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The Functional Elements: A measurement system consists of three basic parts: Transducers,
Signal Processors and Data Presentation Elements. As illustrated in figure 2.
1-Transducer: This element is effectively in contact with the process. This element is a sensing
device that converts a measured physical input variable into a proportional output signal, usually
a voltage. The transducers change the input information into another useful form.
Example:
A -Thermocouple takes input as temperature and gives a small E.M.F as output.
B -Resistance thermometer (RTD) has input as temperature and output as change in resistance.
2-Signal Processor: This element takes output from the transducer and converts it into a form
which is suitable for display or for onward transmission to a control system. It performs filtering,
amplification, or other signal conditioning function on the transducer device. The figure
illustrates this concept VIA two examples of Thermocouple & RTD.
(1) For thermocouple sensor we need an amplifier to make the signal large.
(2) For RTD we need a Wheatstone bridge or potentiometer to convert the change in resistance to
a voltage and then the amplifier to make the change in voltage larger.
3- The Sensor: The term sensor is often used to refer to the transducer or to the combination of
transducer and signal processor.
4- The Recorder (Data Presentation): This element presents the data in the form, so that
observer can understand it.
(1) This may be display in a meter with the pointer moving across the scale.
(2) Information on a visual display unit, like computer monitor screen.
(3) Printing on a chart or paper.
(4) Writing on a floppy disk or CD etc.
The output from the signal processor may also be sent to another place for control operations.
Finally the following figure (5) shows how these basic functional elements mentioned previously
form a measurement system:
Loading Effect: The act of attempting to make the measurement modify the variable is called
Loading. That is when we introduce equipment for measurements the result will be different
from the actual value.
Examples for Loading Effect:
1. When we use a cold thermometer to measure a hot liquid, the temperature will change.
The reading shown by the thermometer will not be correct. This is also due to Loading
Effect.
2. When we insert an ammeter in series to measure current, the resistance of the ammeter
will affect the reading. The current shown will be less than actual value. This is also
Loading Effect. To get good reading the resistance of the ammeter should be very small.
3. When we insert a voltmeter in parallel to measure voltage; the reading will be changed,
because the voltmeter also takes some current. To minimize the error the resistance of the
voltmeter should b very large.
Quality:
Quality refers to the totality of the features and characteristics of the system based on its
ability to meet the needs of customer. Also, quality indicates the best available. Quality
systems will be fit for the purpose, which meets all requirements.
Example:
Rolls Royce car is quality car, but small car is not of quality.
3.
Reliability:
Reliability of system is defined as the probability that it will operate to an agreed level of
performance, for a specified period, subject to specified environmental conditions.
The agreed level of performance might be that the measurement system gives a particular
accuracy.
The reliability of measurement system just after calibration is 1. This mean that ten
(hundred) out of ten hundred) measurements the measurement system gives the result
with the agreed level of accuracy.
A highly reliable measurement system has low failure rate. Failure rate is the number of
times during some period of time that the measurement system fails to meet the required
level of performance.
Failure rate = number of failures / [(number of measurements observed) x (time
observed)].
A failure rate of 0.4 per year means that in one year, if ten (hundred) measurements are
observed then 4(forty) will fail to meet the required level of performance.
Failure rate is affected by the environmental conditions.
Example:
The failure rate for the temperature measurement system used in hot, dusty, humid,
corrosive conditions might be 1.2 per year, while for the same system used in dry,
clean, cool, non-corrosive environment condition it might be 0.3 per year.
4.
Repeatability:
It is the ability of the measurement system to give same value for repeated measurements
without disconnecting the system.
(A) Performance Terms: These are used to define the performance of measurement system
and functional elements.
(2)
Example (1): An ammeter has a range of (0-5A) and an accuracy of 1% of f. s. d. What is the
accuracy can be quoted for the current reading of 3A?
Solution:
F.S.D. of ammeter = (0-5A) and an Accuracy = 1%.
This means that accuracy of ANY reading of ammeter between 0 and 5A is PLUS or
MINUS 1% of 5A (f. s. d.) = [(1/100) x (5)] = 0.05A.
Current Reading of ammeter = 3.0A (measured value).
Hence a current reading of 3A has an accuracy 0.05 A.
True value = lies between (3.0 - 0.05) and (3.0 +0.05) = [2.95A, 3.05A].
2-The Range: The range of an instrument is the limits between which readings can be made.
For example (1), an ammeter has range of 0-4 A. This means that ammeter can be used to
measure current values between 0A and 4A.
For example (2), a thermometer has range of -10 C to 110 C. This means that thermometer
can be used to measure temperature values between -10 C and 110 C.
The meter shown in figure (7) has the dual ranges 0 to 4 and 0 to 20.
Notice: The term Dead Band or Dead Space is used if there is a range of input values for which
there is no output.
3-Repeatability: The ability to give the same output for repeated applications of the same
input value, without the system being disconnected from its input or any change in the
environment in which the test is carried out.
4-Reproducibility: The ability to give the same output when used with a constant input with
the system being disconnected from its input and then reinstalled.
5-Sensitivity: The rate of change of output of system with respect to input. Indicates to how
much you get per unit input, the ratio (output/input).
For e.g.: Thermocouple has sensitivity of 20v/C. That means when the temperature changes by
1C, the Thermocouple voltage will change by 20 v.
6-Resolution: The resolution of an instrument is the smallest change in the quantity being
measured that will produce the observable change in the reading of the instrument.
7-Stability: The stability of an instrument is its ability to display the same reading when it is
used to measure the constant quantity or when that quantity is measured on a number of
occasions. While the Drift is often used to describe the change in output that occur over a period
of time for a constant input.
8-Response Time: The increasing time of system from zero to a constant value up to this
point at which the system gives an output corresponding to some specified percentage, e.g. 95%
of the value of the input.
9-Rise Time: Refer to the time taken for the output to rise from 10% of the steady-state value
to 95% of it.
10-Settling Time: The time taken for the output to within some percentage e.g. 2%, of the
steady-state value (Final Output Value).
