RADIO ACTIVITY

Radioactivity is a spontaneous emission of highly penetrating radiations from

heavy elements occurring in nature. The elements which exhibit this property are
called radioactive elements. Radioactive elements emit radiations composed of
three distinct rays namely: , ,
Radioactivity is not affected by external agents like temperature, high pressure,
large electric or magnetic fields.
Artificial radioactivity involves bombarding an element with particles, neutrons,
protons etc.
Photographic plate

Under magnetic field

Under electric field

Properties of alpha ( a ) rays
1) An alpha particle is an helium nucleus ( 24 He )
2) The alpha particles short out of radioactive substances have velocities ranging
from (1.4-1.7)x107m/s
3) They produce high ionisation in the gas through which they pass. ( a )
particles have 100 times than beta () and about 10,000times that of gamma
() rays.

4) They feebly affect photographic paper

5) They are scattered by nuclei of heavy elements such as gold and produce heat
due to the stoppage of ( a ), () and () by the radioactive substance.
Properties of beta () particles
1) The beta particles possess ve charge and mass equal to that of an electron.
They are identical to electrons
2) All () emitted from a substance do not have the same velocity. They
range from 0.3c to 0.99c. At high velocities, e/m is found to decrease ,
indicating an increase in mass according to the equation

m=

m0
1-

v2
c2

3) The ionising power is low hence the range is large

4) They affect photographic plate and produce fluorescence in certain
compounds e.g. barium platino cyanide
5) They are deflected by electric and magnetic fields, their direction
indicating that they are negatively charged particles.
6) They penetrate through thin foils and their penetration power is greater
than that of alpha rays.
Properties of gamma () rays
1) They are E-M waves of short wavelengths (0.005 to 0.5). They are not
charged, hence not affected by either electric or magnetic field and travel
with the speed of light.
2) They produce fluorescence and affect photographic plate.
3) They ionise the gas through which they pass but the ionisation is small
4) They are more penetrating than even beta particles and can pass though an
iron plate of about 30 cm thickness.
5) They are diffracted by crystals just like X rays are.

Law of radioactive disintegration

Let N be the number of atoms present in a particular radioactive element at a
given time t. then the rate of decrease (decay) -

dN
is proportional to N (the
dt

number of un decayed particles)

dN
= lN , Where is a constant known as the disintegration constant of the
dt

respective element. It is defined as the ration of the amount of the substance

which disintegrates in unit time to the amount of substance present
dN
- dN
= lN ,
= ldt
dt
N
N
t
dN
=

0 - ldt,
N0 N

[ln ]NN

= [- lt ]0 ,
t

ln

N
= -lt
N0

N
= e - lt ,
N0
N = N 0e - lt - - - - - - - - - -(1)

This equation shows that the number of atoms of a given radioactive substance
decreases exponentially with time.

From equation (1) above if T1 is the half life period, the time required for
2

half of the radioactive substance to disintegrate from N 0

to

NO
2

then

T
-l 1
N0
= N 0e 2 ,
2
-l

T1
2

-l

T1
2

1
,
2

ln e = -1ln 2,
l

T1
2

= ln 2

T1 ln 2 0.693
=
=
- - - - - - - (2 )
2
l
l

Substitute equation (2) in (1), then we have

N
=e
N0
so

- ln 2t
T1
2

the

- ln 2 (

t
1
2

=e

fraction

N
= (0.5)
N0

but

e -ln 2 = 0.5

after

some time

is

given by

t
T1
2

Decay constant,
The decay of a radioactive nuclide is the probability that an individual nucleus will
decay within a unit time.
The SI units are s-1, hr-1, day-1 or yr-1
The value of is constant for any particular nuclide and zero for a stable nuclide.
Activity, A
The activity of a source is the number of its nuclei that decay in unit time. Its SI unit
is the Becquerel (Bq) = (1 decay per second)

A = lN where N is the number of decayed nuclei.

e.g. Find the activity of 1mg (1x10 -6kg) of radon of half life 3.8 days
0.693
= 2.1x10 -6 / s
3.8 x24 x3600
6.023 X 10 26
N=
x10 - 6
222
= N = 2.7 x1018
- dN
= A = lN
dt
= 2.1x10 -6 x 2.7 x1018
= 5.7 x1012

events / s

Example
The half life of radium is 1590 yrs. In how many yrs will 1 gram of the pure
element
(a) Lose 1centgram (0.01g?)
= l =

0.693 0.693
=
= 4.3585 yr -1
T1
1590
2

Amount left after some time t is N = 0.99g and N 0 . Now log e

t=

log e

N0
= lt
N

1
= 23.25 yrs
0.99

(b) be reduced to 1 centigram

use t =

N = 0.01g , N 0 = 1g

log e

1
= 10560 yrs
0.01

Practice questions
1. (a) If a radioactive material initially contains 3mg of uranium

U , how much will

235

it contain after 150 000 yrs? What will be its activity at the end of this period
(time)?

