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Material Science II Final Exam 2011 Model Answers

Problem 1 (20 marks)


A. Is it possible to have an ironcarbon alloy for which the mass fractions of total
cementite and pearlite are 0.043 and 0.562, respectively? Why or why not?
The % carbon C0 required to give a total cementite fraction =0.043

C0 0.022
6.7 0.022
C0 = 0.31 %
0.043 =

(1.5 marks)

The % carbon C0 required to give a total pearlite fraction =0.562

C0 0.022
0.76 0.022
C0 = 0.44 %
0.562 =

(1.5 marks)

Therefore it is not possible to have the said iron-carbon alloy

(1 mark)

B. For an ironcarbon alloy of composition 0.30 wt% C, make schematic


sketches of the microstructure that would be observed for conditions of very
slow cooling at the following temperatures:
a. 1000C
(2 marks)
b. 800C and
(2 marks)
c. 700C
(2 marks)

C. An FCC iron-carbon alloy initially containing 0.30 wt% C is carburized at an


elevated temperature and in an atmosphere wherein the surface carbon
concentration is maintained at 1.1 wt% C. If after 72 hours the concentration
of carbon is 1.01 wt% C at a position 6.0 mm below the surface, determine
the temperature at which the treatment was carried out. (Hint: Use table for D0
and Qd . Convert time into seconds and distance into meters)
(10 marks)

Given :
C0 = 0.30%
C s = 1.10%
C x = 1.01%
x = 6.0 mm = 6 10 3 m
t = 72 h = 259200 s

(2 marks)

Solution :
C x C0
x 1.01 0.30
= 1 erf
= 0.8875
=
C s C0
2 Dt 1.1 0.30
x
(2 marks)
erf
= 1 0.8875 = 0.1125
2 Dt
From table of error function values
6 10 3
x
= 0.1 =
2 Dt
2 D(259200)
2
D = 3.47 10 9 m

s
From table of diffusion data

(2 marks)

Qd = 148 103 J / mol


D0 = 2.3 10 5 m

(2 marks)

1

T

Qd
D = D0 exp
RT
Q
ln D = ln D0 d
R
R = 8.37 J
mol K
1
T=

(ln D0 ln D ) R
Qd

= 2009.5 K

(2 marks)

Problem 2 (17 marks)


A. What is plastic deformation by slip?

(2 marks)

Plastic deformation occurs when large numbers of dislocations move and


multiply so as to result in macroscopic deformation. In other words, it is the
movement of dislocations in the material which allows for deformation.
B. Name and discuss three types of hardening or strengthening mechanisms
related to mobility of dislocations?
1. Grain size reduction
( 3marks)
In a polycrystalline metal, grain size has a tremendous influence on the
mechanical properties. Because grains usually have varying crystallographic
orientations, grain boundaries arise. While an undergoing deformation, slip
motion will take place. Grain boundaries act as an impediment to dislocation
motion for the following two reasons:
a. Dislocation must change its direction of motion due to the differing
orientation of grains.
b. Discontinuity of slip planes from grain 1 to grain 2.
2. Solid solution strengthening
(3 marks)
For this strengthening mechanism, solute atoms of one element are added to
another, resulting in either substitutional or interstitial point defects in the
crystal. The solute atoms cause lattice distortions that impede dislocation
motion.
3. Strain hardening or work hardening
(3 marks)
Dislocations interact with each other by generating stress fields in the material.
The interaction between the stress fields of dislocations can impede
dislocation motion by repulsive or attractive interactions. Additionally, if two
dislocations cross, dislocation line entanglement occurs, causing the
formation of a jog which opposes dislocation motion.Increasing the dislocation
density increases the yield strength which results in a higher shear stress
required to move the dislocations.
C. Name and describe the two possible types of fracture failure.
Brittle fracture - In brittle fracture, no apparent plastic deformation takes
place before fracture. In brittle crystalline materials, fracture can occur by
cleavage as the result of tensile stress acting normal to crystallographic
planes with low bonding (cleavage planes).
(3 marks)
Ductile fracture - In ductile fracture, extensive plastic deformation takes
place before fracture. The terms rupture or ductile rupture describes the
ultimate failure of tough ductile materials loaded in tension. Rather than
cracking, the material "pulls apart," generally leaving a rough surface. In this
case there is slow propagation and absorption of large amount energy before
fracture.
(3 marks)