Solution:
1- The system can be used to measure pressure from 0 125 KPa or 0
2500kPa.
2- If the instrument indicates a pressure of, say, 100kPa then the error will
be 1kPa.
3- If the temperature changes by 1 C that displayed reading will be in error
by 0.1% of the value. Thus for a pressure of, say, 100kPa the error will be
0.1 KPa for a 1 C temperature change.
Example (3): A Hydrometer is specified as having a range of 600-650 Kg/m 3 and an accuracy of
0.5Kg/m3. Explain the significance of this data.
Solution:
Hydrometer is measurement system used to measure the density (weight-kg occupied by the
medium over a unit volume-m3).
(1) Range of hydrometer = 600-650 Kg/m3 means that it can measure the values of density
between 600 kg/m3 and 650 kg/m3.
(2) e. g. True value of density = 300 Kg/m 3 then the reading measured by the hydrometer will
be EITHER (300-0.5) kg/m3 OR (300+0.5) kg/m3 i.e. 299.5 kg/m3 OR 300.5 kg/m3.
Example (4): A voltmeter is quoted as having the range of 0-10V and an accuracy of 5% f. s.
d. What is the accuracy which can be quoted for a voltage reading of 6 V?
Solution:
RANGE of voltmeter = (0-10V).
F.S.D. of voltmeter = 10V and an Accuracy = 5% of FSD.
This means that accuracy of ANY reading of voltmeter between 0 and 10V is PLUS or
MINUS 5% of 10V (f. s. d.) = [(5/100) x (10)] = 0.5V.
Present reading of voltmeter = 6.0V (measured value).
Hence a present voltage reading of 6V has an accuracy 0.5V.
True value = lie either between (6.0 - 0. 5) V and (6.0 +0. 5) V = [5.5 V, 6.5V].
Example (5): A thermocouple is specified as having the sensitivity of 0.03millivolt / C. What
does this mean?
Solution:
When the input temperature to thermocouple changes by 1C then output voltage of
thermocouple will change by 0.03miilivolt.
10
Example (6): A force-measuring system has a range of 0-200N with resolution of 0.1% f. s. d.
What is the smallest change in the force that can be measured?
Solution:
Resolution: The resolution of an instrument is the smallest change in the quantity being
measured that will produce the observable change in the reading of the instrument.
A smallest measurable change is:
0.1/100 x 200 = 0.2 N.
(ii) T
C. (i) F
(ii) T
11
B. (i) T
(ii) F
D. (i) F
(ii) F
4- Decide whether each of these statements is True (T) or False (F).
A highly reliable measurement system is one were there is a high chance that the system will:
(i) Require frequent calibration.
(ii) Operate to the specified level of performance.
Which option best describes the two statements?
A. (i) T
(ii) T
B. (i) T
(ii) F
C. (i) F
(ii) T
D. (i) F
(ii) F
5- Decide whether each of these statements is True (T) or False (F).
A measuring system which has a lack of repeatability is one where there could be:
(i) Random fluctuation in the values given by repeated measurements of the same variable.
(ii) Fluctuation in the values obtained by repeating measurements over a number of samples.
*Which option best describes the two statements?
A. (i) T
(ii) T
B. (i) T
(ii) F
C. (i) F
(ii) T
D. (i) F
(ii) F
6- Decide whether each of these statements is True (T) or False (F).
For a measurement system to be of the right quality and so fit for the required purpose it must
have:
(i) The highest accuracy.
(ii) Been calibrated directly against national standards.
Which option best describes the two statements?
A. (i) T
(ii) T
B. (i) T
(ii) F
C. (i) F
(ii) T
D. (i) F
(ii) F
7- Decide whether each of these statements is True (T) or False (F).
For a measurement system to be of the right quality and so fit for the required purpose it must
have:
(i)The accuracy needed for the measurement in question.
(ii) Been calibrated using a calibration system that is periodically and systematically reviewed to
ensure that it continues to be effective.
Which option best describes the two statements?
A. (i) T
(ii) T
B. (i) T
(ii) F
C. (i) F
(ii) T
D. (i) F
(ii) F
12
CHAPTER 2
Classification of Functional Elements of Measurement System
Outcome Covered: 2. Identify various types of sensors and transducers.
A- DISPLACEMENT SENSORS
- Measure a Linear displacement. e. g. Change in linear position of
thickness of metal sheet/slab.
- Measure an Angular displacement.
displacement of a drive shaft.
e. g.
Change in angular
13
r 0
A
d
14
15
The distortion of diaphragm due to applied pressure resulting into the linear displacement is used
to create change in capacitance.
CHANGE IN PRESSURE
CHANGE IN LINEAR DEFORMATION OF DIAPHRAGM.
CHANGE IN CAPACITANCE.
Example (2): Variable Plate Area Capacitive Sensing Element.
The capacitance of parallel plate capacitor depends on the overlap area (A) between the two
plates.
The change in the area (A) produces the change in the capacitance (C).
Variable plate area capacitive sensing element as shown in the figure above has an input of
change in the angular displacement- () and the output as change in the capacitance- (C).
The angular displacement of shaft position is used to create change in capacitance.
CHANGE IN ANGULAR DISPLACEMENT ()
CHANGE IN OVERLAP AREA (A)
16
The displacement x moves the central (middle) plate between the upper (top) and the lower
(bottom) plate.
Thus, when central (middle) plate moves down the plate separation distance (d) of upper
(top) capacitor increases and the plate separation distance (d) of lower (bottom) capacitor
decreases.
Thus, the capacitance-C1 of upper (top) capacitor decrease and the capacitance-C2 of lower
(bottom) capacitor increase.
When two capacitors are incorporated in opposite arms of an alternating current bridge, the
output voltage from the bridge is proportional to the displacement.
CHANGE IN LINEAR DISPLACEMENT
CHANGE IN CAPACITANCE
CHANGE IN VOLTAGE
The resistance (R) of the metal wire, foil resistance element, or semi-conductor strip changes
when it is subjected to strain ().
