respect to the
time interval t, the
element of charge
has moved a
distance x, as
shown in the figure.

CURRENT AND CURRENT

DENSITY
Therefore a charge
Q = vSx has
moved through a
reference plane
perpendicular to the
direction of motion in
a time increment t,
and the resultant
current is
Q
x
I
S
t
t

CURRENT AND CURRENT

DENSITY
And taking the limit with respect to time,

I S x
where: vx represents the x component of
the velocity, v.
And in terms of current density,

J x vx

CURRENT AND CURRENT

DENSITY

and in general

J v
where: J or vv is the convention current
density

CONTINUITY OF CURRENT
The principle of conservation of charge
states simply that charges can be neither
created nor destroyed, although equal
amounts of positive and negative charge
may be simultaneously created, obtained
by separation, destroyed, or lost by
recombination.
The continuity equation, follow this
principle when considering of any region
bounded by a closed surface. And the
current through the closed surface is

CONTINUITY OF CURRENT

I J dS
S

the outward flow of positive charge must

be balanced by a decrease of positive
charge (or perhaps an increase of
negative charge) within the closed surface.

CONTINUITY OF CURRENT
The current at closed surface, however, is
an outward-flowing current and it is the
integral form of the continuity equation,
and the differential, or point, form is
obtained by using the divergence theorem
to change the surface integral into a
volume integral:

dS

J
)
d

vol

CONTINUITY OF CURRENT
Next represent the enclosed charge Qi by
the volume integral of the charge density,

d
(

J
)
d

vol

dt vol

CONTINUITY OF CURRENT
Keeping the surface constant, the
derivative becomes a partial derivative and
may appear within the integral,

vol ( J )d vol t d

For an incremental volume,

( J )
d
t

CONTINUITY OF CURRENT
And the point from the continuity equation,

(the current, or charge

( J )
t per second, diverging
from a small volume per
unit volume is equal to
the time rate of
decrease of charge per
unit volume at every
point)

METALLIC CONDUCTOR
Metallic Conductor
permit a higher-energy
level in the valence
band to merges
smoothly, to a
conduction band by the
help of kinetic energy
produce by an external
field that will result in an
electron flow.

METALLIC CONDUCTOR
The valence electrons,
or conduction, or free,
electrons, having a
charge Q = -e will move
under the influence of
an electric field, E, and
will experience a force:

F = - eE

METALLIC CONDUCTOR
And the valence electron velocity (drift
velocity) is linearly related to the electric
field intensity by the mobility of the
electron in a given materials (i.e. free
space or crystalline)
vd = - eE (electron velocity is opposite in
direction to E)
where is the mobility of an electron
(positive)

METALLIC CONDUCTOR
In terms of current density, J:

J e e E
where:

e e
Therefore;

J E

METALLIC CONDUCTOR

Consider a uniform current density J and

electric field intensity E in a cylindrical
region of length L and cross-sectional area
S.

METALLIC CONDUCTOR
I J dS JS
S

L
Therefore; V
I
S

Vab E dL E dL E Lba

Vab E Lba

or

or

V IR

V EL
but

I
V
J E
S
L

where:

L
R
S

METALLIC CONDUCTOR
Insulator did not
permit any electron
flow due to an existing
gap between the
valence band and the
conduction band. In
this case the electron
cannot accept any
additional amounts of
energy.

METALLIC CONDUCTOR
Semiconductors had a
small forbidden
region that separates
the valence band and
the conduction band.
A small amounts of
energy in the form of
heat, light, or an
electric field may raise
the energy of the
electrons and provide
a conduction.

Conductivity of Metallic Conductor

CONDUCTOR PROPERTIES AND

BOUNDARY CONDITIONS
Conductor Characteristics:
1. It has a surface charge density that
resides on the exterior surface and within
has zero charge density.
2. In static conditions, in which no current
will flow, follows directly Ohms law: the
electric field intensity within the conductor
is zero.

CONDUCTOR PROPERTIES AND

BOUNDARY CONDITIONS
The principles applied to conductors in
electrostatic fields:
1. The static electric field intensity inside a
conductor is zero.
2. The static electric field intensity at the
surface of a conductor is everywhere
directed normal to the surface.
3. The conductor surface is an equipotential
surface.

