ELEC-6411 Final Project Report

Bi-directional Cascaded Buck-Boost Converter

Design and simulation

Submitted to:
Dr Luiz A. C. Lopes

Submitted by:
Andrew Jensson, 40009961
Rajendra Thike, 27679319

Date of Submission: December 21, 2015

Term: Fall 2015

ABSTRACT

Power electronic converters are efficient in supplying power at a regulated voltage or regulated current.
Buck converters can supply power at a voltage level lower than the source while boost converters can
supply power at higher voltage level than the supply. Besides these converters, there are converters
which can source or sink the power depending on the requirement. In general, these are bi-directional
converters either with current reversal capability or voltage reversal capability.
In this project, a cascade type bi-directional buck-boost converter has been analyzed and designed for
supplying power to charge an ultracapacitor or use the power stored in the ultracapacitor. The
converter is capable of changing the direction of the current and incrementing the voltage level either
lower or higher compared to the source voltage. Analytical design of each components parameters
including inductor, MOSFET rating, and harmonic filter for safe operation of the selected 165 F
ultracapacitor from Maxwell. The converter was simulated in PSIM for four of its operating conditions,
viz. buck charging of ultracapacitor, boost charging of the ultracapacitor, buck discharge of
ultracapacitor and boost discharge of ultracapacitor. The harmonics from the simulation for each case
was analyzed and a second order LC filter was designed for the supply and load accordingly. The
resulting current ripple waveforms were found to have less harmonic magnitude as calculated.

TABLE OF CONTENTS
Abstract
Table of contents

i
ii

List of Figures

iii

List of Tables

iv

Chapter 1
1. Introduction
2. Scope

1
1
2

Chapter 2
1. Converter components
2. Converter Analysis
3. Converter Operation

3
3
5
5

Chapter 3
1. Specification of the ultracapacitor
2. Selection of the switch
3. Switching frequency
4. Inductor design
5. Battery

8
8
8
8
9
9

Chapter 4
1. PSIM simulation
2. Buck - Charge mode
3. Boost - Charge Mode
4.
Buck Discharge Mode
5. Boost - Discharge Mode

10
10
11
12
13
14

Chapter 5
1. Harmonic analysis
2. Numerical Fourier analysis
3. Filter design
4. Filter implementation
5. Simulation

15
15
15
16
17
17

Chapter 6
1. Results
2. Conclusions

20
20
21

Appendix

Datasheets
References

LIST OF FI
Figure 1. 1 Conceptual Bi-directional Cascaded Buck-Boost Converter topology______________1
YFigure 2. 1 MOSFET schematic diagram____________________________________________________3
Figure 2. 2 Inductor schematic diagram_____________________________________________________4
Figure 2. 3 Schematic diagram of a battery_________________________________________________4
Figure 2. 4 Basic structure of a capacitor____________________________________________________5
Figure 2. 5 Schematic diagram of the converter_____________________________________________6
YFigure 4. 1 Converter schematic in PSIM__________________________________________________10
Figure 4. 2 Buck - Charge waveforms______________________________________________________11
Figure 4. 3 Boost - Charge waveforms_____________________________________________________12
Figure 4. 4 Buck - Discharge waveforms___________________________________________________13
Figure 4. 5 Boost - Discharge waveforms___________________________________________________14
YFigure 5. 1 Ideal rectangular current waveform___________________________________________15
Figure 5. 2 Current harmonic content without filter________________________________________16
Figure 5. 3 Harmonic filter implementation in simulation___________________________________17
Figure 5. 4 Current waveforms for Buck - Charge mode with filter__________________________18
Figure 5. 5 Current waveforms for Boost - Charge mode with filter_________________________18
Figure 5. 6 Current waveforms for Buck - Discharge mode with filter_______________________19
Figure 5. 7 Current waveforms for Boost - Discharge mode with filter______________________19

LIST OF TABL
Table
Table
Table
Table

2.
2.
3.
3.