The strain is defined as: STRAIN = = (Change in Length) / (Original Length)
The CHANGE IN RESISTANCE-R is proportional to the STRAIN-.
The change in the resistance-R of a gauge of resistance-R when subject to a strain- is given
by:
R/R = G .
Change in the resistance - R = R G .
Where, G is constant of proportionality termed as gauge factor.
Metal wire strain gauge has gauge factors of order-2.0.
Ex.: (1) A strain gauge has resistance of R=120 (ohm) and a gauge factor of 2.1. What will be
the change in the resistance produced if the gauge is subject to a strain of 0.0005?
17
Answer: Using the equation of change in resistance of given aboveChange in the resistance - R
= R G .
= 120 x 2.1 x 0.0005 = 0.13 (ohm).
Strain Gauge stretched Resistance increases.
Strain Gauge compressed Resistance decreases.
Example (1): Strain Gauge Cantilever.
The cantilever as shown in the figure below is deflected downward.
CHANGE IN RESISTANCE
CHANGE IN VOLTAGE
This type of sensor is used for linear displacements of the order of 1mm to 30mm, with a nonlinearity error of 1% of full range.
18
A magnetic core is moved through the central tube as a result of the displacement being
monitored.
MAGNETIC CORE MIDDLE-CENTER POSITION
EMF induced in upper/lower secondary coil are equal (E1=E2).
NET OUPUT VOLTAGE of secondary coils = (E1-E2) = 0 Volts.
However, when the core is displaced from the middle-central position the induced EMF in one
secondary coil is more than the other secondary coil.
MAGNETIC CORE UP POSITION LINEAR DISPLACMENT
EMF induced in upper secondary coil is MORE THAN EMF induced
in lower secondary coil. (E1 > E2).
NET OUPUT VOLTAGE of secondary coils = (E1-E2) = (+VE).
MAGNETIC CORE DOWN POSITION LINEAR DISPLACEMENT
EMF induced in lower secondary coil is MORE THAN EMF induced
in upper secondary coil. (E2 > E1).
NET OUPUT VOLTAGE of secondary coils = (E1-E2) = (-VE).
Basic form of incremental encoder for the measurement of angular displacement of shaft
with reference to fixed position is shown in the figure above.
19
B- SPEED SENSORS
The following are examples of speed sensors that can be used to monitor linear and angular
speeds.
1-Optical Method:
Linear speed can be measured by determining the time between when the moving object
breaks one beam of radiation and when it breaks a second beam some measured distance
away. Refer the figure given below:
Breaking the first beam can be used to start an electronic clock and breaking the second
beam to stop the clock. This is a non-contact method.
2- Tachogenerator:
The basic tacho generator is consists of rotating coil mounted in a magnetic field.
When the coil rotates an alternating E. M. F. induce in the coil. This E. M. F. is proportional to
speed. The faster the coil rotates the greater the size of alternating E. M. F.
The size of the alternating E.M. F. Measure of the angular speed.
By measuring the voltage measure the speed.
20
CHANGE IN VOLTAGE
Diaphragm sensors are used to sense the pressure differences over the range 100 KPa to 100
MPa with accuracy = +/- 0.1%.
2- Bellows Sensor:
When the pressure inside bellows increases, relative to the pressure outside the bellows, then the
bellows increase in length. A displacement sensor can be used to monitor the movement of
bellows and hence give a measure of the pressure. Figure below shows how a bellows can be
combined with a (LVDT) to give a pressure sensor with an electrical output.
21
Bellows sensors are used to sense the pressure differences up to few hundred KPa with
accuracy = +/- 1%.
3- Bourdon Tube:
Bourdon Tube is rectangular or elliptical cross-section tube made from stainless steel or
phosphor bronze.
C-shape & HELICAL- Shape BOURDON TUBE is shown in the figure below.
The bourdon tube is open at one end and closed at other end.
When the pressure inside the tube increases, closed end of the C-shape tube open out, thus the
displacement of the closed end becomes a measure of a pressure.
This tube can be used with gear system to make it a pointer type instrument.
Bourdon Tubes are used to sense the pressure differences over the range 10 KPa to 100 KPa
with accuracy = +/- 1%.
4- Piezoelectric Sensor:
It consists of a diaphragm, which presses against a Piezo-electric sensing element as shown in
figure.
Movement of the diaphragm produces the compression effect on to Piezo-electric crystal.
22
The input for a Piezo-electric sensing element is the force due to applied pressure difference,
which compress the crystal and the output is voltage in the form of potential difference across the
surface.
CHANGE IN PRESSURE
CHANGE IN VOLTAGE
2
,
1
A
Q= 2
This means that measurement of the pressure difference (P1-P2) can be used to give a
measure of the rate of flow (Q).
23
1- Venturi Tube:
Venturi tube gradually tapers from the full pipe diameter to the constricted diameter. Refer figure
below.
The pressure difference is measured between the flow prior to the constriction and at the
constriction.
A diaphragm pressure cell is used to measure the pressure difference.
2- Orifice Plate:
Orifice plate is simple disc with central hole. Refer figure below.
The Orifice plate is placed in the tube, through which the fluid is flowing and the pressure
difference is measured between a point equal to the diameter of the tube upstream and a
point equal to half the diameter downstream.
A diaphragm pressure cell is used to measure the pressure difference.
The Orifice plate is simple, cheap, with no moving parts, has accuracy = 15% of full range. It
does not work well with liquids containing particles because the orifice can become clogged.
3- Rotameter:
Rotameter is a float in a tapered vertical tube with the fluid flow pushing the float upwards.
Refer figure below.
The fluid has to flow through the gap between the float and the walls of the tube.
The tube is tapered and so the gap between the float and the tube wall increases as the float
moves up the tube.
When the fluid is flowing through the gap between float and tube wall, it will push the float up.
The level of the float indicates the flow rate.
A level sensor is used to indicate the level of the float in the tube.
CHANGE OF LEVEL
The Rotameter is cheap. Accuracy = 1% and can be used for flow rate over the range 3
m
30 x 106 1
.
sec
4-Turbine Meter:
Turbine meter consists of a multi-bladed rotor that is supported centrally in the pipe along which
the flow occurs. Refer figure below.