N
N
N

- l t

= 3 e 8 . 8 x 10
= 1 . 98 mg

- 14

= N

Use

and

1
2

x 1 . 5 x 10

x 365

x 24

x 3600

or

1
=

2
= 2 .5

t
T

1
2

where

t = 1 .5

From Avagadro, the number of atoms in 1 mole of uranium -234 is 6.023x1023

6.023x10 23 x1.98 x10 - 6

= 5.096 x1018
234
- dN
There no. of atoms in 1.98x10-6kg is given by
== A = lN
dt
A = 8.8 x10 -14 x5.096 x1018 = 4.45 x10 5

T 1 = 2.5 x10 5 yrs

(Take

and

l = 8.8 x10 -14 / sec)

ans : 1.98 x10 -6 kg ,

4.5 x10 5

di sin tergrations / sec

(b) ( i) In what way is a radio active change different from a chemical change?
In a radio active change, usually a new element is formed while in a chemical
change no new element is formed
(ii) Why is that only alpha particles are emitted by radio active nuclei while
protons and neutrons are not?
The alpha particles have high binding energy. To escape from the nucleus a
particle must have kinetic energy. The alpha mass is sufficiently smaller than that
of its constituent nucleons for such energy to be available.
(a) The mean half life of radium (226) is 1600 yrs and that of radium (222) is 3.8
days. Calculate the volume of radon gas that would be in equilibrium with 1g
of radium.
Soln: Let l1

and

l 2 be the decay constants of radium and radon in

equilibrium. Let T1 and T2 be the half- lives of radium and radon respectively.
N 1 l1 T1
=
= ,
N 2 l2 T2
N2 =

Then

N1
6.02 x10 23 3.8
T2 =
x
1600
T1
226
365
= 1.733x1016 particles

Mass of radon in equilibrium with radium is

222
g
6.02 x10 23
= 6.391x10 -6 g

m = 1.733x1016 x

At s.t.p , 222g of radon occupies a volume of 22400cm3

Therefore volume of radon in equilibrium with 1 g of radium is given by:
V=

22400
x6.391x10 -6 cm 3 = 6.449 x10 - 4 cm 3
222

For example,
The half life of bismuth-212 is 61minutes. A sample of bismuth -212 has an activity
of 320 Bq.
(a) calculate the decay constant for bismuth in min-1

(b) use this value for the decay constant to calculate the activity of the sample
after 180 minutes
Solution
(a) =

(b)

0.693
= 0.0114 min s -1or1.14 x10 - 2 min -1
61

A = A0 e - lt = 320e -0.0114 x180

= 44 Bq

Example 2.
Strontium -90 is a compound of nuclear fallout and may be absorbed into bones if
ingested. It emits particles and its half life is 28 years.

(a) Explain why strontium -90 is a serious health hazard.

Strontium in bones emits ionising beta () particles for a long period of time.

(b) Calculate the time it takes for thr the activity to fall to 5% of its original value.
Using A = A0 e -lt and l =

ln 2
, A = 5%, A0 = 100%, t = 120 yrs
T1
2

USES OF RADIOACTIVITY
A) Radioactive tracers
A radio active isotope is injected into the body (or otherwise ingested) and its
movement followed from outside the body by a suitable detector of radioactivity.
The quantity of the tracer should be as small as possible so as to reduce the patients
exposure time to the radiation .The tracer should have a short half life.
Gamma rays are commonly used for they can travel through matter and cause little
ionisation in the body.
A tracer called technetium is often used because

It emits only gamma rays. gamma rays can be detected outside the body by a
gamma camera

It is naturally excreted and therefore removed from the body.