1
2
1
2

Converter modes of operation____________________________________________________6

Relation of drive-mode and switching state______________________________________6Y
Ultracapacitor parameters________________________________________________________8
MOSFET parameters______________________________________________________________8

Table 3. 3 Inductor parameters

Table 6. 1 Design and simulated converter results_________________________________________20
Table 6. 2 Design and simulated filter results______________________________________________20

CHAPTER 1
1. Introduction
Power electronics converters have a wide range of applications. One of particular interest is the
regulated dc supply. In many applications, the output voltage may be required to be higher or
lower compare to the source. Buck-Boost converters can be used to achieve this requirement.
However, in some applications, the direction of power flow should also be reversible. For such
conditions, bi-directional converters are used. There are many different topologies for the bidirectional converters with each topology having certain advantages over others.
The Bi-directional Cascaded Buck-Boost Converter, which for simplicity will be referred to as
converter from herein, is one topology of dc-dc converters that has unique features and
functions that make it an attractive option for certain applications. When variable power must
be sent and returned to a dc source (hence bi-directional), a dc-dc converter may be selected;
even providing a more stable operating dc source for critical loads, a Bi-directional Cascaded
Buck-Boost Converter may be utilized. The cascaded component stems from the series
connection of both types of converters. The converter presented in this project has application
in many systems.

Electric Vehicle Drive and Regenerative Brakingi

Back-up Power Supplyii

Photo-voltaic Systems

Energy Recovery Systems

Back-to-back Wind Power Systems

For the purpose of this project, the converter will be modeled in an electric vehicle inspired
application, with the load of the converter being an ultracapacitor. Depending on the status of
the ultracapacitor, it will be charged or discharged using a Buck or Boost configuration. The
topology for this converter is shown in figure 1.1iii.

Figure 1. 1 Conceptual Bi-directional Cascaded Buck-Boost Converter topology

2. Scope
This project is limited to the design of the inductor between the two legs, selection of the
switching devices and the rating of the switches based on the load. Additionally, a second order
LC filter is designed and component are selected for the battery side and the ultracapacitor side.
Design of the controller is out of the scope of this course project, so it is not discussed in this
report. The designed converter is simulated in PSIM software for validation.

CHAPTER 2
1. Converter components
Before designing a functional converter, one must understand the fundamentals of operation of
the circuit, as well as fundamental components and concepts individually.
i.

MOSFET
Based on the characteristics of different available power electronic switches, the MOSFET
was selected; the criteria which will be discussed in a later chapter of this report. For the
purpose of design and analysis of the converter, the MOSFET operates as an idealized
switch. This means that the MOSFET will not have a voltage drop across it when closed and
no current will leak through it when opened. The idealized MOSFET will also have an
instantaneous turn-on and turn-off time and is capable of operating under all voltage and
current conditions present in the converter. To operate the MOSFET, a gate signal will be
applied to the G node when a closed switch is desired; under all other conditions, the gate
signal will be grounded with 0 v.

Figure 2. 1 MOSFET schematic diagramiv

ii.

Inductor
The inductor plays a vital role in the converter circuit; namely to act as the energy storage
medium while the MOSFETs are switching to provide the desired output voltage. The basic
inductor is a simple component in that it has a magnetic or air core with a wire coiled
around. There are many other types of inductors, but the scope of this project will not
explore these configurations, rather the inductance is the only parameter considered. When
current passes through the coil of wire, the inductor presents inertia, or resists the change
of current, depending upon the current applied and the inductance, measured in henries.

Figure 2. 2 Inductor schematic diagramv

iii.

Battery
Batteries are the portable source of power which can store and generate electrical power as a
result of a chemical reaction. For electrical vehicle and other applications where power is
bi-directional, rechargeable batteries are used. These batteries can go through many charge
and discharge cycles, however there is some limit on the continuous current and the current
should have low ripple to maintain expected life of the battery.

Figure 2. 3 Schematic diagram of a battery

iv.

Capacitor
The capacitor is another energy storing element in the converter to aid in reducing the
voltage ripple and is often applied on the supply and output of a converter. For the design of
the converter within the scope of this project, the capacitor will be considered ideal,
meaning that it contains no parasitic resistance. A capacitor acts as an energy storage device
and will oppose the change in voltage by drawing in the ripple currents, so the current that is
supplied to the capacitor is dependent on the rate of change of the voltage applied, and the
capacitance, measured in farads.

Figure 2. 4 Basic structure of a capacitorvi

v.

Ultracapacitor
An ultracapacitor is an energy storage device that is utilized in applications where
frequent bursts of power is required for short duration. The energy storage density for
ultracapacitor is very high compared to normal capacitors. Ultracapacitors typically
store 10 to 100 times more energy per unit volume or mass than electrolytic capacitors,
can accept and deliver charge much faster than batteries, and tolerate many more charge
and discharge cycles than rechargeable batteries.