CONDUCTOR PROPERTIES AND

BOUNDARY CONDITIONS

Prove:
Consider a closed surface conductor in a
free space boundary
( In static conditions, tangential
E dL 0 electric field intensity and electric
flux density are zero.)

CONDUCTOR PROPERTIES AND

BOUNDARY CONDITIONS
For the tangential field around the small
closed path at the surface:

and E = 0,

1
1
Et w EN , atb h EN , ata h 0
2
2
where: a to b = c to d = w and b to c = d
to a = h

CONDUCTOR PROPERTIES AND

BOUNDARY CONDITIONS

Et w 0
Et 0

( h = 0 and w 0(finite))

Dt Et 0

CONDUCTOR PROPERTIES AND

BOUNDARY CONDITIONS
Consider the normal field in a small
cylinder as the Gaussian surface;
D dS Q (Using Gauss Law)

top

bottom

sides

Q(Cylinder Sides)

DN S Q S S where: bottom and

sides integral were equal to zero

CONDUCTOR PROPERTIES AND

BOUNDARY CONDITIONS
or

DN S

DN 0 EN S

Methods of Images
Dipole Characteristics
infinite plane at zero
potential that exists
midway between the two
charges.
Consider a vanishingly
thin conducting plane
that is infinite in extent
and have an
equipotential surface at a
potential V = 0, and
electric field intensity
normal to the surface.

Methods of Images
This can be represented
by a single charge
(image) above the plane
and maintain the same
fields, removing the
plane and locating a
negative charge at a
symmetrical location
below the plane.

SEMICONDUCTORS
Intrinsic Semiconductor pure material
(i.e. germanium or silicon)
Two types of current carriers:

1. Electrons are those from the top of the

filled valence band which have received
sufficient energy (usually thermal) to cross
the relatively small forbidden (1 electron
volt energy gap) band into the conduction
band.

SEMICONDUCTORS
2. Holes are vacancies left by the
electrons represent unfilled energy states
in the valence band which may also move
from atom to atom in the crystal.

Both carriers move in an electric field, and

they move in opposite directions; hence
each contributes a component of the total
current which is in the same direction as
that provided by the other.

SEMICONDUCTORS
The conductivity is a function of both hole
and electron concentrations and mobilities,

e e h h
where:
= conductivity
e and h = electron and hole charge
densities
e and h = mobility of electrons and
holes

SEMICONDUCTORS
or
= e + h
where: e = Neee
h = Nheh
Ne and Nh = electron and holes
concentrations
Electron charge, e = 1.602 x 10-19 C
e = mobility of electron (0.12, silicon;
0.36, germanium)
h = mobility of holes (0.025, silicon; 0.17,
germanium )

SEMICONDUCTORS
Doping the process of adding impurities
to a pure semiconductor.
Acceptors furnish extra holes and form
p-type materials.
Donor provide additional electrons and
form n-type materials.

NATURE OF DIELECTRIC
MATERIALS
The characteristic which all dielectric
materials have in common, whether they
are solid, liquid, or gas, and whether or not
they are crystalline in nature, is their ability
to store electric energy.
This storage takes place by means of a
shift in the relative positions of the internal,
bound positive and negative charges
against the normal molecular and atomic
forces.

NATURE OF DIELECTRIC
MATERIALS
A non-polar molecule does not have this
dipole arrangement until after a field is
applied. The negative and positive
charges shift in opposite directions against
their mutual attraction and produce a
dipole which is aligned with the electric
field.

NATURE OF DIELECTRIC
MATERIALS

p Qd
n

ptotal pi
i 1

1
P lim
pi

0
i 1

NATURE OF DIELECTRIC
MATERIALS
Consider a dielectric
containing non-polar
molecules, no dipole
moment and P =0. In
the interior, an
incremental surface
element , S and an
electric field, E,
produces a moment p
= Qd in each
molecule, such that p
and d make an angle
with S.