(B) Radiotherapy
Cancer cells can be killed by use of rays.
Cobalt -60 with a half life of 5 years is used as a source of gamma rays. The beam of
gamma rays has to be aimed at the cancer cells
(C) The cardiac pace maker
Samples of radioactive materials are always warmer than their surroundings.
Radiation emitted by a source has energy. If some of the radiation is absorbed by the
atoms of the source, then energy of the radiation is transferred to the source.
A pacemaker uses the power from a radionuclide to produce pulses of electricity that
keep the heart beating regularly.
An alpha emitter of long half life is used.
(C) Carbon dating
There are three naturally occurring isotopes of carbon
14
Carbon -14 ( 6 C ) decays with a half life of 5700 yrs

It is produced in the upper atmosphere by cosmic rays

12
All living things take carbon 14 as well as carbon -12 ( 6 C ) as a result of

photosynthesis. When living things die, they stop taking in carbon. The carbon -14
slowly decays and so the % of carbon -14 in organic matter slowly decreases with
time. This can be used to date bones, wood, cloth.

Example:
12
The ratio of carbon -14 to carbon -12 atoms in living material is 1.0 : 10 . In an

14
12
Egyptian mummy the ratio of 6 C: 6 C

T1 =
2

0.693

,l = .

is

0.6 : 1012 . How old is it?

0.693
= 1.2 X 10 - 4 yr -1
5700

- 4t

N = N O e -1.2 x10 ,

0.60 = 1e -1.2 x10

- 4t

log e 0.60 = -1.2 x10 - 4 t

- 0.5 = -1.2 x10 - 4 t
t = 4200 yrs.

(D) Age of rocks

Radioactivity can be used to find the age of rocks. For example Uranium -238 has a

T 1 = 4.5 X 10 9 yrs
half life of 4500 Million yrs (
206

). It decays into stable nuclide

Pb. After 1 half life half of it is unchanged and the other half is lead. After 2 half

3
lifes, a quarter of U-238 is left and 4 is lead. By measuring how much of 238U
In a rock has changed to Pb -206, it is possible to calculate the age of a rock. (The
other nuclides in the decay chain are ignored since the half life of U-238 is far much
greater than any of these. For example in a rock sample, the proportion of U-238
atoms to

206

Pb atoms was found to be 4:1. How old is the rock?

Solution:
For every 5 atoms of

U when the rock was formed, 1 atom has decayed and 4

238

atoms have not decayed. I.e.

Activity of

4
is still radio active.
5

U is 80%

238

80% = (0.5)

4.5 x109

t = 1.5 x10 9 yrs

NUCLEAR ENERGY
In electronics and nuclear energy, the unit of energy is called an electron volt
(eV). This is the energy gained by a charge equal to that on an electron moving
through a p.d of one volt.
W = QV
W
Q=
V
1eV = 1.6 X 10 -19 J
1MeV = 1.6 X 10 -13 J
UNIFIED ATOMIC MASS UNIT (a.m.u)
1
The unified atomic mass unit is defined as
th of the mass of carbon 126 C . The
12
number of atoms in 1 mole carbon = 6.02x1023

Since carbon is mono atomic, there are 6.02x1023 atoms of carbon. These have a mass
of 12 g. There fore the mass of 1 atom of carbon is
12
x10 -3 kg
23
6.02 x10
= 1.993355x10 -26 kg
therefore
1.993355
x10 - 26 kg
12
= 1.66 x10 - 27 kg
the
energy it
can

1u =

produce

is

given by

E = 1.66 X 10 - 27 xC 2 J

Also since the mass of the electron, proton and neutron are 9.1x10 -31kg,
1.672x10-27 kg and 1.674x10-27 kg then their masses are 5.48x10-4 u, 1.0073 u and
1.0087 u respectively
1u has energy E = mc 2 = 1.6605x10 -27x2.9979x108J
= 1.4924X10-10J
But

if

1eV

= 1.6022 X 10 -19 J

? = 1.4924 X 10 -10 J
1x1.4924 x10 -10
1.6022 x10 -19
1u = 931.5MeV
1u =
Therefore

= 931.5 x10 6 eV

MISSING MASS
A particular kind of atom of any element is called a nuclide. A nuclide is
distinguished from other nuclides by the number of and neutrons it contains. Nuclides
of the same element having different number of neutrons are called ISOTOPES. Thus
isotopes are atoms of the same element having different masses. Hydrogen has three
isotopes namely 11 H ,12 H ,13 H which are called deuterons and tritons respectively
Other isotopes are those of uranium,
4
2

He Has

234
U , 235
92 U , 92 U

238
92

2 P + 2 N .When you compare the mass of the nucleus of helium and

the mass of the constituent nucleons, it is found that the mass of the nucleons is more
than that for the nucleus. This is true for all nuclei with more than one nucleon.