2. Converter Analysis
i.
Steady-state Analysis
Steady-state analysis is an important tool used by designers and engineers to allow for
certain assumptions that simplify the design process. The assumptions presume that all
analyses of the circuit will be done after any transient or sub-transient responses of the
components have been cleared. This is done to allow designers to calculate parameters and
components while utilizing simplified equations and processes.
ii.

Continuous Conduction Mode

Also known as CCM, this describes the operation principle of the converter when the
inductor is not allowed to fully discharge its stored energy. Forcing the converter to operate
in CCM will simplify the design procedure and analysis of the circuit. This is done by sizing
the inductor so that the current flowing through the inductor never reaches a zero-value and
this allows for a designer to use common analysis and design equations to create a converter
that operates as expected.

iii.

Discontinuous Conduction Mode

Known as DCM, this mode of operation is more difficult to analyze than CCM. DCM
occurs when the current flowing through the inductor is allowed to reach a zero-value and
therefore becomes discontinuous with respect to time. The converter used for this project
never operates in this condition.

3. Converter Operation
The converter in figure 2.5 operates in four modes as listed in table 2.1 where specific
nomenclature and the convention of current direction is outlined. Here, the terms charging
and discharging are used with respect to the ultracapacitor.
Figure 2. 5 Schematic diagram of the converter

Table 2. 1 Converter modes of operation

Mode
Buck - Charge

Current Sink
Ultracapacitor

V battery > V supercap

Battery

Ultracapacitor

V battery V supercap

Buck - Discharge

Ultracapacitor

Battery

V battery V supercap

Boost - Discharge

Ultracapacitor

Battery

V battery > V supercap

Boost - Charge

Current Source
Battery

Description

The relation of the drive-mode and switching states are shown in table 2.2.
Table 2. 2 Relation of drive-mode and switching state

Mode
Buck - Charge
Boost - Charge
Buck - Discharge
Boost - Discharge

Q1
PWM
ON
OFF
OFF

Q2
OFF
OFF
OFF
PWM

Q3
OFF
OFF
PWM
ON

Q4
OFF
PWM
OFF
OFF

Description
Charging Ultracapacitor
Charging Ultracapacitor
Charging Battery
Charging Battery

As table 2.2 has identified, the modulation of specific configurations of the switches will
result in measurable and distinct changes in the output voltage. This converter requires
relatively more complex control and a larger quantity of switching devices, but is able to
operate in a wide range of applications and maintain suitable performance under all current
and voltage conditions presented in this arrangement. The critical modes of converter
operation are discussed below.

i.Buck - Charge
In this mode the ultracapacitor voltage is less than the battery voltage. Switch Q1 is
switched in pwm mode to charge the ultracapacitor in current controlled mode. The
switching is based on the maximum current through the ultracapacitor.
ii. Boost - Charge
When the ultracapacitor voltage is greater than the battery voltage, switch Q1 is kept on and
switch Q4 will be switched on pwm mode to get higher output voltage than the battery
voltage. Here again the control is done based on the current through the inductor.
iii. Buck - Discharge
To discharge the ultracapacitor when its voltage is greater than the battery voltage, the
converter is operated in current controlled mode operating the switch Q3 in pwm mode.
iv. Boost - Discharge
When the ultracapacitor voltage is lower than the battery voltage, the converter is operated
in this mode to supply power to the battery. This is done by keeping Q3 on all the time and
switching Q2 in pwm mode with current through inductor being controlled.

CHAPTER 3
1. Specification of the ultracapacitor
To specify the individual components that make the converter, a circuit consisting of a battery
and an ultracapacitor was selected. This type of load and source is an analogy to an electric
vehicle application. In this application, the current flowing is bi-directional and the magnitude
must be limited to a value within the tolerable levels of the components. The Maxwell
BMOD0165 P048 BXX ultracapacitor with the parametersvii given in table 3.1 was selected as
an appropriate load for this study.
Table 3. 1 Ultracapacitor parameters

Capacitanc
e
165 F

Rated Voltage

Max Continuous Current

Leakage Current

ESR

48 V

77 A

5.2 mA

6.3 m

From the leakage current, the leakage resistance is calculated to be 9,231 .