Problem 3

(17 marks)

A. What is the basic purpose of TTT/IT diagrams?

(3 marks)

T (Time) T(Temperature) T(Transformation) diagram is a plot of temperature


versus the logarithm of time for a steel alloy of definite composition. It is used
to determine when transformations begin and end for an isothermal (constant
temperature) heat treatment of a previously austenitized alloy.
B. Given the TTT diagram for eutectoid steel describe the heat treatment to
obtain a half coarse bainite and half martensite microstructure.
(3 marks)
Austenitized at a temperature above 727oC. Cool rapidly just below 550oC
and hold for about 10 s then quenched to below 125oC.
C. What is tempered martensite?

(2 marks)

When martensite is tempered, it partially decomposes into ferrite and


cementite. Tempered martensite is not as hard as just-quenched martensite,
but it is much tougher. Also it is much finer-grained than just-quenched
martensite.
D. Explain what a Jominy end-quench test is and sketch a schematic diagram of
the test
(5 marks)
The Jominy end-quench test is the standard method for measuring the
hardenability of steels. This describes the ability of the steel to be hardened in
depth by quenching. With this procedureall factors that may influence the
depth to which a piece hardens (i.e., specimen size and shape, and
quenching treatment) are maintained constant. A cylindrical specimen is
austenitized at a prescribed temperature for a prescribed time. After removal
from the furnace, it is quickly mounted in a fixture as diagrammed in Figure.
The lower end is quenched by a jet of water of specified flow rate and
temperature. Thus, the cooling rate is a maximum at the quenched end and
diminishes with position from this point along the length of the specimen. After
the piece has cooled to room temperature, shallow flats are ground along the
specimen length and Rockwell hardness measurements are made along each
flat. A hardenability curve is produced when hardness is plotted as a function
of position from the quenched end.

E. Sketch a typical hardenability curve obtained from a Jominy end-quench test


and explain its use.
(4 marks)
A typical hardenability curve is represented in Figure. The quenched end is
cooled most rapidly and exhibits the maximum hardness; 100% martensite is
the product at this position for most steels. Cooling rate decreases with
distance from the quenched end, and the hardness also decreases, as
indicated in the figure. With diminishing cooling rate more time is allowed for
carbon diffusion and the formation of a greater proportion of the softer pearlite,
which may be mixed with martensite and bainite. Thus, a steel alloy that is
highly hardenable will retain large hardness values for relatively long
distances; a low hardenable one will not. Each steel alloy has its own unique
hardenability curve.

Problem 4 (17 marks)


A. Describe the following three simple heat treatments used to control the
microstructure and mechanical properties of steel alloys.
a. Stress-Relief or Process Annealing

(3 marks)

Stress-Relief Annealing is sometimes called subcritical annealing, is useful in


removing residual stresses due to heavy machining or other cold-working
processes. It is usually carried out at temperatures below the lower critical
temperature of a hypoeutectoid steel.

b. Normalizing

(3 marks)

Annealing heat treatment just above upper critical temperature to reduce grain
sizes (of pearlite and proeutectoid phase) and make more uniform size
distributions.
c. Spheroidizing

( 3 marks)

Annealing heat treatment usually done on hypereutectoid steel that involves


prolonged heating just below the eutectoid temperature. This results in the
soft spheroidite structure achieving maximum softness needed in subsequent
forming operations.
B. Define age hardening and describe the three steps involve.
Precipitation hardening, also called age hardening, is a heat treatment
technique used to increase the yield strength of malleable materials, including
most structural alloys of aluminium, magnesium, nickel and titanium, and
some stainless steels. It relies on changes in solid solubility with temperature
to produce fine particles of an impurity phase, which impede the movement of
dislocations, or defects in a crystal's lattice.
(2 marks)
The three steps involved in age hardening process are
1. Solution heat treament - heating above the solubility line , (2 marks)
2. Quenching - rapid cooling to prevent diffusion, and then
(2 marks)
3. Aging - aged at a relatively low temperature above room temperature,
to allow precipitation hardening to occur.
(2 marks)

Problem 5 (12 marks)


A. Briefly explain the difference between oxidation and reduction electrochemical
reactions.
(4 marks)
Electrochemical reaction is a chemical reaction that involves the flow of
electrons or transfer of electrons from one chemical species to another.
Oxidation - Any process in which the oxidation number of an atom increases
(becomes more positive). Metal atoms characteristically lose or give up
electrons in what is calledan oxidation reaction. The site at which oxidation
takes place is called the anode; oxidation is sometimes called an anodic
reaction.
Reduction - Any process in which the oxidation number of an atom decreases
(becomes more negative). The electrons generated from each metal atom that
is oxidized must be transferred to and become a part of another chemical

species in what is termed a reduction reaction. That location at which


reduction occurs is called the cathode.