The rotor rotates as a result of the fluid flow, the angular velocity being approximately
proportional to the flow rate.
25
The rate of revolution of the rotor can be determined by attaching a small permanent magnet
to one of the blades and using a pick-up coil.
An induced e. m .f. pulse is produced in the coil every time the magnet passes through it.
The pulses are counted and so the numbers of revolutions of the rotor are determined.
The meter is expensive, with an accuracy= 0.1%.
CHANGE IN VOLTAGE
2-Load Cell:
The load cell consists of a strain gauged cylinder. Refer figure below.
The weight of a tank of liquid can be used as a measure of the height of liquid in the tank.
Load cells are commonly used for such weight measurement.
When the level of the liquid changes, the weight changes and so load on the load cell changes
and the resistance of the strain gauges changes.
The change in the resistance of the strain gauges is thus a measure of the level of the liquid.
Since the load cells are completely isolated from the liquid, the method is useful for corrosive
liquids.
26
CHANGE IN LEVEL
CHANGE IN WEIGHT
CHANGE IN LOAD
CHANGE IN RESISTANCE OF STRAIN GAUGE
F-TEMPERATURE SENSORS
The following are some of the most commonly used temperature sensors.
1-Glass Thermometer:
The liquid inside the thermometer expands with temperature and rise up in a small tube.
The height of liquid is proportional to temperature.
2- Bimetallic Strips:
Bimetallic strips consist of two different metal strips of the same length bonded together.
Refer figure below.
Metals have different coefficients of expansion.
When temperature increases the composite strip bends into a CURVE STRIP.
The strip with the higher coefficient metal on the outside of the curve will have grater length than
the one on the inside of the curve.
If one end of a bimetallic strip is fixed, the amount by which the free end moves is a measure
of the temperature.
This movement may be used to open or close electric circuits, as in the simple thermostat
commonly used with domestic heating system.
27
Bi-metallic strip
devices are
ROBUST,
SLOW TO
REACT, CHEAP
and used within a
range= - 30 C
to 600 C with
accuracy = +/1%.
0.0039 / C
0.0067 / C
0.0038 / C
CHANGE IN TEMPERATURE
-200 C to 850 C
-80 C to 300 C
-200 v to 250 C
CHANGE IN RESISTANCE
3- Thermistor:
Thermister is semiconductor temperature sensor made from mixture of metal oxides.
28
Example:
At +60C
0.75k
At +40C
1.6k
At + 20C
3.75k
At 0C
9.8k
At - 20C
29k
Thermister are very strong & small. HIGHLY SENSITIVE to temperature variations. Small
THERMAL capacity. The operating range= -250 C to +650 C with accuracy = 0.1%.
3-Thermocouples:
A thermocouple consists of two different metal wires joined together. Refer figure below.
When two different metals are joined together, a potential difference occurs across the junction.
The potential difference across the junction depends on the two metals used and the temperature
of the junction.
29
TABLE-THERMOCOUPLES
SENSITIVIT
RANGE ( C)
Y V/ C
63
0 to 980
53
-180 to 760
41
-180 to 1260
6
0 to 1750
43
-180to 370
MATERIAL
CHROMEL-CONSTANTAN
IRON-CONSTANTAN
CHEOMEL-ALUMEL
PLATINUM-PLATINUM/
RHODIUM 13%
COPPER-CONSTANTAN
TYP
E
E
J
K
R
T
Selection of Sensors
Sensors can be selected based on
a) The nature of the measurement
b) The nature of output required
30
c) Range.
d) Accuracy.
e) Speed of response.
f) Reliability.
g) Stability.
h) Environmental conditions.
CHAPTER 3
Data Presentation Elements
Outcomes Covered:
3. Be acquainted with all common analogue and digital devices for data presentation
7. Deal with all types of signal processing and conditioning
14. Compare the numbering systems
Number System
A numeral system (or system of numeration) is a writing system for expressing numbers, that
is a mathematical notation for representing numbers of a given set, using graphemes or symbols
in a consistent manner. It can be seen as the context that allows the numerals "11" to be
interpreted as the binary symbol for three, the decimal symbol for eleven, or a symbol for other
numbers in different bases.
Ideally, a numeral system will:
31
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
1
1
1
1
0
0
1
1
0
0
1
0
0
1
0
1
0
1
0
1
and so on.. up 15
0
0
0
1
0
0
1
0
0
1
0
0
1
0
0
0
and so on
0
0
0
1
0
0
1
0
0
1
0
0
1
0
0
0
and so on
0
0
0
1
0
0
1
0
0
1
0
0
1
0
0
0
and so on
33
34
Four resistances
R3 across AD = V AD=
V S R3
R3 + R4
35
)
R1 + R 2 R 3+ R 4
R 1+ R 2 R 3 + R 4
The above equation gives the balanced condition V0 =0.
When R1 changes to ( R1 + R1 )
Then output voltage changes from V0 to (V0 + Vo ).
R1 + R1
R3
) .
Where: Vo+ Vo=V S (
R 1 + R1 + R 2 R 3 + R 4
R 1+ R 1
R1
) .
Hence: (Vo+ Vo Vo=V S (
R1 + R 1+ R 2 R1 + R2
When ( R1 ) is very small than ( R1 ),
Then the denominator ( R1 + R1 + R2 )approximates to ( R1 + R2 ) and the above
R1
.
R 1 + R2
36
ADC stages:
Stage 1:The sample of the analogue signal is taken at regular intervals. This gives a series of
narrow pulses with heights that vary as the analogue signal.
Stage 2: These samples are then converted into digital signals using analogue to digital
conversion.
37
Thus, if we divide the maximum analogue voltage into eight parts then each one out of eight
digital words correspond to fraction of maximum input value.
Thus each rise in the analogue voltage of (1/8) of the maximum analogue input results in a
further bit being generated.
38
39
The basic form of D/A converter involves the digital input being used to activate the electronic
switches.