2. Selection of the switch
From the rating of the ultracapacitor and the level of the operating voltage, the switching device
should be selected. The maximum voltage across each switch is 48 V and the average current
through each of the switch is maximum continuous current through the ultracapacitor. Because
of the low voltage, high current, high switching frequency capability, a MOSFET is selected as
the switching device. The MOSFET must be capable of handling the application demands
without damage; therefore the STMicroelectronics STH185N10F3-2 MOSFETviii with 100%
safety margin was selected. The parameters of the MOSFET are listed in table 3.2.
Table 3. 2 MOSFET parameters

Voltage,

V DS

100 V

Continuous current,

ID

Thermal resistance junction-case,

Turn on delay time,
Rise time,

Rthjcase

t d , on

tr

Turn-off delay,
Fall time,

180 A
0.48 C/W
25.6 ns
97.1 ns

t d , off

tf

Resistance of drain-source, RDS(on) max

99.9 ns
6.9 ns
4.5 m

3. Switching frequency
The MOSFET must be able to dissipate the heat generated due to conduction and switching
fS
losses. The switching frequency,
of the converter, is calculate by balancing the rate of
heat generation and the rate of heat loss.
The conduction loss is given by Pcond= Rds(on)*ID2*duty_cycle (2.1)
For the worst case, duty_cycle is considered unity.
The switching loss is given by Psw= *VDS*IDS*(td(on)+ tr+td(off)+tf)*fsw (2.2)
The maximum allowable power loss can be calculated using equation (2.3)
T
Pallowable= R thjcase

(2.3)

To limit the junction temperature to 100oC, the maximum allowable power loss is calculated to
be 156.25 watts. As per the datasheet, the drain to source resistance varies with temperature, at
100oC, it is given by equation (2.4).
RDS(on)=1.5*RDS(normal) (2.4)
Considering the non-perfect junction between the MOSFET and the heat sink the switching
frequency is selected to be 1/5th of the switching frequency given by the calculations using
equations (2.1) to (2.4) which is 50 kHz.
4. Inductor design
Once the switching frequency is fixed, the size of the coupling inductor, L, can be properly
designed. In order to maintain the continuous current mode operation of the converter, the
inductor can be sized according to the following equationix:
L=

T S V bat
8 I LB ,max
Using a fair assumption of maintaining continuous conduction mode at 5% of the safe
continuous current value, which is set at 80% of the maximum continuous allowable current,
the following values are obtained and are listed in table 3.3.
Table 3. 3 Inductor parameters

Switching Time,

TS

Battery
Voltage,

80% Max Continuous

Current, Safe Operating Point

Minimum Inductor
Current,

I LB ,max

Induct
ance,
L

V bat
1
=20 s
50 kHz

24 V

80 77 A=61.6 A

5 61.6 A=3.08 A

20 H

5. Battery
For this project, an ideal battery in the PSIM software component library is selected. A small
resistance of 5 m is added in series with the battery to represent the internal resistance of the
battery. Other parasitic and intrinsic factors of the battery are not considered in this project.

CHAPTER 4
1. PSIM simulation
A circuit shown in figure 4.1 is made in PSIM for simulation realization.

Figure 4. 1 Converter schematic in PSIM

2. Buck - Charge mode

Figure 4. 2 Buck - Charge waveforms

In this mode Q1 is operated in pwm mode with Q2, Q3 and Q4 turned off. For simulation
purpose, the battery voltage is fixed at 24 V and ultracapacitor voltage is set to 20 V. The
inductor current is forced to maintain 80% of rated ultracapacitor current i.e. 62 A. The
modulating triangular waveform, gate signal to transistor Q1, battery voltage, ultracapacitor
voltage, capacitor current, inductor current and the battery current are plotted

3. Boost - Charge Mode

Figure 4. 3 Boost - Charge waveforms

In this mode Q1 is on all the time with Q4 operated in pwm mode while Q2 and Q3 are turned
off. For simulation purpose, the battery voltage is fixed at 24 V and the ultracapacitor voltage is
set to 40 V. The inductor current is forced to maintain an average value of 62 A. The waveforms
as in buck charge mode are plotted in figure 4.4 and figure 4.5. It shows that ultracapacitor
current has a pulsed waveform while inductor current and battery current has an average value
of current close to 65 A.