B. Describe why, where, and the conditions under which the galvanic corrosion
occurs; and
(4 marks)
Galvanic corrosion is an electrochemical process in which one metal corrodes
preferentially to another when both metals are in electrical contact and
immersed in an electrolyte. The same galvanic reaction is exploited in primary
batteries to generate a voltage.
Dissimilar metals and alloys have different electrode potentials and when two
or more come into contact in an electrolyte a galvanic couple is set up. A
galvanic couple can also be set up on a single metal or alloy due the metal
surface not being homogeneous or if the electrolyte varies in composition,
forming a concentration cell.
The electrolyte provides a means for ion migration whereby metallic ions can
move from the anode to the cathode. This leads to the anodic metal corroding
more quickly than it otherwise would; the corrosion of the cathodic metal is
retarded even to the point of stopping. The presence of electrolyte and a
conducting path between the metals may cause corrosion where otherwise
neither metal alone would have corroded.

C. Cite three measures that may be taken to prevent or control galvanic


corrosion.
(4 marks)

1. Electrically insulate the two metals from each other. Unless they are in
electrical contact, there can be no galvanic couple set up. Ex. Using plastic
or another insulator to separate steel water pipes from copper-based
fittings or by using a coat of grease to separate aluminium and steel parts.
2. Keep the metals dry and/or shielded from ionic compounds (salts, acids,
bases), for example by painting or encasing the protected metal in plastic
or epoxy, and allowing them to dry.
3. Choose metals that have similar potentials. The more closely matched the
individual potentials, the lesser the potential difference and hence the
lesser the galvanic current. Using the same metal for all construction is the
most precise way of matching potentials.

Problem 6 (17 marks)


A. Briefly explain why HCP metals are typically more brittle than FCC and BCC
metals.
(3 marks)
Metals with FCC or BCC crystal structures have a relatively large number of
slip systems (at least 12). These metals are quite ductile because extensive
plastic deformation is normally possible along the various systems.
Conversely, HCP metals, having few active slip systems, are normally quite
brittle.
B. A single crystal of aluminum is oriented for a tensile test such that its slip
plane normal makes an angle of 28.1 with the tensile axis. Three possible
slip directions make angles of 62.4, 72.0, and 81.1 with the same tensile
axis.
(a) Which of these three slip directions is most favored? (4 marks)

Resolve shear stress = R = cos cos

( R )max = (cos cos )max

Most favored slip direction (angle ) is when R is maximum or (cos cos ) is maximum

(cos cos )max = cos 28.1 cos 62.4 = 0.41

Therefore the most favored slip[ direction is at an angle 62.4


(b) If plastic deformation begins at a tensile stress of 1.95 MPa , determine
the critical resolved shear stress for aluminum.
(2 marks)

crss
(cos cos )max
= Y (cos cos )max = 1.95(0.41) = 0.80 MPa

Y =
crss

C. Two previously undeformed cylindrical specimens of an alloy are to be strain


hardened by reducing their cross-sectional areas (while maintaining their
circular cross sections). For one specimen, the initial and deformed radii are
16 mm and 11 mm, respectively. The second specimen, with an initial radius
of 12 mm, must have the same deformed hardness as the first specimen;
compute the second specimens radius after deformation.
(4 marks)
In order for these two cylindrical specimens to have the same deformed
hardness, they must be deformed to the same percent cold work.
For the first specimen

For the second specimen, the deformed radius is computed using the above
equation and solving for rd as

D. A cylindrical specimen of cold-worked copper has a ductility (%EL) of 25%. If


its cold-worked radius is 10 mm. What was its radius before deformation?
(4 marks)
From Figure, copper that has a ductility of 25%ELwill have experienced a
deformation of about11%CW.
For a cylindrical specimen,

Since rd = 10 mm, solving for ro yields

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