1 activates switch and 0 does not activate the switch.
The position 1 in the word determines, which switch is activated.
For example: For 3-bits converter.
001 is received electronic switch for supply voltage of 1 V is switched on for an analogue
output.
010 is received electronic switch for supply voltage of 2 V is switched on for an analogue
output.
100 is received electronic switch for supply voltage of 4 V is switched on for an analogue
output.
digital word 011 is received least significant bit 001 switching 1 V to the output and 010 bit
switching 2 V to the output to give a summed output of 3V.
Example(3) : A microprocessor gives an output of an 8-bit word. This is fed through an 8-bit
D/A converter to a control valve, which requires 6.0 V to be fully open. If the fully open state is
to be indicated by the output of the digital word (11111111) what will be the change in output to
the valve when there is a change of 1 bit?
Solution:
40
Alphanumeric Display:
It can display letters of alphabets and numbers.
USE of LEDs or LCDs.
(i) LEDs:
a- Require low voltages.
b- More power consumption than LCDs.
c- More expensive than LCDs.
d- Common colors are Red, Yellow & Green.
e- 7-segment or dot-matrix types.
7- Segment Displays:
By illuminating different segment, numbers and some alphabets can be displayed.
To show 2 the segments a, b, c, g) are illuminated.
41
They have a Sample &Hold circuit, an analogue to digital converter and display count.
If the input is changing very fast there may be errors in the output sampling.
Digital meters have very high resistance, so they do not have loading effects.
42
43
CHAPTER 4
CONTROL SYSTEMS
Outcomes Covered:
5. Define basic element of a control system.
4. Distinguish between open and closed loop control systems.
8. Employ different control methods, which are suitable for different types of systems.
15 Use logic gates to build functional logic diagrams
Figure 4.1 (a) Control System used to Control a Variable at some Required Value.
The control system may also be defined as the system, which is used to provide at its output a
particular sequence of events (or actions) corresponding to the presence of certain input
conditions or /and events.
Output Variable (Controlled) - This is the physical variable associated with the process,
which is to be controlled or maintained at some required operating value.
Input Variable (Set Point (SP) / Reference) This is the desired or required value of the
output controlled variable.
Manipulated Variable This is the process variable which is used to maintain the output
controlled variable at its set point (SP).
Disturbance Variable - This is in fact, any variable in the process that can cause output
controlled variable to deviate away from set point (SP) value. It may be defined as
disturbance signal or termed as an UPSET in the process.
3.
4.
Central heating system - As an example of the type of control system described by figure
4.1(a), the block diagram representation of central heating system is represented as shown in
the figure 4.2(a) below-
Cloths washing machine - As an example of the type of control system described by figure
4.1(b), the block diagram representation of central heating system is represented as shown in
the figure 4.2(b) below-
45
A cloths washing machine has as its input a set of several instructions representing the
sequence of events required to wash the cloths, e.g. fill the drum with cold water, heat the
water to 40(Deg.), tumble the cloths for the specific period of time, empty the drum of water etc.
Thus the input is the information determining the required sequence of events and the function of
the control system is to provide at the output the required sequence of event. Here, the control
system is used to control a sequence of events.
46
47
Comparison Element.
Control Law & Implementation Element.
Correction Element.
Process Element.
Measurement Element.
1. Comparison Element
The comparison element in the close loop control system is represented by the circular symbol
with + sign for the set-point (SP) input signal and - sign for the feedback signal.
This element compares the set value and the measured value to find the error.
ERROR= Set Value- Measured value of the output signal (FEEDBACK).
Negative feedback is used here as the feedback is subtracted from the set value with - sign.
Positive feedback may be used if the feedback is added to the set value with + sign.
2. Control Law & Implementation Element
This element decides what action is to be taken when there is error. (Selection Switch: To Select
1Kw heating coil or/and 2Kw heating coil!)
The control law is to correct the error (to decrease or increase the temperature).
48
3. Correction Element
This is a final correction element. This produces the change required to correct the error. (1Kw
heating coil or/and 2Kw heating coil).
The term Actuator is used for the element of correction unit, which gives the power to carry out
the action.
This is also called as final control element (FCE).
4. Process Element
The process element is the physical element or the set of elements which are designed and
assembled to perform the particular function. The process variable, which is the physical variable
associated with the process is what is being controlled. Temperature of the Room, Speed of Car,
and Level of Water in the Tank etc. are examples.
5. Measurement Element
This produces the feedback signal related to the output value of the variable. This is some kind
SENSOR and suitable Signal Conditioner Circuit. (Together-TRANSDUCER). This is used to
give the feedback information regarding the statues of the output variable.
The input gives set-point (SP) (or reference) required value of the output variable, which is to be
controlled.
The output is the physical variable of the process, which is of the interest of the user whose
operating value is required to be controlled or maintain at the set-point (SP) value.
The comparison element and control law implementation unit together is called Control Unit.
49
The resulting control signal from the output of the differential amplifier is then given to the
motor, which adjusts the speed of the rotating shaft according to size of control signal.
The speed of the rotating shaft of motor is measured by the tachogenerator. The
tachogenerator is connected to motor shaft by means of pair of bevel gears. The signal from the
output of tachogenerator is given to the differential amplifier as feedback.
50
1.
Process Control
The term process control is used to describe the control of physical variables associated with
the process in order to maintain them at some particular operating value.
Ex.1: Central Heating System for House with the output variable is to be controlled is the
TEMPERATURE (Deg.) of the Room.
Ex.2: Overhead Water Tank for House with the output variable is to be controlled is the
LEVEL (meters) of the water inside the overhead Tank.
2.
Servomechanisms
The term servomechanism is used to for the continuous feedback control systems in which
the output controlled variable is a position or speed.
Ex.1: Speed Control of the Shaft of Motor with the output variable to be controlled and
maintained at constant value is the speed of the shaft driven by the motor.
3.
Sequential Control
This type of control system exercises control over the sequencing of events. The event might
be sequenced so that one can not take place until the previous one is complete or to occur at
particular times.