10

The missing mass is called the mass defect or the mass difference. Using the value
1u= 1.6605x10-27kg and the table below we can find the mass defect for the helium
nuclei in a.m.u and in kg
Atomic mass unit
P

1.00728u

1.00867u

He

4.00151u

2P+2N = 2(1.00728) + 2(1.00867)

= 4.03190 u
But mass of He = 4.00151u
Mass defect

= 0.03039 u
= 0.03039 x 1.6605 x10-27kg
= 5.046x10 -29 kg

The energy equivalent is given by E = mc 2

= 5.046x10 -29 x (3x108)2
= 4.54x10-12J
In any system the total amount of mass and energy is conserved and this can written
as

4
2

He + 4.54 x10 -12 = 2P + 2 N for the case above.

Example
A carbon -12 nucleus has a mass of 11.9967u. How much energy in MeV, would be
needed to split it into its 6 protons and 6 neutrons?
Given that

m p = 1.00728u

and

mn = 1.00867u

6 P + 6 N = 6(1.00728) + 6(1.00867) = 12.0957u

mass deffect = 12.0957 - 11.9967 = 0.0990u
energyequivalent = 0.0990 x931.5MeV
= 92.2 MeV

BINDING ENERGY
The energy needed to separate a nucleus into individual protons and neutrons is called
its binding energy. This is the energy equivalent to the mass defect. The more
nucleons there are the greater the binding energy. The binding energy per nucleon is
the energy needed to remove each nucleon from the nucleus.
The higher the binding energy per nucleon the more stable the nucleus.
For example the binding energy per nucleon for the case above would be
11

92.2
MeV = 7.68MeV
12

RADIOACTIVE DECAY AND BINDING ENERGY

In radioactive decay an unstable nucleus emits radiation and becomes more stable.
The daughter nucleus always has higher binding energy than the parent. The total
mass of the products is less than the parent.

Fore

example

4
Th 224
88 Ra + 2 He

228
90

227.9792u 223.9718u + 4.0015u

defect = 0.00589u

mass

= 5.49 MeV
also
29
Al 14
Si + -10b + 00 u

(an

antineutrino)

28.9733u 28.96880u + 0.000549u + 0

change in
= 0.003951u

mass = 2897330 - 28.969349

= 3.68MeV

14
7

N + 24a 178 O +11H

We can also have an expression such as and

131
0
0
Te+ 01n 131
52Te 53 I + -1 b + 0 u

130
52

FISSION
Means splitting up
A large nucleus (A 200 ) splits into two. The daughter fragments have higher
binding energy than the parent. They are more stable.
e. g

141
92
1
U + 01n 236
92 56 Ba + 36 Kr +3 0 n + Energy

235
92

12

FUSION
Means joining together. Two light nuclei join together to form one heavier nucleus.
The increase in the binding energy per nucleon is much larger for fusion than for
fission because the graph increases more steeply for light nuclei.

forexample
1
1

H +11H 12 H +10b + 00u + energy

2
1

H + 11H 23 H + 00g + energy

3
2

He+ 23He 24 He + 211H + energy

This is a one series reaction

Fusion has a number of advantages over fission reactions such as,

13

Greater power output per kilogram

The raw materials are cheap and readily available

No radioactive elements are produced directly

Example.
The fusion of deuterium can be represented by the reaction
2
1

H + 12 H = 24H

(b) calculate the energy released by this reaction

Mass of

2
1

H = 2.01419u

4
2

He = 4.00277

1u = 1.49 x10 -10 J

(c) 2 kg (mol) of deuterium are caused to fuse and it is proposed that the energy
released by the fusion is used to generate electricity in a power station. If the
efficiency of the process was 52% and the electrical output of the station is to
be 5.0 MW, how long would the deuterium fuel last?

Solution.
(a)

2
1

H+ H= H
2
1

4
2

Given that

2
1

H = 2.01419u

4
2

He = 4.00277

1u = 1.49 x10 -10 J

2(2.01419) = 4.02838u
Change in mass = 0.02561u which is equivalent to 4.25x10-25J
E=3.82x10 -12J
(b) If 52% = 5MW, the 100% would be equivalent to

500
= 9.6 MW / sec
52

But 1 fusion produces 3.82x10-12J

Therefore 9.6x106J would be produced by

9.6 x10 6
= 2.53 x1018 fusions / sec
3.8 x10 -12

1000 mol would last for 1.2x108 seconds (about 3.8 yrs)

14