NATURE OF DIELECTRIC
MATERIALS
Net total charge that crosses the
elemental surface in an upward direction,

Qb nQd S

where: Qb = bound charge

Bound charge polarization,

Qb P S

Bound charge within the close surface,

Qb P dS
S

NATURE OF DIELECTRIC
MATERIALS
Total enclosed charge, QT

0 E dS

where: QT Qb Q
Q = total free charge enclosed by the
surface S.
Enclosed free charge,

Q QT Qb ( 0 E P) dS
S

D 0 EN P

NATURE OF DIELECTRIC
MATERIALS
For Polarizable Material

Q D dS
S

where Q = free charge enclosed

Qb
In terms of volume charge
densities
Q
Equivalent Divergence
relationships,

P b
0 E T

D v

QT

dv
dv
dv
b

NATURE OF DIELECTRIC
MATERIALS
In ferroelectric materials the relationship
between P and E is not only nonlinear, but
also shows hysteresis effects.
The linear relationship between P and E is

P e 0 E
where: e (chi) = a dimensionless quantity
(electric susceptibility or dielectric
constant)

NATURE OF DIELECTRIC
MATERIALS
Substituting to the value of D:

D 0 E e 0 E ( e 1) 0 E

where:

R e 1

Therefore
0 R

where: =
permittivity

BOUNDARY CONDITIONS FOR

PERFECT DIELECTRIC MATERIALS
Boundary conditions existing at the
interface between a conductor and a
dielectric:
1. D and E are both zero inside the
conductor.

Dt Et 0

2. The tangential E and D field

components must both be zero.

BOUNDARY CONDITIONS FOR

PERFECT DIELECTRIC MATERIALS
3. The normal electric flux density is equal
to the surface charge density on the
conductor.
DN EN S

BOUNDARY CONDITIONS FOR

PERFECT DIELECTRIC MATERIALS

BOUNDARY CONDITIONS FOR

PERFECT DIELECTRIC MATERIALS
Consider the interface between two
dielectrics having permitivities 1 and 2
and occupying regions 1 and 2 and the
tangential components are given by,

E dL 0
S

Etan 1w Etan 2w 0 (around the close

path)

Etan 1 Etan 2 (h = negligible)

BOUNDARY CONDITIONS FOR

PERFECT DIELECTRIC MATERIALS
If the tangential electric field intensity is
continuous across the boundary, then the
tangential D is discontinuous, for

Dtan 1

or

Etan 1 Etan 2

Dtan 1 1

Dtan 2 2

Dtan 2

BOUNDARY CONDITIONS FOR

PERFECT DIELECTRIC MATERIALS
Applying the Gausss law,

D dS Q
S

DN1S DN 2S Q S S
DN1 DN 2 S

BOUNDARY CONDITIONS FOR

PERFECT DIELECTRIC MATERIALS
DN1 DN 2 S
DN1 DN 2 (S = 0, the normal
or

component of D is
continuous)

1EN1 2 EN 2 (normal E is discontinuous)

CAPACITANCE
Capacitance the ratio of the magnitudes
of the total charge on either conductor to
the potential difference between
conductors. And it is measured in farads
(F), where a farad = 1 Coulomb/Volt

Q
C
V0
where: Q = surface integral over the
positive conductor.

CAPACITANCE

CAPACITANCE
Consider two conductors embedded in a
homogenous dielectric. Conductor M2
carries a total positive charge Q, and M1
carries an equal negative charge. There
are no other charges present, and the total
charge of the system is zero.

CAPACITANCE
Let Vo, the potential difference between
M2 and M1, and carrying a unit charge
from the negative to the positive surface,
and the capacitance is given by,

dS

E dL

CAPACITANCE

CAPACITANCE
Consider a simple two-conductor system
in which the conductors are identical,
infinite parallel planes with separation d.
Choosing the lower conducting plane at z
= 0 and the upper one at z = d, a uniform
sheet of surface charge S on each
conductor leads to the uniform field.