Ex.1: Washing Machine System is an example of the type sequential control. Here, the
control is of sequence of events so that one event follows another. Thus we might have
control (pre wash cycle) that only after event1 (Start when switch is pressed) is complete
event2 (Open an inlet valve and allow water to fall into the drum of the machine up to some
particular required level) starts. When event2 is complete (Level sensor indicates that water
has reach to the required level) then event3 (close the inlet valve) starts, etc. One action
starts when the one before is complete.
Ex.2: Automatic Kettle is a simple example of sequential control. Here, first the kettle is
switched ON, the water heats up and continuous heating until temperature sensor indicates
that the water is boiling. The kettle is then automatically switched OFF. The heating element
of kettle is not continuously controlled like in the central heating process control system but
only given start and stop signals.
4.
Numerical Control
With such type of control system the input set-point (SP) values are stored in the form of
information as digital codes on paper tape, magnetic tape or disk. This information can be
used by the system to control the position, direction and speed of motion of machine tool.
51
Ex.1: Computer Numerical Controlled (CNC) Machine Tool belongs to the class of
numerical control system to automatically machine the work piece to required shape. Here, a
controlled sequence of operations being carried out with the position sensors being used to
initiate and stop actions. This is a one kind of sequential control with the exception that input
set-point (SP) data is fed to the computer by means of storage device. The computer is used
with the stored programs to perform the job of control unit (Comparison and Control Law
Implementation) while robots are used as final control element (FCE) to perform the job of
actuators or correction elements.
5.
6.
52
DIGITAL SIGNALS are processed by one or more LOGIC GATES. (Figure 4.6(a)).
The relationships between the inputs to a logic gates and the outputs (Figure 4.6 (b)) can be
tabulated in the form of truth table.
The truth table specifies the relationships between inputs and outputs.
As per the BOOLEAN ALGEBRA the notation used for LOGIC HIGH =1 & LOGIC
LOW =0.
54
Figure 4.8 (b) - AND Gate System for Machine Tool Operation.
55
OR LOGIC GATE
The functional block diagram and truth table of OR logic gate function is as shown in figure
4.9.
56
57
Figure 4.11- OR Gate System for Discarding the Bottles from the Packaging.
58
Figure 4.13 NOT Gate System for Chemical Plant Temperature Monitoring.
59
For an NOR gate logic function the output Q=0 if either A=1 or B=1 and both A=B=1.
If both A=B=0 then output Q=1.
Open-loop control.
Close-loop control.
Outputs which are continuously monitored & controlled (Process Control).
Outputs ON/ OFF controlled by number of Inputs ON/OFF. (Digital ON/OFF Control).
Sequential Control where sequence of actions are carried out. (Sequential Control).
Examples:
1.
62
unit or final control element (FCE). Your BODY in fact represents the entire process,
which performs intended function. (Figure 4.19)
63
5.
6.
7.
8.
1.
(i) T
(i) F
(ii) T
(ii) T
B.
D.
(i) T
(i) F
(ii) F
(ii) F
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2.
3.
(i) T
(i) T
(i) F
(i) F
(ii) T
(ii) F
(ii) T
(ii) F
(i) T
(i) T
(i) F
(i) F
(ii) T
(ii) F
(ii) T
(ii) F
Open-Loop.
Closed-Loop.
Sequential.
D. Logic Gate.
4. Which type of control is required for a domestic washing machine if it is only to switch on if
the door is closed and electrical power switch is on?
6.
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X=0, Y=1.
X=0, Y=0.
X=1, Y=1.
X=0, Y=1.
X=1, Y=0.
X=0, Y=0.
X=1, Y=1.
X=0, Y=1.
X=1, Y=0.
10. For the control system shown in the figure 4.21, the output Q =0 when:
(i) A, B, C and D are all 0.
(ii) A and B are 0, C and D are1.
Decide whether each of these statements is True (T) or False (F).
(i) T
(i) T
(i) F
(i) F
(ii) T
(ii) F
(ii) T
(ii) F
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NOT
AND
OR
NOR
11.
Which gate system should be used for the red light to come on if the temperature of a heat
treatment bath falls below certain value?
12.
Which gate system should be used with traffic lights if the light is to switch on to go if a car
is detected and certain time has elapsed since it had switched to red?
13.
Which gate system should be used if the burglar alarm is to sound if any one of the detectors
is activated?
Suggest the possible form of control systems might take for the following situations:
(a) Controlling the thickness of sheet steel produced by a rolling mill.
(b) A conveyor belt is to be used to transport packages from a loading machine to a
pick up area. The control system must start the belt when a package is loaded onto
belt, run the belt until the package arrives at the pick up area, then stop the belt
until package is removed. Then the entire sequence then starts again.
(c) Monitoring breathing in an intensive care unit, sounding an alarm if the breathing
stops.
(d) Controlling the amount of chemical supplied by the hopper into the sacks.
(e) Controlling the volume of water supplied to tank in order to maintain a constant
level.
(f) Controlling the illumination of the road in front of car by switching on the lights.
(g) Controlling the temperature in a car by the driver manually selecting the heater
controls, switching between them as necessary to obtain the required temperature.
14.
15.
Figure 4.22 shows two systems that might be used to control the temperature of the room.
With the block diagram representation explain in short how each operates?
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16.
17.
Chapter 5
TRANFER FUNCTION OF CONTROL SYSTEMS
Outcome Covered:
10. Determine the transfer function of open and closed loop control system
(5.1)
The transfer function is the simplified mathematical representation (MODEL) of control system.
It is used to determine the output response of the control system.
The output response of the control system is defined as the change (or variation) in output
variable C(s) due to the change (or variation) in the input variable R(s).
R(s) = Change in Input Variable in S-domain.
C(s) = Change in Output Variable in S-domain.
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69
Hence for an open loop control system the overall transfer function T(s), which relates the
mathematical relationship between the input R(s) and the output variable C(s) is the forward
path transfer function G(s) only.