4.
4.
4.
4.
4.
4.
4.
4.
4.
4.
4.
4.
4.
4.
4.
4.
4.
4.
4.
4.
4.
4.
4.
4.
4.
4.
4.
Buck Discharge Mode
Figure 4. 4 Buck - Discharge waveforms

The ultracapacitor is discharging into the battery with current being maintained within a ripple
of approximately 3 A near an average value of 62 A. The voltage of the ultracapacitor in this
simulation is 40 V, and the battery voltage is 24 V; this gives a duty cycle for the switching
MOSFET (Q3) of 0.6, which can be seen in the gate voltage waveform. The current in the
ultracapacitor is pulsed waveform with a peak to peak ripple of around 65 A.

5. Boost - Discharge Mode

Figure 4. 5 Boost - Discharge waveforms

The voltage of the ultracapacitor is measured to be 20 V and is slowly decreasing as it discharges into
the battery; this explains the negative values for current in figure 4.5. The duty cycle of the switching
MOSFET, Q2 is calculated as 0.2, which can be seen in the gate voltage waveform. The inductor
current is held within the 3 A ripple around 72 A, while the battery current is a pulsed waveform with a
peak to peak ripple of nearly 75 A.

CHAPTER 5
1. Harmonic analysis
From the waveforms shown in figure 4.2 to 4.5, the battery current is pulsed in buck charge
mode and boost discharge mode while the ultracapacitor current is pulsed in boost charge mode
and buck discharge mode. This is due to the nature of the circuit and the switching operation
required to obtain the buck and boost modes. To determine the harmonic content present in the
pulsed waveforms, the pulsed waveform is assumed to have an ideal rectangular shape as
shown in figure 5.1.

Figure 5. 1 Ideal rectangular current waveform

With the idealized rectangular waveform shown in figure 5.1, the Fourier series analysis is
simplified and using equation 5.1, the amplitude of the harmonic currents is calculated.
ah =

2A
( sin hd ) (5.1)
h

When d is 0.5, the amplitude of harmonics is largest. The fundamental component,

frequency of 50 kHz, which is the same as the switching frequency,
amplitude of

fS

a1

, with a

, has a peak to peak

4A
.

This large amplitude is undesirable for the life of the battery and ultracapacitor, and a filter is
needed to limit this value.

2. Numerical Fourier analysis

The fast Fourier transform (FFT) tool of the PSIM software used for buck charge mode without
filter results the graph in figure 5.2 showing the dominant harmonic to be 50 kHz.

Figure 5. 2 Current harmonic content without filter

3. Filter design
It is chosen to limit the peak to peak amplitude of the currents in the devices to 5% of the peak
amplitude. For that following equations are used to design the second order LC filter.
Gain=

I OUT
I

(5.2)

Gain ( dB )=20 log ( Gain) (5.3)

log ( f h )log ( f res )=

Gain ( dB )
40 dB (5.4)
Dec

f res=
10

h
Gain(dB)
40 dB / Dec

(5.5)

Using equations 5.2 to 5.5, the resonant frequency of the filter,

kHz. The angular frequency becomes

f res

res =2 f res =62.25 krad /sec

, is calculated to be 9.9

The resonant angular frequency of the second order harmonic filter can be written as equation
5.6.
res =

1
LC (5.6)

To limit the voltage ripple of the filter capacitor to 5% of the battery voltage, the size of
capacitance for the worst-case of duty cycle equal to 1, is calculated to be 1000 F using
equation 5.7.
V=

Q I AVG t
=
C
C

(5.7)

Now the filter inductance is determined from equation 5.6 to be 260 nH.
4. Filter implementation
The converter with the battery and load second order filters implemented is shown in figure 5.3.

Figure 5. 3 Harmonic filter implementation in simulation

5. Simulation
For the same cases in chapter 4 sections 2 to 5, PSIM simulation with filter results the
waveforms shown in figure 5.4 to figure 5.7. The waveforms shows that the peak to peak ripple

of the fundamental harmonics were reduced. However, harmonics at the resonant frequency of
the filter were introduced.

Figure
5. 4

Current waveforms for Buck - Charge mode

with
filter

Figure 5. 5 Current waveforms for Boost - Charge mode with filter

Figure 5. 6 Current

Figure 5. 7 Current

waveforms for Buck - Discharge mode with filter

waveforms for Boost - Discharge mode

with filter

Comparing the results in figure 4.2 to figure 4.5 with figure 5.4 to figure
5.7 respectively, the current waveforms have lost their pulsed rectangular shape and are now much
closer to an ideal dc voltage. There is still a ripple due to the sizing of the filter, which was necessary to
maintain designed operation characteristics after implementation, while removing as much of the
harmonic current content as possible. There is a possible resonance effect shown in the waveform
shape, but this impact on the components is much less than the large pulsed current waveform that was
present prior to filter implementation.