CAPACITANCE
S
E
az ( = permittivity of the

homogenous dielectric)
D S az
DN DZ S

(charge on the lower plane)

DN DZ (charge on the upper plane)

Potential difference between the lower and
upper plane,

S
S
V0
E dL
dz
d
upper
d

lower

CAPACITANCE
And the charge value,

Q S S

Therefore,
Q S
C

V0 d

where:
S = surface charge
density
S = surface area

The total energy stored in the capacitor,

2
2
2
2
S d S
1
1
1

d
S
S
WE E 2 dv
dz
dS

Sd

2 vol
2 0 0 2
2
2 d 2

or

2
1
1
1
Q
WE CV02 QV0
2
2
2 C

SEVERAL CAPACITANCE
Consider a Coaxial cable or coaxial
capacitor that has inner radius a, outer
radius b, and length L. The value of the
capacitance is given by,

2L
C
ln(b / a)

SEVERAL CAPACITANCE
Consider a spherical capacitor formed of
two concentric spherical conducting shells
of radius a and b, b > a. The expression
for the electric field,
( = dielectric
Q
permittivity
Er
2
between the region
4r
of the
spheres)

SEVERAL CAPACITANCE
Potential difference using the line integral,

Q
Vab
4

1 1 (Q =represents the
total charge o the
a b inner sphere)

SEVERAL CAPACITANCE
The Capacitance is given by,

or

Q
4
C

Vab 1 1
a b

C 4a

(allowing the outer

sphere to become
infinitely large, b = .)

SEVERAL CAPACITANCE
Coating the sphere with a different
dielectric layer, for which = 1, extending
from r = a to r = r1,
Q
Dr
2
4r
Q
Er
(a r r1 )
2
4 1r

Er

Q
4 0 r

(r r1 )

SEVERAL CAPACITANCE
The potential difference is,
r1 Qdr
Qdr
Va V

2
r1 4 r
4 r 2
1
0
a

Q
Va V
4

1 1 1 1

1 a r1 0 r1

SEVERAL CAPACITANCE
Therefore,

4
C
1 1 1 1

1 a r1 0 r1

SEVERAL CAPACITANCE
Consider a parallel-plate capacitor of area
S and spacing d, where d is small
compared to the linear dimensions of the
plate. The capacitance is given by 1S/d,
using a dielectric permittivity 1. Suppose
another part of the capacitor dielectric has
a permittivity of 2, then the potential
difference given by Vo is,

SEVERAL CAPACITANCE
V0 E1d1 E2d2

DN1 DN 2
or

1E1 2 E2

(E1 and E2 are

both uniform)
(E is normal)

SEVERAL CAPACITANCE
V0
Eliminating E2; E1
d1 d 2 1 / 2
The surface charge density,

S D1 1E1
1

V0
d1

d2

Since D1 = D2, the capacitance is given by,

Q S S
1
1
C

1
1
V0
V0 1 d1 d 2

1S 2 S C1 C2

CAPACITANCE OF A TWO-WIRE
LINE

CAPACITANCE OF A TWO-WIRE
LINE
Consider the potential field of two infinite
line charges. A positive line charge in the
xz plane at x = a and a negative line
charge at x = -a. The potential of a single
line charge with zero reference at a radius
of Ro is,

L R0
V
ln
2
R

CAPACITANCE OF A TWO-WIRE
LINE
Combining the potential field,

L R10
R20 L
R10R2
ln

V
ln
ln
2 R1
R2 2 R20R1
Letting R10 = R20 (placing zero reference at
equal distance from each line) and R1 = x
and R2 =y,
2
2
2
2

L
x a y
L x a y
V
ln

ln
2
2
2
2
2
x a y 4 x a y

CAPACITANCE OF A TWO-WIRE
LINE
Choosing an equipotential surface V = V1
and letting K1 = dimensionless parameter
of potential V1

K1 e

4 V1 / L

CAPACITANCE OF A TWO-WIRE
LINE
Therefore,

x a y
K1
2
2
x a y
2

K1 1
2
2
x 2ax
y a 0
K1 1
2

2a K1

K1 1
2
x a
y

1
1

K1 1
2

CAPACITANCE OF A TWO-WIRE
LINE
In equipotential surface where V = V1, the
surface is independent value of z ( a
cylinder) and intersects the xy plane in a
circle of radius b,
2a K

Centered at x = h, y = 0;

K1 1
ha
K1 1
where: a h2 b2
h h b
K1
b
2

( x = 0)

K1 1

CAPACITANCE OF A TWO-WIRE
LINE
But

K1 e

2 V0 / L

4V0
Therefore, L
ln K1
The value of the capacitance is given by,
L L 4L 2L
C

V0
ln K1 ln K1
or
2L
2L
C

1
2
2
ln h h b / b cosh (h / b)