Thus, For an OPEN-LOOP CONTROL SYSTEM the TRASNFER FUNCTION=T(S) is
given as-FORWARD PATH TRANSFER FUNCTION =G(S).
(5.1)
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In a close-loop system the controller, the correction element / final control element and the
process are connected together in cascade (series) are represented as shown in figure 5.3 (b) as FORWARD PATH TRANSFER FUNCTION = G(s).
The feedback sensor element, which gives the feedback signal = B(s) as a measure of the
output variable is also termed as TRANSDUCER (combination of SENSOR + SIGNAL
CONDITIONER) is represented by the FEEDBACK TRANSFER FUNCTION= H(S).
Figure 5.3 (b) Block Diagram Representation of Close-loop Control System with Negative
Feedback
The comparator element is represented by the crossed circle.
It is marked with + sign (Positive) for the set-point (SP) input signal=R(s) and with -sign
(Negative) for the feedback signal=B(s).
This element gives the error signal=E(s) as a measure of difference
point (SP) / reference signal = R(s) and the feedback signal = B(s)
(5.11)
Negative feedback is used here as the feedback is subtracted from the input set-point (SP) /
reference signal = R(s) with - sign.
Positive feedback may be used if the feedback is added to the input set-point (SP) / reference
signal = R(s) with + sign.
The Overall Transfer Function -T(s), for close loop system with negative feedback which
relates the mathematical relationship between the input R(s) and the output variable C(s) is
given as-
(5.12)
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From figure 5.3 (b) it is clear that the input signal to the forward path transfer function = G(s)
is an error signal=E(s) and the output signal is C(s).
(5.13)
From figure 5.3(b) it is clear that the input signal to the Feedback Transfer Function = H(s) is
an output signal C(s) and the output from it is the feedback signal = B(s) as a measure of the
output variable
(5.14)
Recall (5.11):
E(s) = R(s) - B(s)
(5.11)
(5.12)
72
Figure 5.3 (c) Block Diagram Representation of Close-loop Control System with Negative
Feedback
The close-loop feedback system with FORWARD PATH TRANSFER FUNCTION = G(s)
and FEEDBACK TRANSFER FUNCTION = H(s) with positive feedback can be represented
by theCLOSE-LOOP TRANSFER FUNCTION = T(s)
= C(s) / R(s) = G(s) / [1 - (G(s) * H(s))]
(5.13)
Figure 5.3 (d) Block Diagram Representation of Close-loop Control System with Positive
Feedback
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Chapter 6
CONTROLLERS
Outcomes Covered
6. Be familiar with system control strategies and techniques used in engineering.
13 Valuate the performance of a given control system.
Controllers:
The Controller in the closed-loop control system detects the error between the set value and the
measured value and implements some method of control. The error might arise due to change in
the process conditions or change in the set-point (SP) value. The different control methods are
employed for different types of control systems, which convert the error (error signal) into
control action (control signal). This control action reduces the error. The ways in which
controllers react to error changes are called as CONTROL LAWS or CONTROL MODES or
CONTROL METHODS.
The Different Control Methods Suitable For Different Control Systems
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
The ON/OFF Mode: in this controller is just the switch activated by the error signal.
The control action is just on-off.
The Proportional (P) mode: produces a control action, which is proportional to error.
The Proportional plus the Derivative mode (PD): produces the control action, which
has 2 parts. One is proportional to the error and the other proportional to derivative
of the error.
The Proportional plus Integral mode (PI): produces the control action, which has 2
parts. One is proportional to the error and the other proportional to integral of the
error.
The Proportional plus Integral plus Derivative mode (PID): 3 term PID mode. One
is proportional to the error and other proportional to integral of the error and the third
is proportional to derivative of the error.
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If the room temperature is above the required value then the heater will be switched OFF. If the
room temperature falls below the required value then the heater will be switched ON.
Here, the error signal is used by the controller to decide the switching ON/OFF operation of
heater.
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On-OFF Devices:
Figure 6.2 shows the relationship of the output control signal from the ON/OFF controller with
the error signal.
Controller Output
Error
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Controller Input
Controller Output
(6.1)
% Controller Output
% Error
100
77
78
Controller Output
(6.2)
It is usual to express these controller outputs as a percentage of the full range of value output and
the input error as percentage of full range.
KD = constant of proportionality and referred to as derivative time since it has unit of time.
Error
0
Time
Controller Output
Time
79
The output of derivative controller is a large signal proportional to the derivative of error and not
its value. Thus it will give rapid corrective responses whenever the error will change as function
of time.
Derivative controllers are not suitable for the constant error signals. (Zero output) Hence it is
always combined with proportional control.
Controller Output = KP * (error + KD * rate of change of error).
(6.3)
The figure 6.9 represents the output of the proportional-derivative (PD-Type) controller when
there is steadily increasing error signal.
There is initial quick change in the controller output because of the derivative action followed by
the gradual change due to proportional action.
Error
0
Time
Controller Output
Time
80
Problem 3: What will the controller output be for the a proportional plus derivative controller
(a) Initially and (b) 2 s after the error begins to change from the zero at the rate of 2% / s (Figure
6.10). The controller has KP = 4 and KD = 0.4s.
Error
6
4
2
0
3
Time (S)
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Controller Output
(6.4)
It is usual to express these controller outputs as a percentage of the full range of value output and
the input error as percentage of full range.
KI = Constant of proportionality and has unit S-1. The reciprocal of KI is called integral time
and is expressed in seconds.
What do you mean by the integral of error with respect to time!
Refer figure 6.11, Here, the error signal varies with time (t).
The value of integral of error at some timet is the area under the graph between t=0 and t.
Controller Output
Ast increases, the area increases and so the controller output increases.
Here,
area
time (t).
Therefore,
Controller Output
time (t).
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error
(6.5)
The integral action is added to proportional control system then the controller output is given by:
Controller Output = KP * (error + KI * integral of error with time).
(6.6)
83
KI = 0.10 S-1.
Controller Output
(a) Area under the graph between a time of 0 and 1 second is = (20 %) * (1s) = 20%s.