CHAPTER 6
1. Results
The average inductor current was designed to sustain 80% of the maximum continuous current
rating of the ultracapacitor with a maximum ripple of 5% at a switching frequency of 50 kHz.
The second order LC filters were designed to limit the current ripple in the battery and
ultracapacitor to 5% of the battery voltage and 5% peak-to-peak of the current amplitude. A
summary of the results are listed in table 6.1 and table 6.2.
Table 6. 1 Design and simulated converter results

Mode of
Operation

Inductor Average
Current,
Designed

IL
Simulate

Inductor Ripple
Current,
Designed

I L
Simulate

Comments

Buck - Charge
Boost - Charge

61.6 A
61.6 A

62 A
64 A

3.08 A
3.08 A

2.2 A
7.0 A

Simulation as designed

I L higher than
designed

Buck - Discharge

61.6 A

60 A

3.08 A

9.0 A

Boost - Discharge

61.6 A

72 A

3.08 A

4.0 A

I L higher than
designed
IL,design

I L < I
L,max

Inspiration for the controller came from a similar projectx that utilized separate controllers for
each mode. However, a single controller was implemented for every mode of operation which
may have influenced the switching control. This controller does not have precise control over
the controlled variable.
Table 6. 2 Design and simulated filter results

Mode of
Operation

Battery Ripple
Current,

I bat

Ultracapacitor Ripple
Current,

I cap

Designed

Simulate
d

Designed

Simulate
d

Buck - Charge
Boost - Charge

3.5 A
3.5 A

3.0 A
1.2 A

3.5 A
3.5 A

0.5 A
4.5 A

Buck - Discharge
Boost - Discharge

3.5 A
3.5 A

0.4 A
4.5 A

3.5 A
3.5 A

2.5 A
0.5 A

Comments

Simulation as designed

I cap higher than

designed
Simulation as designed

I bat higher than

designed

As table 6.2 indicates, the peak-to-peak amplitude of the currents are limited near 5% of the
peak amplitudes of the battery and ultracapacitor currents, as designed using the simulated
results in figures 4.2 to 4.5. The rectangular wave assumption used to size the filter may have
introduced the deviation from 5% limit in the Boost modes listed above. The effects seen in the
resulting waveforms in figures 5.5 and 5.7 seem to identify a resonance scenario within the
filter design.

2. Conclusions
The Bi-directional Cascaded Buck-Boost Converter topology was analyzed and designed for a
specific application supplying power to charge the ultracapacitor or use the power in the
ultracapacitor. The size of the switches, inductor and filter were determined using analytical
equations. The converter was simulated in PSIM to verify its operation. The harmonics in
current was analyzed using both Fourier series method and numerical Fourier transform in
software. Designing a second order LC filter, the dominant harmonic current was limited to
with 5% of the peak amplitude which was verified in simulation.

APPENDIX

DATASHEETS
REFERENCES

i Study of Bi-Directional Buck-Boost Converter Topologies for Application in Electrical

Vehicle Motor Drives F. Caricchi, F. Crescimbini, F. Giulii Capponi, L. Solero.
ii Modelling and Control for a Bidirectional Buck-Boost Cascade Inverter Honglin Zhou,
Shuai Xiao, Geng Yang, Hua Geng.
iii Study of Bi-Directional Buck-Boost Converter Topologies for Application in Electrical
Vehicle Motor Drives F. Caricchi, F. Crescimbini, F. Giulii Capponi, L. Solero.
iv http://wps.prenhall.com/chet_paynter_introduct_6/6/1664/426188.cw/index.html
v https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Inductor#/media/File:InductorSignalFilter1.png
vi http://www.electronics-tutorials.ws/capacitor/cap_1.html
vii https://www.maxwell.com/images/documents/hq_48v_ds10162013.pdf
viii http://www.st.com/st-webui/static/active/en/resource/technical/document/datasheet/DM00133320.pdf
ixix Power Electronics: Converters, Applications, and Design - Ned Mohan, Tore M.
Undeland, William P. Robbins
x Seamless Controlled Parallel Bi-directional DC-DC Converter for Energy Storage System
- Takayuki Ouchi, Akihiko Kanouda, Naoya Takahashi and Minoru Moteki