GEOREFERENCING

Definition
To establish a relationship between page coordinates on a planar map and known real-world coordinates.
(ESRI PRESS 2003)
Rectifying or registering an image to the correct geographic location
Sometimes called rubber sheeting
process of establishing location to spatial information or data with no known reference
Uses

Match points on the scanned picture to known points on the map

Image registration for these sources:
CAD data/scanned CAD drawings (.dwg, .dxf, .dgn)
Scanned maps (.gif, .jpg, .tif, etc)
Aerial photos
Satellite images
Raster datasets in GRID, ERDAS imagine, etc. format

Related Concepts
(1) Digitizing/Digitising
- The process of making paper (or analog) maps digital
- Capturing data by converting features on a paper map or (digital) aerial photograph into digital vector
format
(2) Control Points
Control points are known locations for a physical feature that can be identified.
These are the points you will be using to georeference your image.
Control points can be collected using GPS, determined using tics on a paper map, or from known features
from a base layer
(3) Coordinate Systems and Projections
A geographical coordinate system uses a three-dimensional spherical surface to define locations on the
earth. Divides space into orderly structure of locations. Two types: cartesian and angular (spherical)

(4) Transformation
Geometric Transformation
The process of converting a map or an image from one coordinate system to another by using a set of
control points and a transformation equation. (Chang)
different methods preserve different geometric properties
a. 1st order polynomial (affine)
- most common transformation
- requires a minimum of 3 displacement links, but should have more even though 3 gives RMSE=0!
- is a homogeneous transformation: only shifts origin, scales and rotates
- straight lines will be preserved

b. 2nd order polynomial

- requires 6 points (displacement links) minimum
- is a differential transformation so it warps the raster
- straightlines on raster may no longer be straight
c. 3rd order polynomial
- requires 10 points minimum
Polynomials are global transformations which strive to achieve a best fit globally or overall.
d. Spline transformation
- Often referred to as a rubbersheeting transformation
- optimizes for local accuracy but not global accuracy.
- control points exactly match to target control points
- useful when the control points are very important and must be registered precisely.
- requires a minimum of three control points
e. Adjust transformation
- optimizes for both global Least Squares Fit and local accuracy.
- Uses an algorithm that combines a polynomial transformation and TIN interpolation techniques.
- requires a minimum of three control points.
(5) Distortions
Distortion can be corrected in the transformation and rectifying process.
(6) Root Mean Square (RMS) Error
Deviation between the actual location and the estimated location of the control points.
Error for a control point is
Average RMS is
Residuals
The residuals are the distances between the input and retransformed coordinates in one direction. They
are shown for each GCP in the "X Residual" and "Y Residual" columns of the GCP Tool.
X Residual is the distance between the source X coordinate and the retransformed X coordinate.
Y Residual is the distance between the source Y coordinate and the retransformed Y coordinate.

General Steps in ArcGIS:

1. Obtain a digital or scanned imagery/map .
2. Obtain base data (a data layer with a known coordinate system) or control points that represent
locations/objects visible in image.
3. Create displacement links (links), clicking first on RASTER, then on base layer.
4. Look at the link table for acceptable residual on each point and total RMS error.
5. Select transformation method.
6. Rectify the map by selecting a resampling method (optional in ArcMap). Rectifying will create a new image
file

How many control points?

Best to spread out to the corners of the image
Check the links table
For RMSE, lower is better
Can add and delete points while checking the link table
MAP DESIGN
Purpose of making a map
To clarify goals
To determine relevant data, map design and appropriate symbolization
To create better maps
Considerations for map design
1. What is your goal?
a. Different goals call for different maps
b. Different goals produce different maps
2. Who is your map for?
a. Experts
b. Novices
3. What is the final medium?
a. Computer monitors
Limit map size so the entire map fits on the screen without scrolling or magnification
Increase type size: 14 point type should be the smallest
Mark point and line symbols 15% larger than those on paper map
More distinct patterns: avoid pattern variations that are too fine or detailed
Limit the amount and complexity of data
Use color; subtle color variations may not be visible
White will be more intense than black
For the internet, save your map at 72 dpi, and size the map to fit in a browser window (no
scrolling)
Design your map so it works on different monitors
b. Paper
Black and white
Map size should match final paper size with appropriate margins
10-point type works well
Point and line symbols can be smaller and finer
More subtle patterns can be used
More data and more complex data can be included
Substitute a range of greys and black and white for color.
Black will be more intense than white
White no information or background
Black more important information
Monochrome copiers reproduce grey tones poorly
Very light grey tones may not print.
Color
Map size should match final paper size with appropriate margins
10-point type works well
Point and line symbols can be smaller and finer
More subtle patterns can be used
More data and more complex data can be included
Use color value (light red vs. dark red) to show differences in amount or importance.
Use color hue (blue vs. red) to show difference in kind.
Dark colors are more intense than light
Use light colors to designate less important information and background
Use dark to designate more important information

 Never print a color map in black and white -> redesign for black and white
c. Projected medium
Greater map size is offset by the increased viewing distance
Increase type size
Increase point and line symbol size
Use more distinct patterns
You may have to limit the amount and complexity of data
Intensify colors for projection
d. Posters
Design map title and mapped area so they are legible from a distance
Type, point and line symbols should be slightly larger than on a typical printed map, but not as
large as on a monitor or projected map
Design for legibility at arms length
Mapping Design Process

GENERALIZATION OF GEOGRAPHIC DATA

Definition of terms

Cartographic generalization
The process that simplifies the representation of geographical data to produce a map at a certain scale with
a defined and readable legend

Cartographic abstraction
That part of the mapping activity wherein the cartographer transforms unmapped data into map form and
selects and organizes the information necessary to develop the users understanding of the map contents.

Selection
Intellectual process of deciding which information will be necessary to carry out the purpose of the map
successfully
Before you begin the generalization process, a selection of available information must be made that is
consistent with the purpose of the map
Classification
The process in which objects are placed in groups (or classes) having identical or similar features
The ordering, scaling, and grouping of features by their attributes and attribute values.
Exaggeration
To deliberately enlarge or alter a feature in order to capture its real world essence. It is affected by the
purpose and scale of the map.
the process where you make elements seem larger, more important, than they really are.
Why use exaggeration?

 The features that are important enough to be shown on the map, but in reality are small in size (e.g.
roads, houses), are size exaggerated to be visible and well-interpreted by the map reader.
Due to scale, certain features must be shown larger than their actual relative size. Features such as roads
and rivers would be unreadable if shown at their correct size, so they are exaggerated enough to be
recognized and to show their relationship to other similar features.
Simplification
The determination and retention of important characteristics of feature attributes and elimination of
unwanted detail.
Reduce the amount of information to the maps ability to portray it legibly at the chosen scale, and maintain,
as far as possible, the essential geographical characteristics
Types of Simplification
1. Elimination Routines
(point and feature simplification)

2. Modification Routines
(smoothing and enhancement)

Symbolization
The graphic coding of the summarization resulting from classification and the coding of the essential
characteristics, comparative significance, and relative positions that result from simplification.
Devising set of marks or symbols for real-world things.

Objective: to translate the classified, simplified, and exaggerated features to graphic marks on the map.
The most complex of mapping abstraction since it is not possible to create a reduced image of the real world
without devising a set of marks (symbols) that stand for real-world things.

Induction
occurs when cartographers make inferences from interrelationships among features on the map.
They have little control over induction.
may extend beyond what was consciously added by the cartographer.
A map user, with personal knowledge about a feature, may further amplify information on the map.
Controls of Generalization
Generalization and abstraction is
Related to map purpose
Related to scale
Partly subjective
Output related