Controller Output
(b) Area under the graph between a time of 0 and 2 second is = (20 %) * (2s) = 40%s.
Controller Output
(6.7)
A PID-mode controller is considered to be proportional controller which has integral control to off-set error and
derivative control to reduce the time lags.
Problem 5: Determine the controller output of PID controller with KP = 4, KI = 0.10 S-1 and KD =
0.5s, at time(a) T =0.
(b) T =2 s. when there is an error input which starts at t=0 and increases at 1% / s.
Refer figure 6.13.
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85
86
Chapter 7
Operational Amplifiers and Programmable Logic Controllers
Outcome Covered
9. To deal with operational amplifier controllers and programmable logic controllers
Operational Amplifiers
Operational Amplifier is an extremely efficient and versatile device that perform various
mathematical operations along with amplification of the input signal.
Feedback
The most important step in analyzing an op-amp circuit is to determine first the type of
feedback that is being employed!
Feedback refers to connecting the output of the op-amp to its input, usually through resistors, and
there are three basic ways to do that, shown below:
87
Compares two voltages and switches its output to indicate which voltage is larger.
Vs and Vs.)
Inverting amplifier
An inverting amplifier uses negative feedback to invert and amplify a voltage. The Rin,Rf resistor
network allows some of the output signal to be returned to the input. Since the output is 180 out
of phase, this amount is effectively subtracted from the input, thereby reducing the input into the
operational amplifier. This reduces the overall gain of the amplifier and is dubbed negative
feedback
The gain of the amplifier is determined by the ratio of Rf to Rin. That is:
88
The presence of the negative sign is a convention indicating that the output is inverted. For
example, if Rf is 10 000 and Rin is 1 000 , then the gain would be -10 000/1 000, which is
-10
Non-inverting amplifier
Differential amplifier
The circuit shown is used for finding the difference of two voltages each multiplied by some
constant (determined by the resistors).
The name "differential amplifier" should not be confused with the "differentiator", also shown on
this page.
89
For common-mode rejection, anything done to one input must be done to the other. The addition
of a compensation capacitor in parallel with Rf, for instance, must be balanced by an equivalent
capacitor in parallel with Rg.
Whenever
When
follower:
and
and
and
the differential gain is A = 1 and the circuit acts as a differential
Voltage follower
Used as a buffer amplifier to eliminate loading effects (e.g., connecting a device with a high
source impedance to a device with a low input impedance).
to vibration and impact. Programs to control machine operation are typically stored in batterybacked or non-volatile memory. A PLC is an example of a real time system since output results
must be produced in response to input conditions within a bounded time, otherwise unintended
operation will result.
ThestructureofaPLCcanbedividedintofourparts.Theyareinput/outputmodules,central
processingunit(CPU),memoryandprogrammingterminal.
Programming
Terminal
Power
Supply
Memory
CPU
Input
Module
Output
Module
Input
Devices
Output
Devices
PLC
PROCESS
Fig.1:
Programmablelogiccontroller(PLC)structure
A programmable controller operates by examining the input signals from a process and
carrying out logic instructions (which have been programmed into its memory) on these input
signals,producingoutputsignalstodriveprocessequipmentormachinery.Standardinterfacesbuilt
intoPLCallowthemtobedirectlyconnectedtoprocessactuatorsandtransducerswithouttheneed
forintermediatecircuitryorrelays.
PLCs require shorter installation and commissioning times than do hard-wired systems.
Although PLCs are similar to 'conventional' computers in term of hardware technology, they
have specific features suited for industrial control:
1
(b) Modular plug-in construction, allowing easy replacement or addition of units (e.g.
input/output);
91
Chapter 8
Valves, Actuators and Logic Diagrams
Outcome Covered
16. Identify the types of control valve bodies. Actuators and accessories
17. Construct functional logic diagram for fire and gas system.
Control valves are valves used to control conditions such as flow, pressure, temperature, and
liquid level by fully or partially opening or closing in response to signals received from
92
controllers that compare a "setpoint" to a "process variable" whose value is provided by sensors
that monitor changes in such conditions.
The opening or closing of control valves is done by means of electrical, hydraulic or pneumatic
systems. Positioners are used to control the opening or closing of the actuator based on Electric,
or Pnuematic Signals. These control signals, traditionally based on 3-15psi (0.2-1.0bar), more
common now are 4-20mA signals for industry, 0-10V for HVAC systems, & the introduction of
"Smart" systems, HART, Fieldbus Foundation, & Profibus being the more common protocols.
Types of control valve bodies
The most common and versatile types of control valves are sliding-stem globe and angle valves.
Their popularity derives from rugged construction and the many options available that make
them suitable for a variety of process applications, including severe service.[2] Control valve
bodies may be categorized as below:
Angle valves
o
Globe valves
o
Diaphragm Valves
Rotary valves
o
spool valve
piston valve
relay valve
Actuators
An actuator is a mechanical device for moving or controlling a mechanism or system. It takes
energy, usually transported by air, electric current, or liquid, and converts that into some kind of
motion.
Types of actuators include
Standard Electric Actuators
Universal Electric Actuators
Micro electric Actuators
Air Actuators
Fire and gas (F&G) detection and mitigation systems are key to maintaining the overall safety and operation of
industrial facilities. F&G systems include offshore petroleum exploration and production, onshore oil and gas facilities,
refineries and chemical plants, marine operations, tank farms and terminals, pipelines, power plants, mining and
paper mills.
A F&G safety system continuously monitors for abnormal situations such as a fire, or combustible or toxic gas release
within the plant; and provides early warning and mitigation actions to prevent escalation of the incident and protect
the process or environment.
94
The first measurement using half-splitting would be made at point E (the middle of the faulty
path). If the signal is okay at point E the path to the left of point E is good and the problem lies
between points E and I. Thus one measurement has reduced the size of the faulty path by onehalf (half-splitting)
The next measurement would be made at point G again splitting the faulty path
in half.
If the measurement at point G is bad (no signal) the next measurement
would be made at point F. This method of splitting a faulty path in half is continued until
the faulty stage is isolated
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